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130-505: The Flotte du Ponant was created by Cardinal Richelieu (A former Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom in 1629). The fleet initially had three principal bases: Le Havre , Arsenal of Brest and Hiers-Brouage . Under Louis XIV , the arsenal of Brest was the principal base, supported by the arsenals of Rochefort and Lorient . Under Louis XVI the military port of Cherbourg was developed, with some elements only were recently completed on

260-573: A universal monarchy . When in 1630 French diplomats in Regensburg agreed to make peace with Spain, Richelieu refused to support them. The agreement would have prohibited French interference in Germany. Therefore, Richelieu advised Louis XIII to refuse to ratify the treaty. In 1631, he allied France to Sweden, which had just invaded the empire , in the Treaty of Bärwalde . Military expenses placed

390-676: A Lombard peasant expresses his own conspiracy theories about the bread riots happening in Milan. The 1839 play Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy by Edward Bulwer-Lytton portrayed Richelieu uttering the now famous line " The pen is mightier than the sword ." The play was adapted into the 1935 film Cardinal Richelieu . Richelieu and Louis XIII are depicted in Ken Russell's 1971 film The Devils . The Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "How to Recognise Different Types of Trees from Quite

520-520: A Long Way Away", first released in 1969, features the sketch "Court Scene with Cardinal Richelieu", in which Richelieu (played by Michael Palin ) possesses the casual and somewhat smarmy demeanor of a master of ceremonies. Richelieu is a minor and eventually a major character in the Fortune de France novel series (published between 1977 and 2003) by Robert Merle . Also, in the 21st century 1632/Ring of Fire alternative history series by Eric Flint, he

650-802: A close relationship) spent their childhood at the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, placed under the care of a governess along with their paternal first-cousin Virginio Orsini (son of Isabella de' Medici , Duchess of Bracciano ). After her sister's marriage in 1584 with Vincenzo Gonzaga , heir of the Duchy of Mantua , and her departure to her husband's homeland, Maria's only playmate was her first cousin Virginio Orsini, to whom she deferred all her affection. In addition, her stepmother brought

780-780: A commission to build a château and a surrounding town in Indre-et-Loire ; the project culminated in the construction of the Château Richelieu and the town of Richelieu . To the château, he added one of the largest art collections in Europe and the largest collection of ancient Roman sculpture in France. The heavily resurfaced and restored Richelieu Bacchus continued to be admired by neoclassical artists . Among his 300 paintings by moderns, most notably, he owned Leonardo 's Virgin and Child with Saint Anne , The Family of

910-415: A considerable strain on royal revenues. In response, Richelieu raised the gabelle (salt tax) and the taille (land tax). The taille was enforced to provide funds to raise armies and wage war. The clergy, nobility, and high bourgeoisie either were exempt or could easily avoid payment, so the burden fell on the poorest segment of the nation. To collect taxes more efficiently, and to keep corruption to

1040-714: A famous jurist. When he was five years old, Richelieu's father died of fever in the French Wars of Religion , leaving the family in debt; however, with the aid of royal grants , the family was able to avoid financial difficulties. At the age of 9, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for a military career. There, he learned mathematics, fencing, horse riding, dancing skills, courtly manners, and military drill. His private life seems to have been typical for

1170-649: A female companion to the Palazzo Pitti for Maria, a young girl named Dianora Dori , who would be renamed Leonora. This young girl, a few years older than Maria, soon gained great influence over the princess, to the point that Maria would not make decisions without talking to Leonora first. On the 19th and 20 October, in 1587, at the Villa Medici in Poggio a Caiano , Grand Duke Francesco I and Bianca Cappello died. They may have been poisoned, but some historians believe they were killed by malarial fever. Now orphaned, Maria

1300-484: A friend of François Leclerc du Tremblay (better known as " Père Joseph " or "Father Joseph"), a Capuchin friar , who would later become a close confidant. Because of his closeness to Richelieu, and the grey colour of his robes, Father Joseph was also nicknamed L'éminence grise ( lit.   ' the Grey Eminence ' ). Later, Richelieu often used him as an agent during diplomatic negotiations. In 1614,

1430-612: A house loaned by her friend, the painter Rubens . She fell ill in June 1642 and died of a bout of pleurisy in destitution on 3 July 1642, five months before Richelieu. It was not until 8 March 1643 that her body was finally laid to rest in France, in the Basilica of St Denis , The burial was held without much ceremony, and her heart was sent to La Flèche , in accordance with the wish of Henry IV, who wanted their two hearts to be reunited. Her son Louis XIII died on 14 May, only two months after

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1560-696: A large temporary structure was erected on an artificial island in the Amstel River especially for the festival. The structure was designed to display a series of dramatic tableaux in tribute to her once she set foot on the floating island and entered its pavilion . Afterwards she was offered an Indonesian rice table by the burgomaster, Albert Burgh . He also sold her a famous rosary , captured in Brazil. The visit prompted Caspar Barlaeus to write his Medicea hospes ("The Medicean Guest", 1638). Marie subsequently traveled to Cologne , where she took refuge in

1690-452: A minimum, Richelieu bypassed local tax officials, replacing them with intendants (officials in the direct service of the Crown). Richelieu's financial scheme, however, caused unrest among the peasants; there were several uprisings in 1636 to 1639. Richelieu crushed the revolts violently, and dealt with the rebels harshly. Because he openly aligned France with Protestant powers, Richelieu

1820-646: A powerful political figure in his own right, events such as the Day of the Dupes ( French : Journée des Dupes ) in 1630 showed that Richelieu's power still depended on the king's confidence. An alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the College of Sorbonne , Richelieu renovated and extended the institution. He became famous for his patronage of the arts and founded the Académie Française ,

1950-605: A rope ladder and by scaling a wall of 40 m. Gentlemen took her across the Pont de Blois and riders sent by the Duc d'Épernon escorted Marie in his coach. She took refuge in the Château d'Angoulême and provoked an uprising against her son the King, the so-called "war of mother and son" ( guerre de la mère et du fils ). A first treaty, the Treaty of Angoulême , negotiated by Richelieu, calmed

