Benedict X (died 1073/1080), born Giovanni , was elected to succeed Pope Stephen IX on 5 April 1058, but was opposed by a rival faction that elected Nicholas II . He fled Rome on 24 January 1059 and is today generally regarded as an antipope .
128-593: Pope Gregory VII ( Latin : Gregorius VII ; c. 1015 – 25 May 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana ( Italian : Ildebrando di Soana ), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church . One of the great reforming popes, he initiated the Gregorian Reform , and is perhaps best known for
256-555: A synod at Sutri , where he pronounced Benedict deposed and excommunicated. The supporters of Nicholas then gained control of Rome, and forced Benedict to flee to the castle of Count Gerard of Galeria . Having arrived in Rome, Nicholas was crowned as pope on 24 January 1059. He then proceeded to wage war against Benedict and his supporters, with the assistance of Norman forces based in southern Italy, after he agreed to recognize Count Richard of Aversa as ruler of Capua . An initial battle
384-519: A "tyranny", in the words of their enemies. Cardinal Giovanni, Bishop of Tusculum, was enthroned, unwillingly, as pope, on 5 April 1058. His election, it is stated, was arranged by his own family. Since he was already a bishop, he did not need to be consecrated, only enthroned. Cardinal Peter Damiani and his supporters in the reform party, objected loudly to the proceedings and began to cast anathemas. At length, he and his followers fled in terror. Cardinal Humbert and Cardinal Peter of Tusculum, who witnessed
512-865: A claim of sovereignty on the part of the Papacy, and to secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of "immemorial usage", Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain , Hungary and Croatia were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief from the pope. In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but found powerful support: in England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury stood closest to him; in France his champion
640-413: A curtailment of the powers of bishops. Since these refused to submit voluntarily and tried to assert their traditional independence, his papacy is full of struggles against the higher ranks of the clergy. Pope Gregory VII was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into
768-638: A dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon to break out in Germany. Pope Gregory attempted to organize a crusade into Al-Andalus , led by Count Ebles II of Roucy . Gregory, in fact, established some sort of relations with every country in Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence extended to Poland , Kievan Rus' and Bohemia . He unsuccessfully tried to bring Armenia into closer contact with Rome. Gregory
896-410: A document into Benedict's hands, and demanded that he read it aloud and sign it. Benedict refused, unwilling to accuse himself and saying it had nothing to do with himself. With tears and lamentations, he was forced to read it. Despite Benedict's pleading that he had been forced to assume the papal crown, he was convicted, deposed, and stripped of all his titles and his ordination as priest and bishop. He
1024-628: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
1152-512: A list of accusations against the pope before the assembly, which resolved that Gregory had forfeited the papacy. In one document full of accusations, the bishops renounced their allegiance to Gregory. In another, Henry pronounced him deposed, and required the Romans to choose a new pope. The council sent two bishops to Italy, who then procured a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops at
1280-488: A man mighty in human and divine knowledge, a distinguished lover of equity and justice, a man firm in adversity and temperate in prosperity, a man, according to the saying of the Apostle, of good behavior, blameless, modest, sober, chaste, given to hospitality, and one that ruleth well his own house; a man from his childhood generously brought up in the bosom of this Mother Church, and for the merit of his life already raised to
1408-405: A mission to Germany, under penalty of anathematization. Hildebrand (later Pope Gregory VII ) had been sent to the court of Empress Agnes , who had questioned the validity of Stephen's own election. A somewhat different version of the story has it that Pope Stephen summoned the bishops, cardinals, and deacons, and informed them that he knew that some of them were planning to fill the papal seat with
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#17327798750891536-562: A new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of
1664-608: A pope until he had returned from his embassy to the German court. Some did not defend themselves, saying that it was not done well, and that those who enthroned Benedict did not do so with their consent. Others defended themselves, saying, "Since he was good, wise, humble, chaste, kindly, and whatever else is found in a good person was found in him, what we did we believe that we did well." The disagreement between them and Hildebrand continued. One of those cardinals, Peter Damiani, testified independently to Benedict's character, stating that he
1792-476: A remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it
1920-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
2048-480: A synod, but his successor was elected in Rome, in the Basilica of S. Pietro in vincoli, on 2 August 1057 and consecrated the next day. In less than a year, Stephen IX (Frederick of Lorraine) created thirteen new cardinals. Peter Damian was a native of Ravenna and had been educated in northern Italy. Ubderto Poggi was from Poggio (now Poggio Lucenzio), in the duchy of Lucca. Bruno, cardinal priest of S. Sabina,
