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152-647: The Tempest is an automobile that was produced by Pontiac from 1960 to 1970, and again from 1987 to 1991. The Tempest was introduced as an entry-level compact in October 1960 at the Paris Auto Show for the 1961 model year. Built on GM's first unibody chassis, its new Y-platform was shared with the Buick Special / Skylark and Oldsmobile F-85 / Cutlass . While the Buick and Olds versions used

304-536: A Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65-centimetre-long (26 in) scale-model toy for the Kangxi Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger. It is not known with certainty if Verbiest's model was successfully built or run. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first full-scale, self-propelled mechanical vehicle in about 1769; he created

456-448: A Mohs hardness of 5.5 and a standard atomic weight of 95.95 g/mol. It has a melting point of 2,623 °C (4,753 °F), sixth highest of the naturally occurring elements; only tantalum , osmium , rhenium , tungsten , and carbon have higher melting points. It has one of the lowest coefficients of thermal expansion among commercially used metals. Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 2.16 on

608-663: A free metal on Earth; in its minerals, it is found only in oxidized states . The free element, a silvery metal with a grey cast, has the sixth-highest melting point of any element. It readily forms hard, stable carbides in alloys , and for this reason most of the world production of the element (about 80%) is used in steel alloys, including high-strength alloys and superalloys . Most molybdenum compounds have low solubility in water. Heating molybdenum-bearing minerals under oxygen and water affords molybdate ion MoO 4 , which forms quite soluble salts. Industrially, molybdenum compounds (about 14% of world production of

760-642: A froth flotation process to recover molybdenite from ores; flotation remains the primary isolation process. During World War I , demand for molybdenum spiked; it was used both in armor plating and as a substitute for tungsten in high-speed steels . Some British tanks were protected by 75 mm (3 in) manganese steel plating, but this proved to be ineffective. The manganese steel plates were replaced with much lighter 25 mm (1.0 in) molybdenum steel plates allowing for higher speed, greater maneuverability, and better protection. The Germans also used molybdenum-doped steel for heavy artillery, like in

912-429: A pterin -based molybdenum cofactor (Moco) in their active site: sulfite oxidase , xanthine oxidoreductase , aldehyde oxidase , and mitochondrial amidoxime reductase . People severely deficient in molybdenum have poorly functioning sulfite oxidase and are prone to toxic reactions to sulfites in foods. The human body contains about 0.07 mg of molybdenum per kilogram of body weight, with higher concentrations in

1064-531: A 4.5 in (11 cm)-diameter circle (a "four-on-four-and-a-half" bolt pattern), with 14 in (36 cm) wheels. This arrangement was also not used by other General Motors cars at the time. Along with the Trophy 4 engine line another optional engine for the Tempest in 1961 and 1962 was the innovative aluminum Buick-built 215 cubic inch (3.5 L) V8 . It is estimated that just 3,662 Tempests were ordered with

1216-407: A Fiat vehicle. Toyota , Nissan , Suzuki , Mazda , and Honda began as companies producing non-automotive products before the war, switching to car production during the 1950s. Kiichiro Toyoda's decision to take Toyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing would create what would eventually become Toyota Motor Corporation , the largest automobile manufacturer in the world. Subaru , meanwhile,

1368-437: A combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 21st-century cars. These controls include a steering wheel , pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car's speed (and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal), a shift lever or stick for changing gears, and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights, ventilation, and other functions. Modern cars' controls are now standardised, such as

1520-670: A commodity. The Knaben mine in southern Norway, opened in 1885, was the first dedicated molybdenum mine. Closed in 1973 but reopened in 2007, it now produces 100,000 kilograms (98 long tons; 110 short tons) of molybdenum disulfide per year. Large mines in Colorado (such as the Henderson mine and the Climax mine ) and in British Columbia yield molybdenite as their primary product, while many porphyry copper deposits such as

1672-571: A compact to an intermediate-sized car with a 115 in (2,900 mm) wheelbase and an overall length of 203 in (5,200 mm). The unibody, curved driveshaft and transaxle were gone, replaced by a traditional front engine, front transmission, body-on-frame, and solid rear axle design used by all of GM's other cars but the Corvette and Corvair. Together with its sister cars (the Oldsmobile F-85 / Cutlass and Buick Special / Skylark ),

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1824-572: A conventional drivetrain, the Pontiac had a unique, innovative design. The Tempest featured a front-engine/rear - transaxle layout that very nearly resulted in an ideal 50/50 weight distribution, together with independent rear suspension for nimble handling (a swing axle design similar to the Chevy Corvair ). A Slant-4 engine connected to the 2-speed automatic transaxle via a flexible "rope" drive shaft . This configuration eliminated

1976-447: A flame-resistant coating for other metals. Although its melting point is 2,623 °C (4,753 °F), molybdenum rapidly oxidizes at temperatures above 760 °C (1,400 °F) making it better-suited for use in vacuum environments. TZM (Mo (~99%), Ti (~0.5%), Zr (~0.08%) and some C) is a corrosion-resisting molybdenum superalloy that resists molten fluoride salts at temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,370 °F). It has about twice

2128-524: A greater supply of molybdenum in the soil, people living in those areas have about 16 times greater risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma . Molybdenum deficiency has also been reported as a consequence of non-molybdenum supplemented total parenteral nutrition (complete intravenous feeding) for long periods of time. It results in high blood levels of sulfite and urate , in much the same way as molybdenum cofactor deficiency . Since pure molybdenum deficiency from this cause occurs primarily in adults,

2280-483: A long-established wagon and coach manufacturer, started to build cars in 1897 and commenced sales of electric vehicles in 1902 and petrol vehicles in 1904. In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860. Santler from Malvern is recognised by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made

2432-510: A new 400 cu in V8 . The Rochester four-barrel carburetor replaced both the standard GTO Carter AFB four-barrel and the Tri-Power carburetor option. The Turbo Hydromatic TH-400 replaced the previous Buick Super Turbine two speed automatic. The 326 cu in V8's remained unchanged. The four-barrel OHC six was uprated to 215 hp (160 kW; 218 PS). Front disc brakes were a new option along with

2584-670: A new model DMG car was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine, which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers. In 1890, Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the automotive industry in France . In 1891, Auguste Doriot and his Peugeot colleague Louis Rigoulot completed

2736-413: A process of purine catabolism , is catalyzed by xanthine oxidase , a molybdenum-containing enzyme. The activity of xanthine oxidase is directly proportional to the amount of molybdenum in the body. An extremely high concentration of molybdenum reverses the trend and can inhibit purine catabolism and other processes. Molybdenum concentration also affects protein synthesis , metabolism , and growth. Mo