2080-543: A young officer of the era; in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea . Henry III had rewarded Richelieu's father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the Bishopric of Luçon . The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use; they were, however, challenged by clergymen who desired the funds for ecclesiastical purposes. To protect

2210-547: Is a character. Actors who have portrayed Cardinal Richelieu on film and television include Nigel De Brulier , George Arliss , Miles Mander , Vincent Price , Charlton Heston , Aleksandr Trofimov , Tcheky Karyo , Stephen Rea , Tim Curry , Christoph Waltz and Peter Capaldi . Richelieu is one of the clergymen more frequently portrayed in film, notably as the lead villain in Alexandre Dumas 's 1844 novel The Three Musketeers and its numerous film adaptations . He

2340-769: Is now known as the " Marie de' Medici cycle " (currently displayed in the Louvre Museum); the cycle uses iconography throughout to depict Henry IV and Marie as Jupiter and Juno and the French state as a female warrior. The Queen-Mother's attempts to convince Pietro da Cortona and Guercino to travel to Paris ended in failure, but during the 1620s the Luxembourg Palace became one of the most active decorative projects in Europe: sculptors such as Guillaume Berthelot and Christophe Cochet , painters like Jean Monier or

2470-431: Is one of the primary antagonists to the nascent United States of Europe. Many sites and landmarks were named to honor Cardinal Richelieu. They include: There is also an ornate style of lace, Richelieu lace, named in honor of the cardinal. Marie de%27 Medici Marie de' Medici ( French : Marie de Médicis ; Italian : Maria de' Medici ; 26 April 1575 – 3 July 1642) was Queen of France and Navarre as

2600-411: Is usually portrayed as a sinister character, but the 1950 Cyrano de Bergerac shows Richelieu (played by Edgar Barrier in a scene not from Rostand's original verse drama ) as compassionate to Cyrano's financial plight, and playfully having enjoyed the duel at the theatre. Richelieu is indirectly mentioned in a famous line of Alessandro Manzoni 's novel The Betrothed (1827–1840), set in 1628, as

2730-530: The Conseil du roi by following the advice of Cardinal Richelieu, who she introduced to the King as minister. Over the years, she did not notice the rising power of her protégé; when she realized it, she broke with the Cardinal and sought to oust him. Still not understanding the personality of her son and still believing that it would be easy for her to demand the disgrace of Richelieu from him, she tried to obtain

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2860-570: The Dutch West India Company . Unlike the other colonial powers, France encouraged a peaceful coexistence in New France between natives and colonists and sought the integration of Indians into colonial society. Samuel de Champlain , governor of New France at the time of Richelieu, saw intermarriage between French and Indians as a solution to increase population in its colony. Under the guidance of Richelieu, Louis XIII issued

2990-637: The French Revolution , the Flotte du Ponant was renamed the "Atlantic Squadron" ( Escadre de l'Atlantique ), and then the "Ocean Fleet" ( Flotte de l'Océan ). Cardinal Richelieu Armand Jean du Plessis, 1st Duke of Richelieu ( French: [aʁmɑ̃ ʒɑ̃ dy plɛsi] ; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu , was a French Catholic prelate and statesman who had an outsize influence in civil and religious affairs. He became known as l'Éminence Rouge (English: "

3120-542: The Galerie des hommes illustres had twenty-six historicizing portraits of great men , larger than life, from Abbot Suger to Louis XIII; some were by Simon Vouet , others were careful copies by Philippe de Champaigne from known portraits; with them were busts of Roman emperors. Another series of portraits of authors complemented the library. The architect of the Palais-Cardinal, Jacques Lemercier , also received

3250-480: The Gallicanists . As he neared death, Richelieu faced a plot that threatened to remove him from power. The cardinal had introduced a young man named Henri Coiffier de Ruzé, marquis de Cinq-Mars to Louis XIII's court. The cardinal had been a friend of Cinq-Mars's father. More importantly, Richelieu hoped that Cinq-Mars would become Louis's favourite, so that he could indirectly exercise greater influence over

3380-610: The Gonzaga collection at Mantua by French military forces in 1630, as well as numerous antiquities. Richelieu's tenure was a crucial period of reform for France. Earlier, the nation's political structure was largely feudal , with powerful nobles and a wide variety of laws in different regions. Parts of the nobility periodically conspired against the king, raised private armies, and allied themselves with foreign powers. This system gave way to centralized power under Richelieu. Local and even religious interests were subordinated to those of

3510-684: The Habsburg dynasty (which ruled in both Austria and Spain). He saw the reestablishment of the Catholic orthodoxy as a political maneuver of the Habsburg and Austrian states which was detrimental to the French national interests. Shortly after he became Louis' principal minister, he was faced with a crisis in Valtellina , a valley in Lombardy (northern Italy). To counter Spanish designs on

3640-770: The House of Bourbon (the Catholic League and Habsburg Spain had questioned Bourbon legitimacy during the previous French Succession War of 1589 - c. 1593). After having obtained the annulment of his union to Margaret of Valois in December 1599, Henry IV officially started negotiations for his new marriage with Maria de' Medici. The marriage contract was signed in Paris in March 1600 and official ceremonies took place in Tuscany and France from October to December of

3770-746: The Ordonnance of 1627 by which the Indians, converted to Catholicism, were considered as "natural Frenchmen": The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take letters of declaration of naturalization. The 1666 census of New France , conducted some 20 years after

3900-586: The Papal legate finally arrived, and gave his blessing to the religious wedding ceremony at the Cathedral of Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Lyon . Marie gave birth to her first child, a son, on 27 September 1601 at the Palace of Fontainebleau . The boy, named Louis , and automatically upon birth heir to the throne and Dauphin of France , was born to the great satisfaction of the King and France, which had been waiting for

4030-585: The Roman Catholic Church hoped to force the suppression of Protestantism in France by means of their influence. However, Marie maintained her late husband's policy of religious tolerance . As one of her first acts, Marie reconfirmed Henri IV's Edict of Nantes , which ordered religious tolerance for Protestants in France while asserting the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church. To further consolidate her authority as Regent of