2176-623: A very irregular fashion, contrary to the Constitution of the Pope of 607. This ecclesiastical statute forbade a papal election to begin until the third day after a pope's burial. Cardinal Ugo's intervention was contrary to the Constitution of Nicholas II, which affirmed the exclusive right to name candidates to Cardinal Bishops; finally, it ignored the Constitution's requirement that the Holy Roman Emperor be consulted. However, Gregory
2304-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
2432-420: Is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at a faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form
2560-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
2688-660: Is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of
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#17327798750892816-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
2944-404: Is said that he was given poison on the journey by an agent of the Romans. The Romans also asserted that Godfrey had dispatched 500 troops and money to regain control of Rome, which motivated the Romans to act. Pope Stephen, before he left Rome, issued a decree, in the presence of the bishops, clergy, and people of Rome, that no election was to be held until the return of Cardinal Hildebrand from
3072-956: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
3200-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
3328-528: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
3456-502: The Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin
3584-607: The Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar
3712-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
3840-407: The common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during
3968-404: The imperium . But at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an equal footing; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted. He wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself; the centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved
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4096-686: The Archdeacon!" Hildebrand immediately fled, and hid himself for some time, thereby making it clear that he had refused the uncanonical election in the Liberian Basilica. He was finally found at the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli , to which a famous monastery was attached, and elected pope by the assembled cardinals, with the due consent of the Roman clergy, amid the repeated acclamations of
4224-637: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
4352-408: The Church to annihilate not merely a single state, but all states. Thus Gregory VII, as a politician wanting to achieve some result, was driven in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the existence of the state as a dispensation of providence , described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized the necessity of union between the sacerdotium and
4480-455: The Church. In the two years following Gregory's election, the Saxon rebellion fully occupied Henry and forced him to come to terms with the pope at any cost. In May 1074 Henry did penance at Nuremberg —in the presence of the papal legates—to atone for his continued friendship with the members of his council who had been banned by Gregory; he took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in
4608-735: The County of Grosseto , now southern Tuscany , the son of a blacksmith . As a youth he was sent to study in Rome at the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine , where his uncle was reportedly abbot of a monastery on the Aventine Hill . Among his masters were the erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi , and Johannes Gratianus, the future Pope Gregory VI . When the latter was deposed at the Council of Sutri in December of 1046, with approval of
4736-473: The German princes that he would expect their escort on 8 January 1077 to Mantua . This escort had not appeared when he received the news of Henry's arrival at Canossa , where Gregory had taken refuge under the protection of his close ally, Matilda of Tuscany . Henry had travelled through Burgundy , greeted with enthusiasm by the Lombards, but he resisted the temptation to employ force. In an astonishing turn,
4864-432: The German princes. Contemporary evidence suggests that the excommunication of Henry made a profound impression both in Germany and Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III had deposed three unworthy claimants to the papacy, a service acknowledged by the Church and public opinion. When Henry IV again attempted this procedure he lacked support. In Germany there was a rapid and general feeling in favor of Gregory, strengthening
4992-703: The Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore,
5120-599: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
5248-658: The Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany , Hildebrand followed him to Cologne . According to some chroniclers, Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregory VI's death, which occurred in 1048; though his declaration to have become a monk at Cluny is disputed. He then accompanied Cluny's Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome; there, Bruno was elected pope, choosing the name Leo IX , and named Hildebrand as deacon and papal administrator. In 1054 Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in
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5376-466: The Holy See when the long-standing case of the right of Dol to be a metropolitan and use the pallium was finally decided. King William felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, made appointments to bishoprics and abbeys , and showed little anxiety when the pope lectured him on the different principles which he had as to