2888-423: A quarter of world oil production as of 2019 . Both petrol and diesel cars pollute more than electric cars. Cars and vans caused 8% of direct carbon dioxide emissions in 2021. As of 2021 , due to greenhouse gases emitted during battery production, electric cars must be driven tens of thousands of kilometres before their lifecycle carbon emissions are less than fossil fuel cars; however this varies considerably and

3040-419: A result, Ford's cars came off the line in 15-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold, while using less manpower (from 12.5 manhours to 1 hour 33 minutes). It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1913, until fast-drying Duco lacquer

3192-436: A return to horizontal headlights. Two-door models rode on a 112 in (2,800 mm) wheelbase and four-door models on 116 in (2,900 mm). The 230 cu in overhead cam sixes were enlarged to 250 cu in , with horsepower ratings unchanged while the 326 V8 was replaced by a new 350 cu in (5.7 L) V8 with horsepower ratings of 250 with two-barrel or 320 with four-barrel carb. The same lineup of models including

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3344-683: A single-barrel carburetor; and the most powerful Trophy 4 engine, which had a 10.25:1 compression ratio and a four-barrel carburetor. While both Trophy 4 engines (low and high compression) equipped with single-barrel carburetors produced 110–140 hp (82–104 kW; 112–142 PS), the high-compression, four-barrel Trophy 4 engine produced 166 hp (124 kW; 168 PS) at 4,800  RPM and 215 lb⋅ft (292 N⋅m) of torque at 2,800 RPM (all ratings are SAE Gross). The three Trophy 4 engine versions offered fuel economy ratings ranging from 18 to 22 MPG. Popular Mechanics reported fuel economy of 21.3 MPG at 60 MPH. The Trophy 4 engine

3496-467: A steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods and was of little practical use. The development of external combustion (steam) engines is detailed as part of the history of the car but often treated separately from the development of true cars. A variety of steam-powered road vehicles were used during the first part of the 19th century, including steam cars , steam buses , phaetons , and steam rollers . In

3648-544: A steam-powered tricycle. He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts . His inventions were limited by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure. In 1801, Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of

3800-483: A stereo 8-track tape player and hood-mounted tachometer. All 1967 Pontiacs got GM's safety package, mandated by Federal law, which included a dual-circuit braking system, energy absorbing steering column, wheel, and interior, shoulder belt anchors, four-way hazard flashers, and a new directional signal control that could be "flicked" for lane changes. A completely restyled Tempest was introduced for 1968 with streamlined Coke bottle styling , concealed windshield wipers, and

3952-500: A surface or as a solid lubricant. Even when molybdena was distinguishable from graphite, it was still confused with the common lead ore PbS (now called galena ); the name comes from Ancient Greek Μόλυβδος molybdos , meaning lead . (The Greek word itself has been proposed as a loanword from Anatolian Luvian and Lydian languages). Although (reportedly) molybdenum was deliberately alloyed with steel in one 14th-century Japanese sword (mfd. c.  1330 ), that art

4104-579: A three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity . Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler , Wilhelm Maybach , and Siegfried Marcus ) were working on cars at about the same time, the year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—when the German Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen ; he

4256-608: A two-speed automatic transaxle controlled by a small lever to the right of the ignition switch on the instrument panel. Called TempesTorque in company literature but unmarked on the unit itself until 1963, it was similar in concept to the Chevrolet Powerglide automatic transmission used on the Chevrolet Corvair , although few parts overlapped. For 1962, a floor-mounted, fully synchronized four-speed manual transmission became available. At its introduction,

4408-673: A way to head off on unchaperoned dates, plus they had a private space to snuggle up close at the end of the night." Similarly the costs to society of car use may include; maintaining roads , land use , air pollution , noise pollution , road congestion , public health , health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life; and can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that car use generates. Societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of car production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from

4560-861: Is a fission product . It is a parent radioisotope to the short-lived gamma-emitting daughter radioisotope technetium-99m , a nuclear isomer used in various imaging applications in medicine. In 2008, the Delft University of Technology applied for a patent on the molybdenum-98-based production of molybdenum-99. Molybdenum forms chemical compounds in oxidation states −4 and from −2 to +6. Higher oxidation states are more relevant to its terrestrial occurrence and its biological roles, mid-level oxidation states are often associated with metal clusters , and very low oxidation states are typically associated with organomolybdenum compounds . The chemistry of molybdenum and tungsten show strong similarities. The relative rarity of molybdenum(III), for example, contrasts with

4712-474: Is a motor vehicle with wheels . Most definitions of cars state that they run primarily on roads , seat one to eight people, have four wheels , and mainly transport people over cargo . There are around one billion cars in use worldwide. The French inventor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built the first steam-powered road vehicle in 1769, while the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed and constructed

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4864-492: Is a component in most nitrogenases . Among molybdoenzymes, nitrogenases are unique in lacking the molybdopterin. Nitrogenases catalyze the production of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen: The biosynthesis of the FeMoco active site is highly complex. Molybdate is transported in the body as MoO 4 . Molybdenum is an essential trace dietary element . Four mammalian Mo-dependent enzymes are known, all of them harboring

5016-399: Is also used in steel alloys for its high corrosion resistance and weldability . Molybdenum contributes corrosion resistance to type-300 stainless steels (specifically type-316) and especially so in the so-called superaustenitic stainless steels (such as alloy AL-6XN , 254SMO and 1925hMo). Molybdenum increases lattice strain, thus increasing the energy required to dissolve iron atoms from

5168-499: Is an essential element in most organisms; a 2008 research paper speculated that a scarcity of molybdenum in the Earth's early oceans may have strongly influenced the evolution of eukaryotic life (which includes all plants and animals). At least 50 molybdenum-containing enzymes have been identified, mostly in bacteria. Those enzymes include aldehyde oxidase , sulfite oxidase and xanthine oxidase . With one exception, Mo in proteins

5320-402: Is believed to contain either Mo(III) or Mo(IV). By contrast Mo(VI) and Mo(IV) are complexed with molybdopterin in all other molybdenum-bearing enzymes. Molybdenum is an essential element for all higher eukaryote organisms, including humans. A species of sponge , Theonella conica , is known for hyperaccumulation of molybdenum. In its pure form, molybdenum is a silvery-grey metal with

5472-433: Is bound by molybdopterin to give the molybdenum cofactor. The only known exception is nitrogenase , which uses the FeMoco cofactor, which has the formula Fe 7 MoS 9 C. In terms of function, molybdoenzymes catalyze the oxidation and sometimes reduction of certain small molecules in the process of regulating nitrogen , sulfur , and carbon . In some animals, and in humans, the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid ,

5624-479: Is called " Fordism " and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the US. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods. In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing

5776-448: Is expected to improve in future due to lower carbon electricity , and longer lasting batteries produced in larger factories. Many governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax , to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars; and many cities are doing the same with low-emission zones . Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g., hybrid vehicles ) and

5928-469: Is generally acknowledged as the inventor of the car. In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle. His first Motorwagen was built in 1885 in Mannheim , Germany. He was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on 29 January 1886 (under

6080-570: Is reduced by the aluminothermic reaction with addition of iron to produce ferromolybdenum . A common form of ferromolybdenum contains 60% molybdenum. Molybdenum had a value of approximately $ 30,000 per tonne as of August 2009. It maintained a price at or near $ 10,000 per tonne from 1997 through 2003, and reached a peak of $ 103,000 per tonne in June 2005. In 2008, the London Metal Exchange announced that molybdenum would be traded as

6232-400: Is separated at this stage by treatment with hydrogen sulfide . Ammonium molybdate converts to ammonium dimolybdate , which is isolated as a solid. Heating this solid gives molybdenum trioxide: Crude trioxide can be further purified by sublimation at 1,100 °C (2,010 °F). Metallic molybdenum is produced by reduction of the oxide with hydrogen: The molybdenum for steel production

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6384-621: Is that cars can use lighter batteries. Most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear. Full-size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. On the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. Utility vehicles like pickup trucks , combine seating with extra cargo or utility functionality. The differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted in

6536-826: Is the replacement of physical knobs and switches by secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW 's iDrive and Ford 's MyFord Touch . Another change is that while early cars' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the early 2020s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls. Cars are typically equipped with interior lighting which can be toggled manually or be set to light up automatically with doors open, an entertainment system which originated from car radios , sideways windows which can be lowered or raised electrically (manually on earlier cars), and one or multiple auxiliary power outlets for supplying portable appliances such as mobile phones , portable fridges, power inverters , and electrical air pumps from

6688-471: Is the usual formal term in British English . "Autocar", a variant likewise attested from 1895 and literally meaning " self-propelled car", is now considered archaic. " Horseless carriage " is attested from 1895. "Automobile", a classical compound derived from Ancient Greek autós ( αὐτός ) "self" and Latin mobilis "movable", entered English from French and was first adopted by

6840-482: Is unstable. Molybdenum-98 is the most abundant isotope, comprising 24.14% of all molybdenum. Molybdenum-100 has a half-life of about 10   y and undergoes double beta decay into ruthenium-100. All unstable isotopes of molybdenum decay into isotopes of niobium , technetium , and ruthenium . Of the synthetic radioisotopes , the most stable is Mo, with a half-life of 4,839 years. The most common isotopic molybdenum application involves molybdenum-99 , which

6992-527: Is used as the valve body of torpedo engines, rocket nozzles and gas pipelines, where it can withstand extreme thermal and mechanical stresses. It is also used as radiation shields in nuclear applications. Other molybdenum-based alloys that do not contain iron have only limited applications. For example, because of its resistance to molten zinc, both pure molybdenum and molybdenum- tungsten alloys (70%/30%) are used for piping, stirrers and pump impellers that come into contact with molten zinc. Molybdenum

7144-609: Is used for the spectroscopic detection of phosphorus. The broad range of oxidation states of molybdenum is reflected in various molybdenum chlorides: The accessibility of these oxidation states depends quite strongly on the halide counterion: although molybdenum(VI) fluoride is stable, molybdenum does not form a stable hexachloride, pentabromide, or tetraiodide. Like chromium and some other transition metals, molybdenum forms quadruple bonds , such as in Mo 2 (CH 3 COO) 4 and [Mo 2 Cl 8 ] . The Lewis acid properties of

7296-593: The Automobile Club of Great Britain in 1897. It fell out of favour in Britain and is now used chiefly in North America , where the abbreviated form "auto" commonly appears as an adjective in compound formations like " auto industry " and " auto mechanic ". In 1649, Hans Hautsch of Nuremberg built a clockwork-driven carriage. The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest ,

7448-1166: The Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah and the Chuquicamata mine in northern Chile produce molybdenum as a byproduct of copper-mining. About 86% of molybdenum produced is used in metallurgy , with the rest used in chemical applications. The estimated global use is structural steel 35%, stainless steel 25%, chemicals 14%, tool & high-speed steels 9%, cast iron 6%, molybdenum elemental metal 6%, and superalloys 5%. Molybdenum can withstand extreme temperatures without significantly expanding or softening, making it useful in environments of intense heat, including military armor, aircraft parts, electrical contacts, industrial motors, and supports for filaments in light bulbs . Most high-strength steel alloys (for example, 41xx steels ) contain 0.25% to 8% molybdenum. Even in these small portions, more than 43,000 tonnes of molybdenum are used each year in stainless steels , tool steels , cast irons, and high-temperature superalloys . Molybdenum

7600-639: The Great Depression , by 1940, only 17 of those were left. In Europe, much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practice of vertical integration , buying Hotchkiss' British subsidiary (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley : in 1925, Morris had 41 per cent of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra , had gone under. Citroën did

7752-679: The Portsmouth Block Mills , England, in 1802. The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the US by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts . This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford , beginning in 1913 with the world's first moving assembly line for cars at the Highland Park Ford Plant . As

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7904-520: The Wankel engine has had more than very limited success. All in all, it is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile and motorcycle. Large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable cars was started by Ransom Olds in 1901 at his Oldsmobile factory in Lansing, Michigan , and based upon stationary assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at

8056-440: The tax opportunities. The ability of humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies. Cars are a major cause of urban air pollution , with all types of cars producing dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear , although these may be limited by vehicle emission standards . While there are different ways to power cars, most rely on petrol or diesel , and they consume almost

8208-724: The 1.8% annual average reduction between 2010 and 2015. Given slow progress to date, the IEA estimates fuel consumption will have to decrease by 4.3% per year on average from 2019 to 2030. The increase in sales of SUVs is bad for fuel economy. Many cities in Europe have banned older fossil fuel cars and all fossil fuel vehicles will be banned in Amsterdam from 2030. Many Chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, and many countries plan to stop selling them between 2025 and 2050. Molybdenum Molybdenum does not occur naturally as

8360-550: The 131,490 Tempests and LeMans models sold in the 1963 model year were ordered with it. Perhaps the most famous of all Tempests were the twelve 1963 "Super Duty" cars built to compete in the NHRA Factory Experimental class. These were assembled at the Pontiac plant in Michigan over Christmas 1962 with the knowledge of an impending General Motors ban on factory racing. Among those who successfully raced them

8512-487: The 1950s, Chevrolet shared bonnet, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac ; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes , suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson , Cole , Dorris , Haynes , or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with