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4160-775: The Spanish Netherlands (the ruler of which, Isabella Clara Eugenia , and the ambassador Balthazar Gerbier tried to reconcile her with Richelieu), in England at the court of her daughter Queen Henrietta Maria for three years (staying en route to London in Gidea Hall ) and then in Germany ; with her daughters and sons-in-law where she tried again to form a "league of sons-in-law" against France, without ever being able to return, and her supporters were imprisoned, banished or condemned to death. Her visit to Amsterdam

4290-604: The Third Estate and the nobility who did not manage to get along: Civil lieutenant Henri de Mesmes declared that "all the Estates were brothers and children of a common mother, France", while one of the representatives of the nobility replied that he refused to be the brother of a child of a shoemaker or cobbler. This antagonism benefited the court, which soon pronounced the closure of the Estates General. The Regency

4420-657: The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). France was not openly at war with the Habsburgs , who ruled Spain and the Holy Roman Empire , so subsidies and aid were provided secretly to their adversaries. Richelieu however, believed that war against Spain would be unavoidable. He considered the Dutch Republic as one of France's most important allies, for it bordered directly with the Spanish Netherlands and

4550-464: The du Ponant fleet were: Although Jean II d'Estrées commanded the fleet during the battles of the reign of Louis XIV, his successors were too old to have likely served at sea. In practice, the squadrons at sea were under officers with the rank of Lieutenant général des Armées navales . Naval administration was under the authority of a Secretary of the State in 1626, the same year Cardinal Richelieu

4680-559: The learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language . As an advocate for Samuel de Champlain and New France , he founded (1627) the Compagnie des Cent-Associés ; he also negotiated the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye under which Quebec City returned to French rule after English privateers took it in 1629. He was created Duke of Richelieu in 1629. Born in Paris on 9 September 1585, Armand du Plessis

4810-671: The maîtresse-en-titre Catherine de Balzac d'Entragues (whom Henry IV had allegedly promised he would marry following the death in 1599 of his former maîtresse-en-titre , Gabrielle d'Estrées ) in a language that shocked French courtiers; also, it was said in court that Henry IV took Marie only for breeding purposes exactly as Henry II had treated Catherine de' Medici . Although the King could have easily banished his mistress, supporting his wife, he never did so. Marie, in turn, showed great sympathy and support to her husband's banished ex-wife Marguerite de Valois, prompting Henry IV to allow her back to Paris . Another bone of contention concerned

4940-413: The "father of the modern nation-state , modern centralised power [and] the modern secret service ." His legacy is also important for the world at large; his ideas of a strong nation-state and aggressive foreign policy helped create the modern system of international politics. As a statesman and churchman, Richelieu played an important role in shaping France's prominence in the 17th century and influencing

5070-570: The Académie's protector . Since 1672, that role has been fulfilled by the French head of state. In 1622, Richelieu was elected the proviseur or principal of the Sorbonne. He presided over the renovation of the college's buildings and over the construction of its famous chapel, where he is now entombed. As he was Bishop of Luçon, his statue stands outside the Luçon cathedral. Richelieu oversaw

5200-604: The Concinis deeply displeased part of the French nobility. Stirring up xenophobic passion, the nobility designated the Italian immigrants favored by Marie as responsible for all the wrongs of the kingdom. They are getting richer, they said, at our expense. Taking advantage of the clear weakness of the Regency, the princes of the blood under the leadership of Henri II, Prince of Condé , rebelled against Marie. In application of

5330-691: The Flemish Frans Pourbus the Younger . During and after the regency, Marie de Médicis played a major role in the development of Parisian artistic life by focusing on the construction and furnishing of the Luxembourg Palace, which she referred to as her "Palais Médicis". The site was purchased in 1612 and construction began in 1615, to designs of Salomon de Brosse . In particular, she tried to attract several large-scale artists to Paris: she brought in The Annunciation by Guido Reni ,

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5460-581: The French conflict with the Huguenots to extend its influence in northern Italy. It funded the Huguenot rebels to keep the French army occupied, meanwhile expanding its Italian dominions. Richelieu, however, responded aggressively; after La Rochelle capitulated, he personally led the French army to northern Italy to restrain Spain. On 26 November 1629, he was created duc de Richelieu and a Peer of France . In

5590-537: The French king "owed the bride's father, Francesco de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who had helped support his war effort, a whopping 1,174,000 écus and this was the only means Henry could find to pay back the debt..." In addition, the Medici family—banking creditors of the Kings of France—promised a dowry of 600,000 écus d'or (2 million livres including 1 million paid in cash to cancel the debt contracted by France with

5720-535: The French usage of her name, Marie de Médicis ) left Florence for Livorno on 23 October, accompanied by 2,000 people who made up her suite, and set off for Marseille , which she reached on 3 November. Antoinette de Pons , Marquise de Guercheville and Première dame d'honneur of the new Queen, was responsible for welcoming her to Marseille. After her disembarkation, Marie continued her trip, arriving at Lyon on 3 December. She and Henry IV finally met on 9 December and spent their wedding night together. On 17 December,

5850-539: The Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle ; the cardinal personally commanded the besieging troops. English troops under the Duke of Buckingham led an expedition to help the citizens of La Rochelle, but failed abysmally. The city, however, remained firm for over a year before capitulating in 1628. Although the Huguenots suffered a major defeat at La Rochelle, they continued to fight, led by Henri, duc de Rohan . Protestant forces, however, were defeated in 1629; Rohan submitted to

5980-467: The King accepted her return to court. She then returned to Paris, where she worked on the construction of her Luxembourg Palace . After the death of the Duc de Luynes in December 1621, she gradually made her political comeback. Richelieu played an important role in her reconciliation with the king and even managed to bring the queen mother back to the Conseil du Roi . From the time of her marriage to Henri IV,

6110-405: The King. The very next day (14 May), Henry IV was assassinated by François Ravaillac - which immediately raised suspicions of a conspiracy. Within hours after Henry IV's assassination, Marie was confirmed as Regent by the Parliament of Paris on behalf of her son and new King, eight-year-old Louis XIII. She immediately banished her late husband's mistress, Catherine de Balzac d'Entragues, from

6240-561: The Kingdom of France, Marie decided to impose the strict protocol from the court of Spain. An avid ballet performer and art collector, she deployed artistic patronage that helped develop the arts in France. Daughter of a Habsburg archduchess, the Queen-Regent abandoned the traditional anti-Habsburg French foreign policy (one of her first acts was the overturn of the Treaty of Bruzolo , an alliance signed between Henry IV's representatives and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy ), and formed an alliance with Habsburg Spain which culminated in 1615 with