5504-630: The Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology ,
5632-546: The Norman duke Robert Guiscard . Gregory VII replied with a harsh letter dated 8 December 1075, in which he accused Henry of breaching his word and of continuing to support excommunicated councillors. At the same time, the pope sent a verbal message threatening not only the ban of the Church against the emperor, but the deprivation of his crown. At the same time, Gregory was menaced by Cencio I Frangipane , who on Christmas night surprised him in church and kidnapped him, though he
5760-612: The Pope could appoint or depose bishops or move them from see to see, an act which was later to cause the Investiture Controversy . Gregory VII's main political project was his relationship with the Holy Roman Empire. Since the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry III, the strength of the German monarchy had been seriously weakened, and his untried son Henry IV had to contend with great internal difficulties, presenting an opportunity for Gregory to strengthen
5888-467: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
6016-563: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
6144-493: The archidiaconal dignity. [...] We choose then our Archdeacon Hildebrand to be pope and successor to the Apostle, and to bear henceforward and forever the name of Gregory" (22 April 1073). Gregory VII's first attempts in foreign policy were towards a reconciliation with the Normans of Robert Guiscard ; in the end the two parties did not meet. After a failed call for a crusade to the princes of northern Europe, and after obtaining
6272-421: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Benedict X He
6400-457: The ban on the anniversary of his excommunication, his throne should be considered vacant. At the same time invited Gregory to Augsburg to decide the conflict. Unable to oppose his princes and the pope together, Henry saw that he must secure absolution from Gregory before the period named. At first he attempted this through an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he went to Italy in person. The pope had already left Rome and had informed
6528-535: The beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as
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#17327798750896656-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
6784-518: The campaign against priestly marriage and that against simony provoked widespread resistance. His writings treat mainly of the principles and practice of Church government. They may be found in Mansi's collection under the title "Gregorii VII registri sive epistolarum libri". Most of his surviving letters are preserved in his Register, which is now stored in the Vatican Archives. Gregory VII
6912-509: The clergy and laity to elect a new archbishop in place of the "mad" and "tyrannical" schismatic Wibert. In 1081, Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The emperor was now in the stronger position, as thirteen cardinals had deserted the pope, and the rival emperor Rudolf of Swabia died on 16 October. A new imperial claimant, Hermann of Luxembourg , was put forward in August 1081, but he
7040-597: The clergy, which had until then commonly married, and also attacked the practice of simony . During the power struggles between the papacy and the Empire , Gregory excommunicated Henry IV three times, and Henry appointed Antipope Clement III to oppose him. Though Gregory was hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, during his own reign he was denounced by some for his autocratic use of papal powers. In later times, Gregory VII became an exemplar of papal supremacy , and his memory
7168-430: The comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in the large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained
7296-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
7424-498: The death and the ceremonies with which they had buried him. Gregory burst out, saying they should have buried him with pontifical honors, and on the pope's orders, he was interred with those honors in the Basilica of Saint Agnes. The most important consequence of these events was the adoption of new regulations for papal elections, laid out at a synod presided over by Pope Nicholas in the Lateran Palace at Easter 1059. It
7552-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
7680-568: The development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through
7808-484: The diocese which Benedict had held as Bishop of Velletri was given in administration to the Bishop of Ostia in the bull of Pope Alexander II "Si Extraneis", dated 11 June 1065. Ca. 1150, Pope Eugenius III permanently combined the two dioceses into one. Benedict X was considered a legitimate pope, not an anti-pope, down until the time of Pope Honorius III in the thirteenth century. The Liber Pontificalis assigns him
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#17327798750897936-436: The disorders of April 5, fled to Benevento a few days later. As a result, a number of cardinals alleged that the election was irregular. These cardinals were soon moved to flee Rome. When Hildebrand heard of Benedict's election during his return journey from the German court, he decided to oppose it. He went to Florence where he obtained the support of Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine , Duke of Spoleto , and Marquis of Tuscany for
8064-413: The earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200,