8664-434: The 1961 and 1962 models had been. These new models featured a redesigned transaxle that improved handling, as well as a high-performance option that was much more powerful than the rarely-ordered 215-V8. This new V8 option for 1963 was Pontiac's 326 cubic inch (5.3 L) V8 , an engine with the same external dimensions as the venerable Trophy 8 389, but different internal components designed to produce more torque. A new version of

8816-812: The 20th and 21st centuries because there are more cars; the 1980s oil glut even fuelled the sales of low-economy vehicles in OECD countries. The BRIC countries are adding to this consumption. As of 2023 few production cars use wheel hub motors . In almost all hybrid (even mild hybrid ) and pure electric cars regenerative braking recovers and returns to a battery some energy which would otherwise be wasted by friction brakes getting hot. Although all cars must have friction brakes (front disc brakes and either disc or drum rear brakes ) for emergency stops, regenerative braking improves efficiency, particularly in city driving. Cars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort, and safety, normally operated by

8968-420: The 215 engine, or about 1% of production. This engine produced, in its various incarnations, from 155–215 hp (116–160 kW; 157–218 PS) despite weighing just 330 lb (150 kg) installed. The engine blocks used for 215-V8 engines installed in Tempest models were distinct from 215-V8 engine blocks used in other models because, in addition to Buick factory markings, they were also hand-stamped at

9120-405: The 280 hp (209 kW; 284 PS) 326 HO engine with four-barrel carburetor and 10.5:1 compression ratio which required premium fuel. Transmissions included a standard three-speed manual with column shift, four-speed manual with floor-mounted Hurst shifter or a two-speed automatic; the latter was a version of Buick's Super Turbine 300 . The popularity of the high-performance 326/336 V8 in

9272-515: The 389 cu in (6.4 L), and equipped with a four-barrel carburetor (producing 325 hp (242 kW) or the soon to become iconic 345 hp (257 kW) 3 x 2 barrel Tri-Power set-up, the GTO proved to be the defining muscle car of the 1960s. Unlike other 1964 Tempests, the GTO was available as a pillarless hardtop coupe. Unsurprisingly, the success of the GTO prompted Oldsmobile to rush out its own high-performance option package for

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9424-561: The Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early cars, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany. In August 1888, Bertha Benz , the wife and business partner of Carl Benz, undertook the first road trip by car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention. In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine , called boxermotor . During

9576-509: The Earth's crust with an average of 1.5 parts per million and the 25th most abundant element in the oceans, with an average of 10 parts per billion; it is the 42nd most abundant element in the Universe. The Soviet Luna 24 mission discovered a molybdenum-bearing grain (1 × 0.6 μm) in a pyroxene fragment taken from Mare Crisium on the Moon . The comparative rarity of molybdenum in

9728-478: The Earth's crust is offset by its concentration in a number of water-insoluble ores, often combined with sulfur in the same way as copper, with which it is often found. Though molybdenum is found in such minerals as wulfenite (PbMoO 4 ) and powellite (CaMoO 4 ), the main commercial source is molybdenite (Mo S 2 ). Molybdenum is mined as a principal ore and is also recovered as a byproduct of copper and tungsten mining. The world's production of molybdenum

9880-711: The F-85/Cutlass called the 442 , and the next year for Buick to release a high-performance version of the Skylark called the Skylark Gran Sport , or GS. Both cars would enjoy success and join Chevrolet's Chevelle SS in GM's effort to capitalize on the exploding muscle car era. Engine offerings for the 1965 Tempest were the same as 1964, except the 326 HO was uprated to 285 hp (213 kW; 289 PS) and

10032-611: The GTO 389's uprated to 335 hp (250 kW) and 360 hp (268 kW) via higher rise intake manifolds. Styling changes included a new split grille with vertical headlights similar to the larger Pontiacs, revised taillights and a more slanted rear deck. A two-door hardtop coupe was added to the Tempest Custom line, while the Le Mans got a four-door sedan with a plush interior done in Preston Cloth trim similar to

10184-670: The LeMans trim package upgrade, which featured front bucket seats. Tempest LeMans models were available with either the coupe or the convertible; there was no LeMans sedan or station wagon. And although Oldsmobile and Buick offered pillarless hardtops on the Cutlass and Skylark respectively, Pontiac did not offer a pillarless hardtop LeMans model. In 1963, the LeMans became a separate series; its sales were nearly 50 percent of combined Tempest and Le Mans production. 1963 models, referred to as senior compacts, were slightly larger and heavier than

10336-428: The LeMans and GTO. The Custom S came standard with Pontiac's unique overhead camshaft OHC-6 175 hp (130 kW) 250 cu in (4.1 L) engine. Also available was a 230 hp (170 kW) 265 ft⋅lbf (359 N⋅m) TQ OHC inline 6-cylinder with the "Sprint" package, a 265 hp (198 kW) overhead valve pushrod V8 350 cu in (5.7 L), and a 330 hp (250 kW) version of

10488-525: The LeMans name in 1972. In Canada from 1987 to 1991, Pontiac marketed a rebadged version of the compact L-body Chevrolet Corsica under the revived Tempest name. The Tempest was the result of a decision by the Pontiac division to enter the compact car market following the success of the Chevrolet Corvair. The division wanted to produce a clone of the Corvair, but instead GM gave Pontiac

10640-565: The Mo cation is known to form under carefully controlled conditions. Gaseous molybdenum consists of the diatomic species Mo 2 . That molecule is a singlet , with two unpaired electrons in bonding orbitals, in addition to 5 conventional bonds. The result is a sextuple bond . There are 39 known isotopes of molybdenum, ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 119, as well as 13 metastable nuclear isomers . Seven isotopes occur naturally, with atomic masses of 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100. Of these naturally occurring isotopes, only molybdenum-100

10792-456: The OHC six, marketed as an alternative to higher-priced European sport sedans, which had similar OHC engines. For those wanting V8 power, the 326 and 326 HO options continued with horsepower ratings of 250 and 285 hp (213 kW; 289 PS), respectively, and GTO engines stayed the same. Only minor changes were made to the 1967 Tempest, Custom and Le Mans models. The GTO 389 V8 was replaced by

10944-471: The Pauling scale. It does not visibly react with oxygen or water at room temperature, but is attacked by halogens and hydrogen peroxide. Weak oxidation of molybdenum starts at 300 °C (572 °F); bulk oxidation occurs at temperatures above 600 °C, resulting in molybdenum trioxide . Like many heavier transition metals, molybdenum shows little inclination to form a cation in aqueous solution, although

11096-497: The Pontiac plant with the Vehicle Identification Numbers of the individual vehicles that they were installed in. Thus, in 1961, all Pontiac 215 engine blocks begin with "161P"; for 1962 the stamping began with "162P". Further code numbers indicated the car's transmission (manual or automatic). In 1961, the transmission choices were a three-speed column-shifted manual with a non-synchronized first gear, or