6370-419: The Medici bank), which earned the future Queen the nickname "the big banker" ( la grosse banquière ) from her jealous rival, Catherine Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues , Henry IV's current maîtresse-en-titre . Moreover, Maria de' Medici was the granddaughter of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (in office: 1556–1564), thereby ensuring and reinforcing a legitimate royal descent for prospective future members of

6500-410: The Medici family attracted many suitors, in particular the younger brother of her aunt Grand Duchess Christina, François, Count of Vaudémont and heir of the Duchy of Lorraine . But soon, a more prestigious suitor presented himself: King Henry IV of France . The marriage of Henry IV with Maria de' Medici represented above all, for France, a solution to dynastic and financial concerns: it was said that

6630-458: The Palais-Cardinal, for which Simon Vouet executed the paintings, were of solid gold – crucifix, chalice, paten , ciborium, candlesticks – set with 180 rubies and 9,000 diamonds. His taste also ran to massive silver, small bronzes and works of vertu , enamels and rock crystal mounted in gold, Chinese porcelains, tapestries and Persian carpets, cabinets from Italy, and Antwerp and the heart-shaped diamond bought from Alphonse Lopez that he willed to

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6760-453: The Queen practiced ambitious artistic patronage, and placed under her protection several painters, sculptors and scholars. For her apartments at the Palace of Fontainebleau , the Flemish-born painter Ambroise Dubois was recruited to decorate Marie's cabinets with a series of paintings on the theme of the Ethiopics of Heliodorus , and painted for her gallery an important decoration on the theme of Diana and Apollo, mythological evocations of

6890-400: The Queen. Nevertheless, Marie's rule was strengthened by the appointment of Armand Jean du Plessis (later Cardinal Richelieu) —who had come to prominence at the meetings of the Estates General—as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs on 5 November 1616. Despite being legally an adult for more than two years, Louis XIII had little power in the government; finally, he asserted his authority

7020-448: The Red Eminence "), a term derived from the title "Eminence" applied to cardinals and their customary red robes. Consecrated a bishop in 1607, Richelieu was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616. He continued to rise through the hierarchy of both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622 and chief minister to King Louis XIII of France in 1624. He retained that office until his death in 1642, when he

7150-422: The Treaty of Sainte-Menehould (15 May 1614), the Queen-Regent convened the Estates General in Paris . The Prince of Condé failed to structure his opposition to royal power. However, Marie undertook to cement the alliance with Spain and to ensure respect for the theses of the Council of Trent . The reforms of the paulette and the taille remained a dead letter. The clergy played the role of arbiter between

7280-443: The Virgin by Andrea del Sarto , the two famous Bacchanales of Nicolas Poussin , as well as paintings by Veronese and Titian , and Diana at the Bath by Rubens , for which he was so glad to pay the artist's heirs 3,000 écus , that he made a gift to Rubens' widow of a diamond-encrusted watch. His marble portrait bust by Bernini was not considered a good likeness and was banished to a passageway. The fittings of his chapel in

7410-433: The arts. She was also passionate about jewelry and precious stones. Very devout, she was known to keep an open mind, and to depend on those around her for support. Close to the artists of her native Florence , Maria was trained in drawing by Jacopo Ligozzi , and she was reportedly very talented; she also played music (singing and practicing the guitar and the lute ) and enjoyed theater, dance, and comedy. The wealth of

7540-462: The bad manners that were commonly displayed at the dining table by users of sharp knives (who would often use them to pick their teeth), in 1637 Richelieu ordered that all of the knives on his dining table have their blades dulled and their tips rounded. The design quickly became popular throughout France and later spread to other countries. As of April 2013, the Internet Movie Database listed 94 films and television programs in which Cardinal Richelieu

7670-499: The birth of a Dauphin for more than forty years. Marie gave birth to five more children (three daughters and two more sons) between 1602 and 1609; however, during 1603–1606 she was effectively separated from her husband. Although the marriage succeeded in producing children, it was not a happy one. Marie was of a very jealous temperament, and she refused to accept her husband's numerous infidelities; indeed, he forced his wife to rub shoulders with his mistresses . She mostly quarreled with

7800-440: The canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from Pope Paul V . This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607. Soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer . He became the first bishop in France to implement the institutional reforms prescribed by the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563. At about this time, Richelieu became

7930-411: The cardinal's arms. The library was transferred to the Sorbonne in 1660. He funded the literary careers of many writers. He was a lover of the theatre, which was not considered a respectable art form during that era; a private theatre, the Grande Salle , was a feature of his Paris residence, the Palais-Cardinal . Among the individuals he patronized was the famous playwright Pierre Corneille . Richelieu

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8060-407: The ceremony for political reasons. Marie had to wait until 13 May 1610 to be finally crowned Queen of France . At this time Henry IV was about to depart to fight in the War of Succession over the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg ; the coronation aimed to confer greater legitimacy on the Queen from the perspective of a possible regency which she would be called upon to provide in the absence of

8190-486: The chief minister Charles, duc de La Vieuville . On 12 August of the same year, La Vieuville was arrested on charges of corruption, and Cardinal Richelieu took his place as the king's principal minister the following day, but the Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld nominally remained president of the council (Richelieu was officially appointed president in November 1629). Cardinal Richelieu's policy involved two primary goals: centralization of power in France and opposition to

8320-588: The church floor enabled the head to be photographed in 1895. Richelieu was a chess player and a famous patron of the arts. An author of various religious and political works (most notably his Political Testament ), he sent his agents abroad in search of books and manuscripts for his unrivaled library, which he specified in his will – leaving it to Armand Jean de Vignerot du Plessis , his great-nephew, fully funded – should serve not merely his family but to be open at fixed hours to scholars. The manuscripts alone numbered some 900, bound as codices in red Morocco with