8192-572: The election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the papal election of October 1061 . The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand and his followers. In his years as papal advisor, Hildebrand had an important role in the reconciliation with the Norman kingdom of southern Italy , in the anti-German alliance with the Pataria movement in northern Italy and, above all, in
8320-406: The election of Gerhard of Burgundy, Archbishop of Florence , as pope instead. Godfrey was the elder brother of the recently deceased Pope Stephen IX. Support for this was given by Empress Agnes. Those cardinals who had opposed Benedict's election met at Siena in December 1058, and elected Gerhard, who then took the name of Nicholas II . Nicholas then proceeded towards Rome, along the way holding
8448-415: The emperor mortified his pride and abased himself in the snow to do penance before the pope. This immediately reversed the moral situation, forcing Gregory to grant Henry absolution. The Walk to Canossa soon became legendary. The reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part of Henry, and it was with reluctance that Gregory VII at length gave way, considering
8576-540: The excommunication and deposition of Henry on 7 March 1080. The papal censure now got a very different reception from the one four years before. It was widely felt to be unjustly pronounced on frivolous grounds, and its authority came in question. The emperor, now more experienced, vigorously denounced the ban as illegal. He summoned a council at Brixen , and on 25 June 1080 thirty bishops present pronounced Gregory deposed, electing archbishop Guibert (Wibert) of Ravenna as his successor. Gregory countered on 15 October, ordering
8704-406: The expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory VII was hard pressed by Henry IV, Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only intervened when he himself was threatened with German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to his troops, and the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about Gregory's exile. In the case of several countries, Gregory VII tried to establish
8832-445: The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite the careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature
8960-581: The first European universities. This battle for the foundation of papal supremacy is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy and his attack on simony . Gregory VII did not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the Church, but he took up the struggle with greater energy than his predecessors. In 1074, he published an encyclical , absolving the people from their obedience to bishops who allowed married priests. The next year he enjoined them to take action against married priests, and deprived these clerics of their revenues. Both
9088-428: The help of lay persons, not in accordance with the decrees of the holy fathers. The assembled clergy then swore that they would never consent to someone becoming pope except in accordance with canon law. News of Pope Stephen's death was brought to Rome by two cardinal-bishops, Humbert of Silva Candida and Peter of Tusculum. A section of the Roman aristocracy, along with numerous members of the clergy who were opposed to
9216-546: The history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to the Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In
9344-486: The introduction of an ecclesiastic law which gave the cardinals exclusive rights concerning the election of a new pope. Pope Gregory VII was one of the few popes elected by acclamation . On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in the Lateran Basilica , there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people: "Let Hildebrand be pope!", "Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand
9472-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
9600-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
9728-405: The language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be a separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within
9856-519: The latter promised to hand over Guibert as a prisoner, if the sovereign pontiff would only consent to crown him emperor. Gregory, however, insisted that Henry appear before a council and do penance. The emperor, while pretending to submit to these terms, tried hard to prevent the meeting of the council. A small number of bishops assembled nonetheless, and Gregory again excommunicated Henry. Henry, upon receipt of this news, again entered Rome on 21 March to see that his supporter, Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna,
9984-617: The lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of
10112-460: The matter of clerical appointments became a more and more contentious issue. He sought as well to compel the episcopacy to look to Rome for validation and direction, demanding the regular attendance of prelates in Rome. Gregory had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his ecclesiastical policy, so he was compelled to ignore what he could not approve, and even considered it advisable to assure King William of his particular affection. On
10240-431: The meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and the classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for
10368-401: The mode of his election was highly criticized by his opponents. Many of the accusations against him may have been expressions of personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to attack his promotion until several years later. But it is clear from Gregory's own account of the circumstances of his election, in his Epistle 1 and Epistle 2, that it was conducted in
10496-487: The part he played in the Investiture Controversy , his dispute with Emperor Henry IV to establish the primacy of papal authority and the new canon law governing the election of the pope by the College of Cardinals . He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope to introduce a policy of obligatory celibacy for