11248-461: The Tempest was available only as a four-door pillared sedan and as a station wagon that, like other Pontiac station wagons of the time, had the name Safari added to it. A pair of two-door coupes (one of which was named LeMans ) were added at the end of 1961, both in the 1961 body style. For the 1962 model year there were four Tempest models available: a sedan, a coupe, a station wagon, and a convertible. Customers wanting something fancier could opt for

11400-418: The Tempest's introduction. Another departure from the other Y-body cars was the Tempest's 9 in (23 cm) brake drum, which used five studs on the same bolt circle ("five-on-four-and-a-half") and 15 in (38 cm) wheels - a configuration unique among General Motors cars. Both Buick and Oldsmobile had standardized their Y-body cars on an odd 9.5 in (24 cm) brake drum with four lug studs on

11552-410: The Tempest's weight by 260 lb (120 kg) over the weight of a Tempest equipped with a Trophy 4 engine; front/rear weight distribution changed somewhat to 54/46. Performance with a 326-powered Tempest was strong enough that Car Life magazine wrote "No one will wonder why they didn't use the 389." Fuel economy with the 326 could be as high as 19 mpg. The V8 option proved popular: 52 percent of

11704-590: The Tempest-based LeMans package the year before prompted Pontiac to give the option a special, sporty name: the GTO , after the Italian abbreviation "Gran Turismo Omologato" used to designate specially equipped street cars homologated for racing (though the opposite, producing a mandated minimum of street-legal race cars to meet the homologation requirement, is the norm). Available with Pontiac's largest V8,

11856-584: The Tempest/Le Mans moved to the new A platform shared with the new Chevrolet Chevelle , and all three cars received updates and modifications standardizing them throughout—including the wheels—by GM edict. The cars were, in ascending order, base Tempest, Tempest Custom, and Le Mans. Replacing the previous "Trophy 4" inline four-cylinder engine as standard equipment was a new 215 cu in (3.5 L) Pontiac straight six with one-barrel carburetor and 140 hp (104 kW; 142 PS). This six

12008-549: The U.S. Corsica LT) and LE (equivalent to the U.S. Corsica LTZ) The main differences that separates the Tempest from its L-Body twin are different grille, emblems and taillights (the taillights were later adopted as the U.S. Corsica's taillights). The only other differences were wheel options, DRLs and a metric instrument cluster. This model was also sold briefly in Israel; there are brochures showing Canadian-spec models from 1990/1991. Automobile A car , or an automobile ,

12160-614: The US's first pedestrian car casualties in 1899 in New York City. There are now standard tests for safety in new cars, such as the Euro and US NCAP tests, and insurance-industry-backed tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). However, not all such tests consider the safety of people outside the car, such as drivers of other cars, pedestrians and cyclists. The costs of car usage, which may include

12312-640: The US, where they replaced horse-drawn carriages . In Europe and other parts of the world, demand for automobiles did not increase until after World War II . In the 21st century, car usage is still increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, and other newly industrialised countries . Cars have controls for driving , parking , passenger comfort, and a variety of lamps . Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, making them progressively more complex. These include rear-reversing cameras , air conditioning , navigation systems , and in-car entertainment . Most cars in use in

12464-583: The United Kingdom, sentiment against them led to the Locomotive Acts of 1865. In 1807, Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world's first internal combustion engine (which they called a Pyréolophore ), but installed it in a boat on the river Saone in France. Coincidentally, in 1807, the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own " de Rivaz internal combustion engine ", and used it to develop

12616-658: The United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911. In 1893, the first running, petrol-driven American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers of Springfield, Massachusetts . The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on 21 September 1893, on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield. Studebaker , subsidiary of

12768-471: The alloys on a large scale were hampered with inconsistent results, a tendency toward brittleness, and recrystallization. In 1906, William D. Coolidge filed a patent for rendering molybdenum ductile , leading to applications as a heating element for high-temperature furnaces and as a support for tungsten-filament light bulbs; oxide formation and degradation require that molybdenum be physically sealed or held in an inert gas. In 1913, Frank E. Elmore developed

12920-412: The auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie. , which was founded in 1883). Benz began promotion of the vehicle on 3 July 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a cheaper model. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added

13072-510: The automatic transmission (now officially stamped TempesTorque on the case) was redesigned to handle the new V8's additional torque. The four-speed manual transmission had not been redesigned, and very few V8-equipped Tempest models were built with this transmission. The three-speed manual transmission remained available for all engines. The high-compression 326 V8 engine's output was 260 hp (194 kW; 264 PS) and 352 lb⋅ft (477 N⋅m) of torque (SAE Gross). The actual displacement

13224-462: The availability of a large variety of body styles to meet individual consumer requirements that include, among others, the sedan/saloon , hatchback , station wagon/estate , coupe , and minivan . Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown , Ireland, and Henry Bliss one of

13376-486: The base Tempest, Tempest Custom and Le Mans continued as in previous years. Other than elimination of vent windows on hardtop coupes, styling only received minor revisions for 1969, when the Tempest Custom was renamed the Custom S for this one year. However, model offerings were the same as 1968. A new three-speed Turbo Hydra-matic 350 automatic transmission was introduced and available with all engines as an alternative to

13528-564: The brand name Daimler . It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, which they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895, about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, Maybach, and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together; by

13680-484: The butyrate and perfluorobutyrate dimers, Mo 2 (O 2 CR) 4 and Rh 2 (O 2 CR) 4 , have been reported. The oxidation state 0 and lower are possible with carbon monoxide as ligand, such as in molybdenum hexacarbonyl , Mo(CO) 6 . Molybdenite —the principal ore from which molybdenum is now extracted—was previously known as molybdena. Molybdena was confused with and often utilized as though it were graphite . Like graphite, molybdenite can be used to blacken

13832-454: The car an ideal 50/50 front/rear weight distribution. This, along with a four-wheel independent suspension, helped make the Tempest a nimble-handling car for the era. The front engine/rear transaxle design also eliminated the driveshaft/transmission tunnel in the front of the passenger compartment, while lowering the driveshaft tunnel in the rear compared with a conventional front engine/front transmission layout. The Trophy 4 four-cylinder engine

13984-455: The car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights ; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car (and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing); and on some vehicles, additional lights (e.g., side marker lights) to increase

14136-443: The cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs and auto maintenance , fuel, depreciation , driving time, parking fees , taxes, and insurance, are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits—perceived and real—of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience, and emergency power . During the 1920s, cars had another benefit: "[c]ouples finally had