8450-575: The city of Étrœungt (in the County of Hainaut ), where she slept before going to Brussels . She intended to plead her case there, but the escape was only a political trap set by her son, who had withdrawn the regiments guarding the Château de Compiègne. Now a refugee with the Spanish, enemies of France, Marie was thus deprived of her pensions. Her chaplain Mathieu de Morgues, who remained faithful to Marie in his exile, wrote pamphlets against Richelieu that circulated in France clandestinely. During her last years, Marie travelled to various European courts, in

8580-402: The clergymen of Poitou asked Richelieu to be one of their representatives to the Estates-General . There, he was a vigorous advocate of the Catholic Church, arguing that it should be exempt from taxes and that bishops should have more political power. He was the most prominent clergyman to support the adoption of the decrees of the Council of Trent throughout France; the Third Estate (commoners)

8710-403: The conflict of Protestantism versus Catholicism to that of nationalism versus Habsburg hegemony. In this conflict France effectively drained the already overstretched resources of the Habsburg empire and drove it inexorably towards bankruptcy. The defeat of Habsburg forces at the Battle of Lens in 1648, coupled with their failure to prevent a French invasion of Catalonia , effectively spelled

8840-410: The conflict. However, the Queen Mother was not satisfied and relaunched the war by rallying the great nobles of the Kingdom to her cause ("second war of mother and son"). The noble coalition was quickly defeated at the Battle of Ponts-de-Cé (7 August 1620) by Louis XIII, who forgave his mother and the princes. Aware that he could not avoid the formation of plots as long as his mother remained in exile,

8970-399: The construction of his own palace in Paris, the Palais-Cardinal . The palace, renamed the Palais-Royal after Richelieu's death, now houses the French Constitutional Council , the Ministry of Culture, and the Conseil d'État . The Galerie de l'avant-cour had ceiling paintings by Philippe de Champaigne , the cardinal's chief portraitist, celebrating the major events of the cardinal's career;

9100-406: The country by her son and dying in the city of Cologne , in the Holy Roman Empire . Born at the Palazzo Pitti of Florence , Italy on 26 April 1575, Maria was the sixth daughter of Francesco I de' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany , and Archduchess Joanna of Austria . She was a descendant of Lorenzo the Elder –a branch of the Medici family sometimes referred to as the 'cadet' branch– and

9230-419: The court. At first, she kept the closest advisers of Henry IV in the key court positions and took for herself (1611) the title of Governess of the Bastille , although she entrusted the physical custody of this important Parisian fortress to Joachim de Chateauvieux, her knight of honor, who took direct command as a lieutenant of the Queen-Regent. From the beginning, Marie was under suspicion at court because she

9360-484: The day after her coronation , caused her to act as regent for her son, Louis XIII, until 1614, when he officially attained his legal majority, but as the head of the Conseil du Roi , she retained the power. Noted for her ceaseless political intrigues at the French court, her extensive artistic patronage and her favourites (the most famous being Concino Concini and Leonora Dori ), she ended up being banished from

9490-414: The death of Cardinal Richelieu, showed a population of 3,215 habitants in New France, many more than there had been only a few decades earlier, but also a great difference in the number of men (2,034) and women (1,181). Toward the end of his life, Richelieu alienated many people, including Pope Urban VIII . Richelieu was displeased by the pope's refusal to name him the papal legate in France; in turn,

9620-556: The death of the king's favourite, the duc de Luynes, in 1621, Richelieu rose to power quickly. The year after, the king nominated Richelieu for a cardinalate, which Pope Gregory XV accordingly granted in September 1622. Crises in France, including a rebellion of the Huguenots , rendered Richelieu a nearly indispensable advisor to the king. After he was appointed to the royal council of ministers on 29 April 1624, he intrigued against

9750-485: The dismissal of the minister. After the " Day of the Dupes " ( Journée des Dupes ) of 10–11 November 1630, Richelieu remained the principal minister, and the Queen Mother was constrained to be reconciled with him. Marie ultimately decided to withdraw from court. Louis XIII, judging his mother too involved in intrigue, encouraged her to retire to the Château de Compiègne . From there, she fled on 19 July 1631 towards

9880-493: The double marriage of her daughter Elisabeth and her son Louis XIII with the two children of King Philip III of Spain , Philip, Prince of Asturias (future Philip IV) and Anne of Austria , respectively. Nevertheless, the Queen-Regent's policy caused discontent. On the one hand, Protestants were worried about the rapprochement of Marie with Spain; on the other hand, Marie's attempts to strengthen her power by relying on

10010-399: The duc de Luynes recalled Richelieu, believing that he would be able to reason with the queen. Richelieu was successful in this endeavour, mediating between her and her son. Complex negotiations bore fruit when the Treaty of Angoulême was ratified; Marie de Médicis was given complete freedom, but would remain at peace with the king. The queen-mother was restored to the royal council. After

10140-493: The effective ruler of the realm. However, her policies, and those of Concini, proved unpopular with many in France. As a result, both Marie and Concini became the targets of intrigues at court; their most powerful enemy was Charles de Luynes . In April 1617, in a plot arranged by Luynes, Louis XIII ordered that Concini be arrested, and killed should he resist; Concini was consequently assassinated, and Marie de Médicis overthrown. His patron having died, Richelieu also lost power; he

10270-463: The end for Habsburg domination of the continent, and for the personal career of Spanish prime minister Olivares . When Richelieu came to power, New France , where the French had a foothold since Jacques Cartier , had no more than 100 permanent European inhabitants. Richelieu encouraged Louis XIII to colonize the Americas by the foundation of the Compagnie de la Nouvelle France in imitation of

10400-646: The fledgling colony along the St. Lawrence River . The retention and promotion of Canada under Richelieu allowed it – and through the settlement's strategic location, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes gateway into the North American interior – to develop into a French empire in North America, parts of which eventually became modern Canada and Louisiana. Richelieu is known as the inventor of the table knife . Annoyed by

10530-563: The funeral. In 1793, during the French Revolution , Queen Marie was dug up by the French revolutionists who threw insults at the remains of the Queen whom they accused of having murdered her husband. Some among them tore out the remaining tufts of her hair still attached to the skull and passed them around. Some of her bones were found floating in muddy water and her remains were thrown into a mass grave along with other French deceased royals. In 1817, Louis XVIII ordered that those royals buried in