10624-406: The people. It was debated, at the time and since, whether this extraordinary outburst in favour of Hildebrand by clergy and people was wholly spontaneous, or could have been pre-arranged. According to Benizo, Bishop of Sutri, a supporter of Hildebrand, the outcry was begun by Cardinal Ugo Candidus, Cardinal Priest of S. Clemente, who rushed into a pulpit and began to declaim to the people. Certainly,
10752-535: The political implications. If Gregory VII granted absolution, the diet of princes in Augsburg, which had called on him as arbitrator, would be rendered impotent. It was impossible, however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the Church, and Gregory VII's Christian duty overrode his political interests. The removal of the ban did not imply a genuine settlement, as there was no mention of the main question between pope and emperor: that of investiture . A new conflict
10880-468: The princes against their feudal lord Henry. When at Whitsun the emperor summoned a council of nobles to oppose the pope, only a few responded. Meanwhile, the Saxons snatched the opportunity to renew their rebellion, and the anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month. Henry now faced ruin. As a result of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau ,
11008-509: The princes met in October at Trebur to elect a new German ruler. Henry, who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine , was only saved from the loss of his throne by the failure of the assembled princes to agree on his successor. Their dissension, however, merely postponed the verdict. Henry, they declared, must make reparation and obeisance to Gregory; and if he were still under
11136-609: The project of a great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participate in recovering the Church of the Holy Sepulchre —foreshadowing the First Crusade . In his efforts to recruit for the expedition, he emphasized the suffering of eastern Christians, arguing western Christians had a moral obligation to go to their aid. His lifework was based on his conviction that the Church was founded by God and entrusted with
11264-587: The reforms being pushed by the German popes and Cardinal Hildebrand, engineered a coup. The leaders were Rome's traditional leaders for more than a century, Gregory, the son of Alberic of Tusculum and brother of Pope Benedict IX ; Count Gerard of Galeria, the son of Rainerius; and members of the Monticelli branch of the Crescentius family from Tivoli. On the night of 4—5 April, they forced their way into Rome with large forces, and seized control, establishing
11392-442: The relationship of spiritual and temporal powers, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. William was particularly annoyed at Gregory's insistence on dividing ecclesiastical England into two provinces, in opposition to William's need to emphasize the unity of his newly acquired kingdom. Gregory's increasing insistence on church independence from secular authority in
11520-421: The sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to
11648-454: The sea, where he died on 25 May 1085. He was probably a prisoner of the Normans in Salerno. Three days before his death, he withdrew all the censures of excommunication that he had pronounced, except those against the two chief offenders—Henry and Guibert. In 1076, Gregory appointed Dol Euen, a monk of Saint-Melaine of Rennes, as bishop of Dol , rejecting both the incumbent, Iuthael, who had
11776-578: The styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through the later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of
11904-513: The support of William the Conqueror , who had recently been conducting military operations in north-eastern Brittany , and Gilduin, the candidate of the nobles in Dol opposing William. Gregory rejected Iuthael because he was notorious for simony and Guilden as too young. Gregory also bestowed on Dol Euen the pallium of a metropolitan archbishop, on the condition that he would submit to the judgment of
12032-495: The support of other Norman princes such as Landulf VI of Benevento and Richard I of Capua , Gregory VII was able to excommunicate Robert in 1074. In the same year Gregory VII summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemned simony and confirmed celibacy for the Church's clergy. These decrees were further stressed, under menace of excommunication, the next year (24–28 February). In particular, Gregory decreed that only
12160-596: The synod of Piacenza . Roland of Parma faced the pope with these decisions before the synod which had just assembled in the Lateran Basilica . For the moment the members were frightened, but there soon arose such a storm of indignation that only the calming words of Gregory saved the envoy's life. On the following day, 22 February 1076, Gregory solemnly pronounced a sentence of excommunication against Henry IV, divested him of his royal dignity, and absolved his subjects of their sworn allegiance. The effectiveness of this sentence depended entirely on Henry's subjects, above all on
12288-477: The task of embracing all mankind in a single society in which divine will is the only law; that, in its capacity as a divine institution, it is supreme over all human structures, especially the secular state; and that the pope, in his role as head of the Church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God: or, in other words, a defection from Christianity. But any attempt to interpret this in terms of action would have bound