14288-588: The development of alternative fuels . High fuel taxes or cultural change may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive . The lifetime of a car built in the 2020s is expected to be about 16 years, or about 2 millionkm (1.2 millionmiles) if driven a lot. According to the International Energy Agency the average rated fuel consumption of new light-duty vehicles fell by only 0.9% between 2017 and 2019, far smaller than

14440-749: The driver from a crash perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users. The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV , a typical city car , weighs about 700 kilograms (1,500 lb). Heavier cars include SUVs and extended-length SUVs like the Suburban . Cars have also become wider. Some places tax heavier cars more: as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycled aluminium instead of steel. It has been suggested that one benefit of subsidising charging infrastructure

14592-399: The driveshaft hump, yielding a flat floor with increased interior space. The Pontiac " Trophy-4 " was also unique, created by basically halving a standard Pontiac V8 block. Buick's aluminum 215 V8 was also optional in 1961 and 1962, but very few Tempests were so equipped. The Tempest line offered an optional LeMans trim upgrade. In 1964 the Tempest was redesigned as a mid-size car on

14744-567: The early 2020s are propelled by an internal combustion engine , fueled by the combustion of fossil fuels . Electric cars , which were invented early in the history of the car , became commercially available in the 2000s and are predicted to cost less to buy than petrol-driven cars before 2025. The transition from fossil fuel-powered cars to electric cars features prominently in most climate change mitigation scenarios , such as Project Drawdown 's 100 actionable solutions for climate change. There are costs and benefits to car use . The costs to

14896-486: The element) are used as pigments and catalysts . Molybdenum-bearing enzymes are by far the most common bacterial catalysts for breaking the chemical bond in atmospheric molecular nitrogen in the process of biological nitrogen fixation . At least 50 molybdenum enzymes are now known in bacteria, plants, and animals, although only bacterial and cyanobacterial enzymes are involved in nitrogen fixation. Most nitrogenases contain an iron–molybdenum cofactor FeMoco , which

15048-412: The end of that year there were more than 16 million electric cars on the world's roads. Despite rapid growth, less than two per cent of cars on the world's roads were fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars by the end of 2021. Cars for racing or speed records have sometimes employed jet or rocket engines, but these are impractical for common use. Oil consumption has increased rapidly in

15200-543: The first internal combustion-powered automobile in 1808. The modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—was invented in 1886, when the German inventor Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen . Commercial cars became widely available during the 20th century. The 1901 Oldsmobile Curved Dash and the 1908 Ford Model T , both American cars, are widely considered the first mass-produced and mass-affordable cars, respectively. Cars were rapidly adopted in

15352-569: The first petrol-driven car in the country in 1894, followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs. The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Company , a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first car in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler. In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel

15504-425: The founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroën was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain

15656-525: The full-sized Bonneville Brougham. A major facelift was made on the 1966 Tempest that included more rounded bodylines with a Coke-bottle effect similar to the full-sized Pontiacs. New four-door pillarless hardtop sedans were added to the Tempest Custom line. Under the hood, the Chevy-derived 215 six was replaced by a new 230 cu in (3.8 L) Pontiac overhead cam six , the only such engine found in an American production car at that time. This

15808-528: The idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, called the General Motors Companion Make Program , so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles , sold by Cadillac , used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile ; in

15960-403: The individual include acquiring the vehicle, interest payments (if the car is financed), repairs and maintenance , fuel, depreciation , driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance . The costs to society include maintaining roads, land-use , road congestion , air pollution , noise pollution , public health , and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life . Traffic collisions are

16112-476: The largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. Personal benefits include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience. Societal benefits include economic benefits, such as job and wealth creation from the automotive industry , transportation provision, societal well-being from leisure and travel opportunities, and the generation of revenue from taxation. People's ability to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for

16264-637: The last years of the 19th century, Benz was the largest car company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company . The first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra ) in 1897, the Präsident automobil. Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890, and sold their first car in 1892 under

16416-494: The lead to develop a new car in an interdivisional program coded named "X-100." John Z. DeLorean , Pontiac's chief engineer and general manager, went to work on a car that would meld components GM already produced. His objective was for the new model to be more than just an ordinary compact car. The Tempest was Motor Trend magazine's 1961 Car of the Year . Road & Track praised the Tempest as "exceptionally roomy" and "one of

16568-464: The line was down to just two- and four-door sedans but expanded at mid-year with the introduction of the low-priced T-37 hardtop coupe, billed as GM's lowest-priced hardtop coupe. The Custom S became the Le Mans this year and the previous Le Mans series was renamed the Le Mans Sport. The Pontiac-built OHC six-cylinder engine was replaced by a Chevy-built 250 in inline six while the 350 V8

16720-585: The liver and kidneys and lower in the vertebrae. Molybdenum is also present within human tooth enamel and may help prevent its decay. Acute toxicity has not been seen in humans, and the toxicity depends strongly on the chemical state. Studies on rats show a median lethal dose (LD 50 ) as low as 180 mg/kg for some Mo compounds. Although human toxicity data is unavailable, animal studies have shown that chronic ingestion of more than 10 mg/day of molybdenum can cause diarrhea, growth retardation, infertility , low birth weight, and gout ; it can also affect

16872-580: The location for the accelerator and brake, but this was not always the case. Controls are evolving in response to new technologies, for example, the electric car and the integration of mobile communications. Some of the original controls are no longer required. For example, all cars once had controls for the choke valve, clutch, ignition timing , and a crank instead of an electric starter . However, new controls have also been added to vehicles, making them more complex. These include air conditioning , navigation systems , and in-car entertainment . Another trend

17024-422: The longest trip by a petrol-driven vehicle when their self-designed and built Daimler powered Peugeot Type 3 completed 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) from Valentigney to Paris and Brest and back again. They were attached to the first Paris–Brest–Paris bicycle race, but finished six days after the winning cyclist, Charles Terront . The first design for an American car with a petrol internal combustion engine

17176-415: The lungs, kidneys, and liver. Sodium tungstate is a competitive inhibitor of molybdenum. Dietary tungsten reduces the concentration of molybdenum in tissues. Low soil concentration of molybdenum in a geographical band from northern China to Iran results in a general dietary molybdenum deficiency and is associated with increased rates of esophageal cancer . Compared to the United States, which has

17328-415: The manual-box shaft was 0.75 in (19 mm) by 82 in (2.1 m). This joined the forward engine and the rear transaxle (therefore no transmission hump) into a single unit, helping to reduce vibration. The design, known as "rope drive," had been seen previously only on General Motors' 1951 Le Sabre concept car . The combination of a rear-mounted transaxle and front-mounted engine very nearly gave