10660-460: The important source of revenue, Richelieu's mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse , the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk. Thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong academic interests and threw himself into studying for his new post. In 1606, Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon. As Richelieu had not yet reached

10790-406: The influence of the feudal nobility. In 1626, he abolished the position of Constable of France and ordered all fortified castles razed, with the exception only of those needed to defend against invaders. Thus he stripped the princes, dukes, and lesser aristocrats of important defences that could have been used against the king's armies during rebellions. As a result, Richelieu was hated by most of

10920-886: The intention of liberating the Valtelline from Spanish occupation. In 1625, Richelieu also sent money to Ernst von Mansfeld , a famous mercenary general operating in Germany in English service. However, in May 1626, when war costs had almost ruined France, king and cardinal made peace with Spain via the Treaty of Monçon . This peace quickly ended after tensions due to the War of the Mantuan Succession . In 1629, Emperor Ferdinand II subjugated many of his Protestant opponents in Germany. Richelieu, alarmed by Ferdinand's growing influence, incited Sweden to intervene, providing money. In

11050-408: The king's brother, Gaston, duc d'Orléans , secured the king's agreement for the dismissal. Richelieu, however, was aware of the plan, and quickly convinced the king to repent. Meanwhile, Marie de Médicis was exiled to Compiègne . Both Marie and the duc d'Orléans continued to conspire against Richelieu, but their schemes came to nothing. The nobility also remained powerless. The only important rising

11180-427: The king's brother, the duc d'Orléans) to raise a rebellion; he also signed a secret agreement with the king of Spain, who promised to aid the rebels. Richelieu's spy service, however, discovered the plot, and the cardinal received a copy of the treaty. Cinq-Mars was promptly arrested and executed; although Louis approved the use of capital punishment, he grew more distant from Richelieu as a result. However, Richelieu

11310-480: The king. Richelieu died on 4 December 1642, aged 57. His body was embalmed and interred at the church of the Sorbonne . By that time, the populace detested him. In many provinces of the kingdom, bonfires were kindled to celebrate his death. During the French Revolution , the corpse was removed from its tomb, and the mummified front of his head, having been removed and replaced during the original embalming process,

11440-651: The king. When the Palais-Cardinal was complete, he donated it to the Crown, in 1636. With the queen in residence, the paintings of the Grand Cabinet were transferred to Fontainebleau and replaced by copies, and the interiors were subjected to much rearrangement. Michelangelo 's two Slaves were among the rich appointments of the château Richelieu, where there were the Nativity triptych by Dürer , and paintings by Mantegna , Lorenzo Costa and Perugino , lifted from

11570-668: The mass grave be reburied. Marie in 1817 was reburied in the crypt of Basilica of Saint Denis. Honoré de Balzac , in his essay Sur Catherine de Médicis , encapsulated the Romantic generation's negative view of Marie de' Medici. She was born and raised in Italy and the French never really accepted her; hence, the negative reviews. However, Henry IV of France was not a rich man and needed Marie's money. The French were still not pleased with him choosing an Italian wife. Marie de' Medici, all of whose actions were prejudicial to France, has escaped

11700-510: The meantime, France and Spain remained hostile due to Spain's ambitions in northern Italy. At that time northern Italy was a major strategic region in Europe's balance of power, serving as a link between the Habsburgs in the Empire and in Spain. Had the imperial armies dominated this region, France would have been threatened by Habsburg encirclement. Spain was meanwhile seeking papal approval for

11830-421: The monarch's decisions. Cinq-Mars had become the royal favourite by 1639, but, contrary to Cardinal Richelieu's belief, he was not easy to control. The young marquis realized that Richelieu would not permit him to gain political power. In 1641, he participated in the comte de Soissons 's failed conspiracy against Richelieu, but was not discovered. Then, the following year, he schemed with leading nobles (including

11960-457: The most powerful minister in the kingdom. In 1616, Richelieu was made Secretary of State, and was given responsibility for foreign affairs. Like Concini, the Bishop was one of the closest advisors of Louis XIII's mother, Marie de' Medici . The queen had become Regent of France when the nine-year-old Louis ascended the throne; although her son reached the legal age of majority in 1614, she remained

12090-614: The most powerful monarch, and France the most powerful nation, in all of Europe during the late seventeenth century. Richelieu is also notable for the authoritarian measures he employed to maintain power. He censored the press, established a large network of internal spies, forbade the discussion of political matters in public assemblies such as the Parlement de Paris (a court of justice), and had those who dared to conspire against him prosecuted and executed. The Canadian historian and philosopher John Ralston Saul has referred to Richelieu as

12220-484: The next year, Richelieu's position was seriously threatened by his former patron, Marie de Médicis. Marie believed that the cardinal had robbed her of her political influence; thus, she demanded that her son dismiss the chief minister. Louis XIII was not, at first, averse to such a course of action, as he personally disliked Richelieu. Despite this, the persuasive statesman was able to secure the king as an ally against his own mother. On 11 November 1630, Marie de Médicis and

12350-539: The next year. Feeling humiliated by the conduct of his mother, who monopolized power, the King organized (with the help of his favorite the Duc de Luynes ) a coup d'état (also named Coup de majesté ) on 24 April 1617: Concino Concini was assassinated by the Marquis de Vitry , and Marie exiled to the Château de Blois . In the night of 21–22 February 1619, the 43-year-old Queen Mother escaped from her prison in Blois with

12480-404: The nobility. Another obstacle to the centralization of power was religious division in France. The Huguenots , one of the largest political and religious factions in the country, controlled a significant military force, and were in rebellion. Moreover, Charles I , the king of England, declared war on France in an attempt to aid the Huguenot faction. In 1627, Richelieu ordered the army to besiege

12610-514: The outbreak of the French Revolution . The fleet flagship was the most powerful ship at Brest. A number of different ships served in this role during the fleet's existence: The first commander of what became the Flotte du Ponant was Aymar de Clermont-Chaste-Gessans , who was appointed Vice-admiral of Les Mers du Ponant . The command of the Levant and du Ponant fleets were entrusted on 12 November 1669 to two vice-admirals. The vice-admirals of