12416-492: The two parties of fairly equal strength, each trying to gain the upper hand by getting the pope on their side. In the end, his non-commitment largely lost the confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolf of Swabia after his victory at the Battle of Flarchheim on 27 January 1080. Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting policy and again pronounced
12544-723: The wake of his participation in the embassy which excommunicated the Patriarch Michael Cerularius and began the Great Schism . He transferred the remaining treasure to Montecassino, and then hastened into Tuscany, in order to consult with his elder brother Godfrey , whom he had enfeoffed as Duke of Spoleto in January 1058. It was even suggested that Stephen intended to make his brother emperor. He suddenly grew weak, and died in Florence on 29 March 1058. It
12672-492: The wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours . At Leo's death, the new pope, Victor II , confirmed him as legate, while Victor's successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from Empress Agnes . Stephen died before being able to return to Rome, but Hildebrand was successful; he was then instrumental in overcoming the crisis caused by the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X , who, thanks also to Agnes's support,
12800-538: The whole, William's policy was of great benefit to the Church. The relationship of Gregory VII to other European states was strongly influenced by his German policy, since the Holy Roman Empire , by taking up most of his energies, often forced him to show to other rulers the very moderation which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions made to them under Nicholas II were not only powerless to stem their advance into central Italy, but failed to secure even
12928-610: The words of the Redeemer, substantially changed into the true and proper and lifegiving flesh and blood of Jesus Christ our Lord, and that after the consecration they are the true body of Christ. This profession of faith began a "Eucharistic Renaissance" in the churches of Europe as of the 12th century. Pope Gregory VII died in exile in Salerno ; the epitaph on his sarcophagus in the city's Cathedral says: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore, I die in exile." Gregory VII
13056-599: The work of reforming the Church. However, as soon as Henry defeated the Saxons at the First Battle of Langensalza on 9 June 1075 ( Battle of Homburg or Hohenburg ), he tried to reassert his sovereign rights in northern Italy. Henry sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes ; nominated the cleric Tedald to the archbishopric of Milan , settling a prolonged and contentious question; and made overtures to
13184-422: The written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained
13312-572: Was bene litteratus , with a lively personality, chaste and with no suspicion, and generous in giving charity. Benedict was allowed to go free, departing from the Lateran Palace a few days before the consecration of Nicholas II (24 January 1059). He retired to one the castle of Passerani (a suburb of Rieti), which was held by Regetellus, the son of the Prefect Crescentius, and from there to Galeria (not far from Bracciano), which
13440-441: Was Bishop Hugh de Dié , who afterwards became Archbishop of Lyon . Philip I of France , by his practice of simony and the violence of his proceedings against the Church, provoked a threat of summary measures. Excommunication, deposition and the interdict appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his threats into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he wished to avoid
13568-483: Was a son of Guido, Lord of Poli who was the youngest son of Alberic III, Count of Tusculum , a member of the dominant political dynasty in the region at that time. Giovanni was a nephew of the notorious Pope Benedict IX , who was deposed in 1048. Benedict X reportedly later was given the nickname of Mincius (thin) due to his ignorance. His mother was present at his trial in April 1060. Giovanni, Bishop of Velletri ,
13696-783: Was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in a vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
13824-407: Was attended by 113 bishops and other clergy. It limited the vote in a papal election to the cardinal Bishops, and the right of approval to the College of Cardinals . The imperial sanction, whether obtained before an election or after one, was eliminated. This was a major step in depriving the lower clergy, the nobility, and Roman citizenry from their role in the election of future popes. Additionally,
13952-632: Was beatified by Pope Gregory XIII in 1584 and canonized on 24 May 1728 by Pope Benedict XIII . Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ),
14080-411: Was created a cardinal by Pope Leo IX in 1050. He was highly esteemed, however, by those who wanted to reform the Church, and was one of five men proposed by Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine when consulted during the summer of 1057 concerning a possible successor to Pope Victor II , whom Frederick himself succeeded as Pope Stephen IX . Pope Victor had died at Arezzo on 28 July 1057, where he had just held
14208-425: Was enthroned as Pope Clement III on 24 March 1084, who in turn crowned Henry as emperor. In the meantime Gregory had formed an alliance with Robert Guiscard , who marched on the city and compelled Henry to flee towards Civita Castellana . The pope was liberated, but after the Roman people became incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies, again withdrew to Monte Cassino , and later to the castle of Salerno by
14336-491: Was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name a few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin
14464-536: Was fought in Campagna in early 1059, which was not wholly successful for Nicholas; but later that same year, his forces conquered Praeneste , Tusculum and Nomento , and then attacked Galéria, forcing Benedict to surrender and to renounce the papacy in the Fall of that year. After he returned to Rome, Archdeacon Hildebrand interrogated the cardinals about their behavior in regard to the oath they had taken, not to elect
14592-420: Was from Germany. Ugobaldo degli Obizi came from Lucca. The Benedictine Alberic came from the neighborhood of Benevento. Of the more senior cardinals, Boniface of Albano was from Apulia, Hugo of Silva Candida was a Burgundian, and Stephen of S. Crisogono was a monk of Cluny. In 1058, Pope Stephen was relieved, by force on the part of the Romans, of the treasure which he had brought to Rome from Constantinople, in
14720-600: Was further sentenced to confinement in the guest house ('hospitium') attached to the Basilica of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura . Suppus, the Archpriest of S. Anastasia, who was the spiritual advisor of Pope Nicholas II, requested that he show Benedict indulgence, and thereupon Benedict was restored to the post of Lector. He died, still in confinement, sometime during the reign of Gregory VII, between 1073 and 1080. The Archpriest Seppus went to Pope Gregory to inform him of
14848-539: Was held by Count Gerard, the son of Rainerius. In March 1060 he returned to Rome and took up residence in his own house near S. Maria Maggiore, where he remained for thirty days. Then the Archdeacon Hildebrand arrested him by force, and brought him along with himself to the Lateran, where the council was in session. Pope Nicholas deemed his submission inadequate and had him publicly tried in April 1060, with Hildebrand serving as his prosecutor. Hildebrand put
14976-475: Was inevitable. Obedience to the excommunication of Henry IV was used as a pretext to legitimize the rebellion of the German nobles, which did not end with his absolution. To the contrary, at Forchheim in March 1077 they elected a rival ruler in the person of Duke Rudolf of Swabia , with the papal legates declaring their neutrality. Pope Gregory sought to maintain this attitude during the following years, balancing
15104-703: Was invoked both positively and negatively, reflecting later writers' attitude to the Catholic Church and the papacy. Beno of Santi Martino e Silvestro , who opposed Gregory VII in the Investiture Controversy, accused him of necromancy, cruelty, tyranny, and blasphemy. This was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe . In contrast, the modern historian and Anglican priest H. E. J. Cowdrey writes, "[Gregory VII]
15232-503: Was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into
15360-718: Was particularly concerned with the East. The schism between Rome and the Byzantine Empire was a severe blow to him, and he worked hard to restore the former amicable relationship. Gregory successfully tried to get in touch with the emperor Michael VII . When the news of the Muslim attacks on the Christians in the East filtered through to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived
15488-529: Was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While
15616-423: Was released the following day. The high-handed demands and threats of the pope infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily convened national synod of Worms on 24 January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy, Gregory had many enemies, and the Roman cardinal Hugo Candidus , once on intimate terms with Gregory but now his opponent, hurried to Germany for the occasion. Candidus declaimed
15744-405: Was replaced by the Bishop of Florence , Nicholas II . With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa , Hildebrand personally led the conquest of the castle of Galeria Antica where Benedict had taken refuge. Between 1058 and 1059, he was made archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration. He was again the most powerful figure behind
15872-539: Was seen by Pope Paul VI as instrumental in affirming the tenet that Christ is present in the Blessed Sacrament . Gregory's demand that Berengarius perform a confession of this belief was quoted in Pope Paul VI's historic 1965 encyclical Mysterium fidei : I believe in my heart and openly profess that the bread and wine that are placed on the altar are, through the mystery of the sacred prayer and
16000-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
16128-399: Was surprisingly flexible, feeling his way and therefore perplexing both rigorous collaborators ... and cautious and steady-minded ones ... His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to a remarkable degree the loyalty and service of a wide variety of men and women." Gregory was born Hildebrand ( Italian : Ildebrando ) in the town of Sovana , in
16256-574: Was then confirmed by a second election at S. Pietro in Vincoli. Gregory VII's earliest pontifical letters clearly acknowledged these events, and thus helped defuse doubts about his election and popularity. On 22 May 1073, the Feast of Pentecost , he received ordination as a priest , and he was consecrated a bishop and enthroned as pope on 29 June, the Feast of St. Peter's Chair. In the decree of election, his electors proclaimed Gregory VII: "a devout man,
16384-608: Was unable to rally the papal party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV was at its peak. The pope's chief military supporter, Matilda of Tuscany , blocked Henry's armies from the western passages over the Apennines , so he had to approach Rome from Ravenna . Rome surrendered to the German king in 1084, and Gregory thereupon retired into the exile of the Castel Sant'Angelo . Gregory refused to entertain Henry's overtures, although
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