17480-545: The market. In Japan, car production was very limited before World War II. Only a handful of companies were producing vehicles in limited numbers, and these were small, three-wheeled for commercial uses, like Daihatsu , or were the result of partnering with European companies, like Isuzu building the Wolseley A-9 in 1922. Mitsubishi was also partnered with Fiat and built the Mitsubishi Model A based on

17632-453: The mineral in which it resided, and from which it might be isolated. Peter Jacob Hjelm successfully isolated molybdenum using carbon and linseed oil in 1781. For the next century, molybdenum had no industrial use. It was relatively scarce, the pure metal was difficult to extract, and the necessary techniques of metallurgy were immature. Early molybdenum steel alloys showed great promise of increased hardness, but efforts to manufacture

17784-426: The nature of societies . The English word car is believed to originate from Latin carrus / carrum "wheeled vehicle" or (via Old North French ) Middle English carre "two-wheeled cart", both of which in turn derive from Gaulish karros " chariot ". It originally referred to any wheeled horse-drawn vehicle , such as a cart , carriage , or wagon . "Motor car", attested from 1895,

17936-407: The older two-speed. Engine offerings were the same as before except for the 350 HO V8 engine gaining five-horsepower to 325. A new locking steering column with relocated ignition switch was introduced and front seat headrests became standard equipment. A new GTO option became available, The Judge . Featuring special decals, two Ram Air versions of Pontiac's 400 engine , and a rear spoiler, The Judge

18088-404: The on-board electrical system. More costly upper-class and luxury cars are equipped with features earlier such as massage seats and collision avoidance systems . Dedicated automotive fuses and circuit breakers prevent damage from electrical overload . Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. These include headlights , which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make

18240-402: The other compact GM cars. The engine was a 195 cubic inch (3.2 L) straight-4 marketed as the " Trophy 4 ," derived from the right cylinder bank of Pontiac's 389 cubic inch "Trophy 8" V8 engine . The Tempest featured a drivetrain with a rear-mounted transaxle that was coupled to a torque shaft arcing in a 3 in (76 mm) downward bow within a curved, longitudinal tunnel. Use of

18392-414: The pervasiveness of the chromium(III) compounds. The highest oxidation state is seen in molybdenum(VI) oxide (MoO 3 ), whereas the normal sulfur compound is molybdenum disulfide MoS 2 . From the perspective of commerce, the most important compounds are molybdenum disulfide ( MoS 2 ) and molybdenum trioxide ( MoO 3 ). The black disulfide is the main mineral. It is roasted in air to give

18544-403: The rest of Asia (mostly Armenia, Russia, Iran and Mongolia) produce the remainder. In molybdenite processing, the ore is first roasted in air at a temperature of 700 °C (1,292 °F). The process gives gaseous sulfur dioxide and the molybdenum(VI) oxide : The resulting oxide is then usually extracted with aqueous ammonia to give ammonium molybdate: Copper, an impurity in molybdenite,

18696-722: The same engine with higher compression and a 4-barrel carburetor . Pontiac marketed a rebadged version of the compact L-body Chevrolet Corsica as Tempest, for Canada, Israel and GCC only, beginning in model year 1987. The Tempest was built alongside the Corsica at the Wilmington Assembly plant in Wilmington, Delaware . Discontinued in 1991, the Tempest was replaced with the Grand Am sedan. The 1987-1991 Pontiac Tempest came in two trim levels, base (equivalent to

18848-472: The same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault 's 10CV and Peugeot 's 5CV , they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors , Hurtu , and others could not compete. Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Rüsselsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5 per cent of

19000-408: The same manner as modern drag racing transmissions do. On October 31, 2008, one of the rarest factory race cars, the missing Stan Antlocer Super Duty Tempest Le Mans Coupe, was auctioned on eBay. The seller started the auction at $ 500 being unaware of the car's true value. Eventually, the car was sold for $ 226,521. In 1964, the Tempest was redesigned as a more-conventional vehicle and enlarged from

19152-409: The strength of pure Mo, and is more ductile and more weldable, yet in tests it resisted corrosion of a standard eutectic salt ( FLiBe ) and salt vapors used in molten salt reactors for 1100 hours with so little corrosion that it was difficult to measure. Due to its excellent mechanical properties under high temperature and high pressure, TZM alloys are extensively applied in the military industry. It

19304-420: The super-heavy howitzer Big Bertha , because traditional steel melts at the temperatures produced by the propellant of the one ton shell. After the war, demand plummeted until metallurgical advances allowed extensive development of peacetime applications. In World War II , molybdenum again saw strategic importance as a substitute for tungsten in steel alloys. Molybdenum is the 54th most abundant element in

19456-453: The surface. Molybdenum is also used to enhance the corrosion resistance of ferritic (for example grade 444) and martensitic (for example 1.4122 and 1.4418) stainless steels. Because of its lower density and more stable price, molybdenum is sometimes used in place of tungsten. An example is the 'M' series of high-speed steels such as M2, M4 and M42 as substitution for the 'T' steel series, which contain tungsten. Molybdenum can also be used as

19608-514: The three bodystyles offered on the 1970 Tempest and T-37. After this year, the T-37 was dropped. In 1972 all Pontiac intermediates took the Le Mans nameplate except the GTO. The Pontiac Tempest Custom S was a one-year only Pontiac nameplate offered during the 1969 model year car as a replacement for the "Tempest Custom" trim level in the Division's line-up. Originally to be called the "Pontiac TC", it

19760-405: The time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG. Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek . This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902,

19912-443: The torque shaft was the result of being forced to use the Corvair floorpan which, being a rear engine platform, had no drive shaft. To combine flexibility with strength in the proper proportion, the shaft was forged of SAE 8660 steel (high nickel, chrome and molybdenum alloying percentages) for torsion bar specifications. For automatic cars, the shaft was 0.65 in (17 mm) in diameter and 87.25 in (2.216 m) long, while

20064-678: The trioxide: The trioxide, which is volatile at high temperatures, is the precursor to virtually all other Mo compounds as well as alloys. Molybdenum has several oxidation states , the most stable being +4 and +6 (bolded in the table at left). Molybdenum(VI) oxide is soluble in strong alkaline water, forming molybdates (MoO 4 ). Molybdates are weaker oxidants than chromates . They tend to form structurally complex oxyanions by condensation at lower pH values, such as [Mo 7 O 24 ] and [Mo 8 O 26 ] . Polymolybdates can incorporate other ions, forming polyoxometalates . The dark-blue phosphorus -containing heteropolymolybdate P[Mo 12 O 40 ]

20216-403: The updated GM A-body platform, which used a conventional drivetrain. The base Tempest, Tempest Custom, and Lemans became separate trim packages, with an optional GTO performance option available on the LeMans for 1964 and 1965. The GTO was offered as a separate model line beginning in 1966. The Tempest name was retired after 1970, replaced by the T-37 as the base model, which in turn gave way to

