151-604: The Popish Plot was a fictitious conspiracy invented by Titus Oates that between 1678 and 1681 gripped the kingdoms of England and Scotland in anti-Catholic hysteria. Oates alleged that there was an extensive Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles II , accusations that led to the show trials and executions of at least 22 men and precipitated the Exclusion Bill Crisis . During this tumultuous period, Oates weaved an intricate web of accusations, fueling public fears and paranoia. However, as time went on,
302-568: A chaplain of the ship HMS Adventure in the Royal Navy . Oates visited English Tangier with his ship, but was accused of buggery , which was a capital offence , and spared only because of his clerical status. He was dismissed from the Navy in 1676. In August 1676, Oates was arrested in London and returned to Hastings to face trial for his outstanding perjury charges, but he escaped
453-585: A Catholic to learn about the secrets of the Jesuits and that, before leaving, he had heard about a planned Jesuit meeting in London. Oates and Tonge wrote a lengthy manuscript that accused the Catholic Church authorities in England of approving the assassination of Charles II. The Jesuits were supposed to carry out the task. In August 1678, King Charles was warned of this alleged plot against his life by
604-843: A Moses' face. Oates was involved with the Jesuit houses of St Omer in France and the Royal English College at Valladolid in Spain . He was admitted to the training course for the priesthood in Valladolid through the support of Richard Strange , head of the English Province, despite a lack of basic competence in Latin and later claimed, falsely, that he had become a Catholic Doctor of Divinity . His ignorance of Latin
755-656: A Spanish invasion. Three popes issued bulls judging Elizabeth, giving grounds to suspect English Catholics' loyalty. Following the Babington Plot, Mary was beheaded in 1587. This – and Elizabeth's support of the Dutch Revolt in the Spanish Netherlands – triggered Philip II of Spain's attempted invasion with the Spanish Armada (1588). This reinforced English resentment of Catholics, while
906-698: A betrayal of the Protestant cause. However, Spanish chief minister Olivares correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions. Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included Georg Friedrich of Baden and Christian of Brunswick , while
1057-404: A cart, and whipped from Aldgate to Newgate . On the next day, he was whipped from Newgate to Tyburn . The presiding judge at his trial was Judge Jeffreys , who stated that Oates was a "shame to mankind", despite the fact he himself had helped to condemn innocent people on Oates's perjured evidence. Jeffreys recognised that evidence admitted in the second perjury trial had not been believed in
1208-512: A degree. A less than astute student, he was regarded by his tutor as "a great dunce", although he did have a good memory. At Cambridge, he also gained a reputation for homosexuality and a "Canting Fanatical way". By falsely claiming to have a degree, he gained a licence to preach from the Bishop of London . On 29 May 1670 he was ordained as a priest of the Church of England. He was vicar of
1359-516: A few days later, with the threat of a constitutional crisis , Parliament forced the release of Oates, who soon received a state apartment in Whitehall and an annual allowance of £1,200. Oates was heaped with praise. He asked the College of Arms to check his lineage and produce a coat of arms for him and subsequently received the arms of a family that had died out. Rumours surfaced that Oates
1510-594: A forum for discussion, rather than legislation. Although, in theory, emperors were elected, the position had been held by the House of Habsburg since 1440. The largest single landowner within the Holy Roman Empire, they controlled lands containing over eight million subjects, including Austria , Bohemia and Hungary . The Habsburgs also ruled the Spanish Empire until 1556, when Charles V divided
1661-408: A good lawyer might have turned to his client's advantage. On 30 December, the evidence against Arundell and his three fellow prisoners was ordered to be in readiness, but their public proceedings stopped. In fact, the death of William Bedloe left the prosecution in serious difficulties, since one protection for a person accused of treason, that there must be two eyewitnesses to an overt act of treason,
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#17327662176421812-411: A hero. Of the other informers, James II was content merely to fine Miles Prance for his perjury, on the grounds that he was a Catholic and had been coerced by threats of torture into informing. Thomas Dangerfield was subjected to the same savage penalties as Oates; on returning from his first session in the pillory , Dangerfield died of an eye injury after a scuffle with the barrister Robert Francis, who
1963-472: A house nearby. This caused a panic, until it was discovered that he was simply the King's firework maker. Oates became more daring and accused five Catholic lords ( William Herbert, 1st Marquess of Powis , William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford , Henry Arundell, 3rd Baron Arundell of Wardour , William Petre, 4th Baron Petre and John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse ) of involvement in the plot. The King dismissed
2114-717: A legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of Lusatia , and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by Count Tilly and Charles of Bucquoy , which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at
2265-776: A mercenary army under Ernst von Mansfeld was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs. By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside Vienna and although Mansfeld's defeat by Imperial forces at Sablat forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen. Gabriel Bethlen , Calvinist Prince of Transylvania , invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although