12740-407: The pope did not approve of the administration of the French church, or of French foreign policy. However, the conflict was largely resolved when the pope granted a cardinalate to Jules Mazarin , one of Richelieu's main political allies, in 1641. Despite troubled relations with the Roman Catholic Church, Richelieu did not support the complete repudiation of papal authority in France, as was advocated by

12870-561: The power of the Habsburg dynasty (reigning notably in Spain and Austria ) and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648 after that conflict engulfed Europe. Despite suppressing the Huguenot rebellions of the 1620s, he made alliances with Protestant states like the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic to help him achieve his goals. However, although he was

13000-415: The proper maintenance of Marie's household as Queen of France: despite the enormous dowry she brought to the marriage, her husband often refused her the money necessary to pay all the expenses that she intended to carry out to show everyone her royal rank. Household scenes took place, followed by periods of relative peace. Marie was also very keen to be officially crowned Queen of France, but Henry IV postponed

13130-613: The royal couple. In the Louvre , the Queen had a luxurious apartment on the first floor fitted out, then moved in 1614 to a new apartment on the ground floor, which she had adorned with panels and paintings by Ambroise Dubois, Jacob Bunel , Guillaume Dumée, and Gabriel Honnet on the theme of Jerusalem Delivered of Torquato Tasso (whose translation by Antoine de Nervèze was Marie's first reading in French). The Queen also patronized with portrait painters, such as Charles Martin and especially

13260-527: The same vein as the cardinal, he enacted policies that further suppressed the once-mighty aristocracy, and utterly destroyed all remnants of Huguenot political power with the Edict of Fontainebleau . Moreover, Louis took advantage of his nation's success during the Thirty Years' War to establish French hegemony in continental Europe. Thus, Richelieu's policies were the requisite prelude to Louis XIV becoming

13390-420: The same year: the marriage by proxy took place at the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (now Florence Cathedral) on 5 October 1600 with Henry IV's favorite the Duc de Bellegarde representing the French sovereign. The celebrations were attended by 4,000 guests with lavish entertainment, including examples of the newly invented musical genre of opera , such as Jacopo Peri 's Euridice . Maria (now known by

13520-613: The second wife of King Henry IV . Marie served as regent of France between 1610 and 1617 during the minority of her son Louis XIII . Her mandate as regent legally expired in 1614, when her son reached the age of majority, but she refused to resign and continued as regent until she was removed by a coup in 1617. Marie was a member of the powerful House of Medici in the branch of the grand dukes of Tuscany . Her family's wealth inspired Henry IV to choose Marie as his second wife after his divorce from his previous wife, Margaret of Valois . The assassination of her husband in 1610, which occurred

13650-406: The secularization of international policies during the Thirty Years' War. His pioneering approach to French diplomatic relations using raison d'etat vis-a-vis the power relationship at play were first frowned upon but later emulated by other European nation-states to add to their diplomatic strategic arsenal. A less renowned aspect of his legacy is his involvement with Samuel de Champlain and

13780-411: The shame which ought to cover her name. Marie de' Medici wasted the wealth amassed by Henry IV; she never purged herself of the charge of having known of the king's assassination; her intimate was d'Épernon , who did not ward off Ravaillac's blow, and who was proved to have known the murderer personally for a long time. Marie's conduct was such that she forced her son to banish her from France, where she

13910-546: The stairs in the Grand Ducal Palace in Florence, dying the next day after giving birth to a premature stillborn son. A few months later, Grand Duke Francesco I married his longtime mistress Bianca Cappello ; the marriage was officially revealed one year later, on 12 June 1579. In a few years, Maria also lost two of her siblings, Philip (died 29 March 1582 aged 4) and Anna (died 19 February 1584 aged 14). Maria and her only surviving sister, Eleonora (with whom she had

14040-586: The sum of 1,500,000 livres and the government of Guyenne . During this time, the Protestants obtained a reprieve of six years to the return of their places of safety to the royal power. In 1616, the requirements of the Prince of Condé became so important that Marie had him arrested on 1 September and imprisoned him in the Bastille. The Duke of Nevers then took the leadership of the nobility in revolt against

14170-529: The terms of the Peace of Alais . As a result, religious toleration for Protestants, which had first been granted by the Edict of Nantes in 1598, was permitted to continue, but the cardinal abolished their political rights and protections. Rohan was not executed (as were leaders of rebellions later in Richelieu's tenure); in fact, he later became a commanding officer in the French army. Habsburg Spain exploited

14300-529: The territory, Richelieu supported the Protestant Swiss canton of Grisons , which also claimed the strategically important valley. The cardinal deployed troops to Valtellina, from which the pope's garrisons were driven out. Richelieu's early decision to support a Protestant canton against the pope was a foretaste of the purely diplomatic power politics he espoused in his foreign policy. To further consolidate power in France, Richelieu sought to suppress

14430-567: The whole nation, and of the embodiment of the nation – the king. Equally critical for France was Richelieu's foreign policy, which helped restrain Habsburg influence in Europe. Richelieu did not survive to the end of the Thirty Years' War. However, the conflict ended in 1648, with France emerging in a far better position than any other power, and the Holy Roman Empire entering a period of decline. Richelieu's successes were extremely important to Louis XIII's successor, King Louis XIV . He continued Richelieu's work of creating an absolute monarchy ; in

14560-483: The young Philippe de Champaigne , and even Simon Vouet on his return to Paris, participated in the decoration of the apartments of the Queen-Mother. A parchment Prayer Book belonging to Marie de' Medici has artwork that may date from the 15th century, but is also remarkable for its canivet cuttings. Pages are cut with intricate patterns that are made to look like lace of the period. Marie continued to attend

14690-432: Was also a Habsburg through her mother, who was a direct descendant of Joanna of Castile and Philip I of Castile . Of her five elder sisters, only the eldest, Eleonora (born 28 February 1567) and the third, Anna (born 31 December 1569) survived infancy. Their only brother Philip de' Medici , was born on 20 May 1577. One year later (10 April 1578) Grand Duchess Joanna –heavily pregnant with her eighth child– fell from

14820-458: Was also the founder and patron of the Académie française , the pre-eminent French literary society. The institution had previously been in informal existence; in 1635, however, Cardinal Richelieu obtained official letters patent for the body. The Académie française includes 40 members, promotes French literature, and remains the official authority on the French language. Richelieu served as