20368-525: The very best utility cars since the Ford Model A ." In hindsight, DeLorean admitted that the Tempest was "less than successful," adding, "there was no mechanical problem, but the car rattled so loudly that it sounded like it was carrying half-a-trunkful of rolling rocks." It shared sheet metal with the Oldsmobile F-85, the first-generation Tempest had several features that differentiated it from

20520-530: The visibility of the car. Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a boot light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light. During the late 20th and early 21st century, cars increased in weight due to batteries, modern steel safety cages, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and "more-powerful—if more efficient—engines" and, as of 2019 , typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes (1.1 and 3.3 short tons; 0.98 and 2.95 long tons). Heavier cars are safer for

20672-482: The world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering , for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension , and four-wheel brakes. Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced car design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established

20824-645: The world's first vehicle to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried spores of the Lycopodium plant), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen . Neither design was successful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown , Samuel Morey , and Etienne Lenoir , who each built vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by internal combustion engines. In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated

20976-507: Was Wild Bill Shrewsberry , who turned low 12-second quarter-mile runs in the 1963 NHRA Winter Nationals driving for Mickey Thompson . Shrewsberry still owns his car, and it is still equipped with Pontiac's "Powershift" transaxle as retrofitted later in the 1963 season. Developed specifically for the Super Duty model, this was essentially two Chevrolet Powerglide automatics in a single four-speed unit, allowing clutchless shifting in much

21128-540: Was 250,000 tonnes in 2011, the largest producers being China (94,000 t), the United States (64,000 t), Chile (38,000 t), Peru (18,000 t) and Mexico (12,000 t). The total reserves are estimated at 10 million tonnes, and are mostly concentrated in China (4.3 Mt), the US (2.7 Mt) and Chile (1.2 Mt). By continent, 93% of world molybdenum production is about evenly shared between North America, South America (mainly in Chile), and China. Europe and

21280-573: Was 336 cubic inches, but according to lore, since General Motors management edict declared that no GM compact was allowed to have an engine that was larger than the Chevrolet Corvette 327 V8, the advertised displacement for the Tempest V8 was 326 cubic inches. However, for 1964, the engine's displacement was adjusted so that it actually was 326 cubic inches, making the 1963 "326 V8" a single-year engine. The cast-iron V8 engine increased

21432-458: Was also the first American-built engine to use a belt to time the camshaft to the crankshaft rather than a chain. The base OHC had a one-barrel carburetor and was rated at 165 hp (123 kW; 167 PS), designed for economy buyers. Optionally available as part of the Sprint option package on non-wagons was a four-barrel, high-compression 207 hp (154 kW; 210 PS) version of

21584-421: Was basically a smaller bore (3.75") version of the 230 cu in (3.8 L) Chevrolet straight-6, offered as a Pontiac exclusive. This is one of the earliest "Corporate Engine" arrangements General Motors utilized. Optional engines included two versions of the 326 cu in (5.3 L) Pontiac V8 introduced the previous year: a two-barrel 250 hp (186 kW; 253 PS) regular fuel option; or

21736-407: Was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black". In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay. Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency

21888-406: Was down to a two-barrel 255 hp (190 kW; 259 PS) version. New engine offerings included 400 in³ V8s rated at 265 hp (198 kW; 269 PS) with two-barrel carburetor and 8.6:1 compression ratio or 330 with four-barrel and 10.25:1 compression. The Tempest nameplate was phased out after the 1970 model year. For 1971, it was replaced by a new T-37 series that included each of

22040-1429: Was formed from a conglomerate of six companies who banded together as Fuji Heavy Industries , as a result of having been broken up under keiretsu legislation. The transport sector is a major contributor to air pollution , noise pollution and climate change . Most cars in use in the early 2020s run on petrol burnt in an internal combustion engine (ICE). The International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers says that, in countries that mandate low sulphur motor spirit, petrol-fuelled cars built to late 2010s standards (such as Euro-6) emit very little local air pollution. Some cities ban older petrol-driven cars and some countries plan to ban sales in future. However, some environmental groups say this phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles must be brought forwards to limit climate change. Production of petrol-fuelled cars peaked in 2017. Other hydrocarbon fossil fuels also burnt by deflagration (rather than detonation ) in ICE cars include diesel , autogas , and CNG . Removal of fossil fuel subsidies , concerns about oil dependence , tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for cars. This includes hybrid vehicles , plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles . Out of all cars sold in 2021, nine per cent were electric, and by

22192-423: Was generally reliable, but could be harsh when it was out of tune, due to its inherent lack of secondary balance and absence of balancer shafts. The Tempest was offered with quite a few options such as air conditioning, transistor radios, windshield washers, a parking brake warning light, padded safety dash, child-proof door locks, and dealer-installed seat belts, as such restraints were not yet Federally required at

22344-414: Was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, he built the first diesel engine . Steam-, electric-, and petrol-driven vehicles competed for a few decades, with petrol internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda 's version of

22496-427: Was made in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York . Selden applied for a patent for a car in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of 16 years and a series of attachments to his application, on 5 November 1895, Selden was granted a US patent ( U.S. patent 549,160 ) for a two-stroke car engine, which hindered, more than encouraged , development of cars in

22648-482: Was never employed widely and was later lost. In the West in 1754, Bengt Andersson Qvist examined a sample of molybdenite and determined that it did not contain lead and thus was not galena. By 1778 Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele stated firmly that molybdena was (indeed) neither galena nor graphite. Instead, Scheele correctly proposed that molybdena was an ore of a distinct new element, named molybdenum for

22800-405: Was originally conceived as a barebones muscle car based on the Tempest to compete with the new sub-$ 3,000 Plymouth Roadrunner . Plans for the new model were terminated, and Pontiac division head John DeLorean opted to create a GTO variant instead. Minor styling revisions, that included a new front grille treatment, highlighted the 1970 Tempest, which was the final year for the nameplate. Initially,

22952-404: Was promoted for its economy, but Pontiac also saved money on its assembly: Because it was based on the right cylinder bank of the Pontiac 389 V8 engine, both engines could be built on the same assembly line. There were three versions of the Trophy 4: An economy version with a relatively low 8.6:1 compression ratio and a single-barrel carburetor ; a hotter version with a 10.25:1 compression ratio and

23104-411: Was slotted between the Tempest and LeMans in price and features. The Custom S was available in six different body designs: two-door convertible , hardtop coupe, sports coupe, a 4-door sedan , a 4-door hardtop, and a station wagon. The sports coupe can be differentiated from the hardtop by the presence of a vent window in the front door. Interior and exterior appointments fell between the Tempest and

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