14950-541: Was considered a diplomatic triumph by the Dutch, as it lent official recognition to the newly-formed Dutch Republic ; accordingly, she was given an elaborate ceremonial royal entry , of the sort the Republic avoided for its own rulers. Spectacular displays (by Claes Corneliszoon Moeyaert ) and water pageants took place in the city's harbour in celebration of her visit. There was a procession led by two mounted trumpeters, and

15080-488: Was considered the richest heiress in Europe. Maria's uncle Ferdinando I de' Medici became the new Grand Duke of Tuscany and married Christina of Lorraine (granddaughter of the famous Catherine de' Medici , Queen of France ) in 1589. Notwithstanding his desire to give an heir to his dynasty, the new Grand Duke gave his orphaned nephew and niece a good education. Maria was interested in science ; she enjoyed learning about mathematics , philosophy , astronomy , as well as

15210-402: Was denounced by many as a traitor to the Roman Catholic Church. (He ordered ships of war from Jean Bicker . ) Military action, at first, was disastrous for the French, with many victories going to Spain and the Empire. Neither side, however, could obtain a decisive advantage, and the conflict lingered on after Richelieu's death. Richelieu was instrumental in redirecting the Thirty Years' War from

15340-405: Was designated as grand master of navigation . The two fleets were combined in 1642, then split in 1661. The two fleets were administered by Jean-Baptiste Colbert after 1662, during his tenure as intendant of finance and state minister, then secretary of State in 1669. A secretary of state held responsibility for the navy thereafter, until the French Revolution . The state secretary of the navy

15470-421: Was dismissed as Secretary of State, and was removed from the court. In 1618, the king, still suspicious of the Bishop of Luçon, banished him to Avignon. There, Richelieu spent most of his time writing; he composed a catechism titled L'Instruction du chrétien . In 1619, Marie de Médicis escaped from her confinement in the Château de Blois , becoming the titular leader of an aristocratic rebellion. The king and

15600-552: Was his chief opponent in this endeavour. At the end of the assembly, the First Estate (the clergy) chose him to deliver the address enumerating its petitions and decisions. Soon after the dissolution of the Estates-General, Richelieu entered the service of King Louis XIII 's wife, Anne of Austria , as her almoner . Richelieu advanced politically by faithfully serving the queen-mother's favourite, Concino Concini ,

15730-517: Was now dying. For many years he had suffered from recurrent fevers (possibly malaria), strangury, intestinal tuberculosis with fistula, and migraine. Now his right arm was suppurating with tubercular osteitis, and he coughed blood (after his death, his lungs were found to have extensive cavities and caseous necrosis). His doctors continued to bleed him frequently, further weakening him. As he felt his death approaching, he named Mazarin, one of his most faithful followers, to succeed him as chief minister to

15860-532: Was offered a suite of Muses painted by Giovanni Baglione , invited the painter Orazio Gentileschi (who stayed in Paris during two years, during 1623–1625), and especially the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens , who was commissioned by her to create a 21-piece series glorifying her life and reign to be part of her art collection in the Luxembourg Palace. This series (composed between 1622 and 1625), along with three individual portraits made for Marie and her family,

15990-488: Was officially ended following the Lit de justice of 2 October 1614, which declared that Louis XIII had attained his legal majority of age, but Marie then became head of the Conseil du Roi and retained all her control over the government. One year after the end of the Estates General, a new rebellion of the Prince of Condé allowed his entry into the Conseil du Roi by the Treaty of Loudun (3 May 1616), which also granted him

16120-429: Was perceived as a foreigner and never truly mastered French; moreover, she was heavily influenced by her Italian friends and confidants, including her foster sister Leonora "Galigai" Dori and Concino Concini , who was created Marquis d'Ancre and a Marshal of France , even though he had never fought a single battle. The Concinis had Henry IV's able minister, the Duke of Sully , dismissed, and Italian representatives of

16250-623: Was right in the middle of the Eighty Years' War with Spain at that time. Luckily for him, Richelieu was a bon français , just like the king, who had already decided to subsidize the Dutch to fight against the Spanish via the Treaty of Compiègne in June 1624, prior to Richelieu's appointment to First Minister in August. That same year, a military expedition, secretly financed by France and commanded by Marquis de Coeuvres, started an action with

16380-407: Was stolen. It ended up in the possession of Nicholas Armez of Brittany by 1796, and he occasionally exhibited the well-preserved face. His nephew, Louis-Philippe Armez, inherited it and also occasionally exhibited it and lent it out for study. In 1866, Napoleon III persuaded Armez to return the face to the government for re-interment with the rest of Richelieu's body. An investigation of subsidence of

16510-408: Was succeeded by Cardinal Jules Mazarin , whose career the cardinal had fostered. Richelieu became engaged in a bitter dispute with Marie de Médici , the king's mother, and formerly his close ally. Richelieu sought to consolidate royal power and restrained the power of the nobility in order to transform France into a strong centralized state. In foreign policy, his primary objectives were to check

16640-643: Was that of Henri, duc de Montmorency in 1632; Richelieu, ruthless in suppressing opposition, ordered the duke's execution. In 1634, the cardinal had one of his outspoken critics, Urbain Grandier , burned at the stake in the Loudun affair . These and other harsh measures were orchestrated by Richelieu to intimidate his enemies. He also ensured his political security by establishing a large network of spies in France and in other European countries. Before Richelieu's ascent to power, most of Europe had become enmeshed in

16770-606: Was the administrator responsible for the French royal naval fleet and the civilian naval component, the commercial trade fleet. The secretary therefore administered both naval fleets and merchant fleets, the naval bases, the diplomatic consulates, the colonies and the French East India Company . Other departments and bureaux were added to fleet administration over time. These different bureaux and departments were regrouped in four grand directorates by Marshal Charles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix in 1786. During

16900-463: Was the fourth of five children and the last of three sons: he was delicate from childhood and suffered frequent bouts of ill-health throughout his life. His family belonged to the lesser nobility of Poitou : his father, François du Plessis , seigneur de Richelieu , was a soldier and courtier who served as the Grand Provost of France, and his mother, Susanne de La Porte, was the daughter of

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