2416-553: A mild punishment. Oates, for his part, received a state apartment in Whitehall and an annual allowance. He soon presented new allegations, claiming assassins intended to shoot the King with silver bullets so the wound would not heal. The public invented their own stories, including a tale that the sound of digging had been heard near the House of Commons and rumours of a French invasion on the Isle of Purbeck . The evidence of Oates and Bedloe
2567-856: A number of contracts signed by the Superior General of the Jesuits. The contracts appointed officers that would command an army of Catholic supporters to kill Charles II and establish a Catholic monarch. To this day, no one is certain who killed Sir Edmund Godfrey, and most historians regard the mystery as insoluble. Oates' associate William Bedloe denounced the silversmith Miles Prance , who in turn named three working men, Berry, Green and Hill, who were tried, convicted and executed in February 1679; but it rapidly became clear that they were completely innocent, and that Prance, who had been subjected to torture , named them simply to gain his freedom (Kenyon suggests that he may have chosen men against whom he had
2718-405: A personal grudge, or he may simply have chosen them because they were the first Catholic acquaintances of his who came to mind). King Charles, aware of the unrest, returned to London and summoned Parliament . He remained unconvinced by Oates' accusations, but Parliament and public opinion forced him to order an investigation. Parliament truly believed that this plot was real, declaring, "This House
2869-412: A previous trial when sworn in contradiction to Oates's own evidence, and regretted that evidence now freshly presented had not been available, particularly at the trials of Ireland and of the five Jesuits (at the latter of which he presided) as, "it might have saved some innocent blood". So severe were the penalties imposed on Oates that it has been suggested by among others Thomas Babington Macaulay that
3020-526: A return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618. Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an Edict of Restitution , which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny
3171-546: A second time and returned to London. With the help of the actor Matthew Medbourne he joined the household of the Catholic Henry Howard, 7th Duke of Norfolk as an Anglican chaplain to those members of Howard's household who were Protestants. Although Oates was admired for his preaching, he soon lost this position. On Ash Wednesday in 1677 Oates was received into the Catholic Church . Oddly, at
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#17327662176423322-544: A surprisingly good impression on the council. When he named "at a glance" the alleged authors of five letters supposedly written by leading Jesuits, the council were "amazed". As Kenyon remarks, it is surprising that it did not occur to the Council that this was useless as evidence if Oates had written all the letters himself. Others whom Oates accused included William Fogarty, Archbishop Peter Talbot of Dublin, Samuel Pepys MP , and John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse . With
3473-484: Is of opinion that there hath been and still is a damnable and hellish plot contrived and carried out by the popish recusants for assigning and murdering the King." Tonge was called to testify on 25 October 1678 where he gave evidence on the Great Fire and, later, rumours of another similar plot. On 1 November, both Houses ordered an investigation in which a Frenchman, Choqueux, was discovered to be storing gunpowder in
3624-598: The Baptists ; he became a Baptist during the English Civil War , rejoining the established church at the Restoration , and was rector of All Saints' Church at Hastings (1666–74). Oates was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and other schools. At Cambridge University, he entered Gonville and Caius College in 1667 but transferred to St John's College in 1669; he left later the same year without
3775-632: The Battle of White Mountain in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country. By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but Maximilian's dynastic ambitions made this impossible. In the October 1619 Treaty of Munich , Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex
3926-650: The Bohemian Revolt in May 1618. Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate heresy within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of Styria in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the Reformation . Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised
4077-442: The Catholic Church since Passau. These agreements were undermined by the post-1555 expansion of Protestantism into areas previously designated as Catholic. Another factor was the growth of Protestant faiths not recognised by Augsburg, especially Calvinism , which was viewed with hostility by both Lutherans and Catholics. The Peace of Augsburg also gave individual rulers within the empire greater political autonomy and control over
4228-693: The Dutch-Portuguese War , and the Portuguese Restoration War . The war can be seen as a continuation of the religious conflict initiated by the 16th-century Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into Catholic and Lutheran states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of Protestantism beyond these boundaries destabilised
4379-572: The Elbe and Weser rivers. Ferdinand had paid Albrecht von Wallenstein for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony kreis elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in
4530-455: The English Civil War (1642–1649), which led to the abolition of the monarchy and a decade of Puritan rule tolerating most forms of Protestantism, but not Catholicism. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660 under King Charles II brought a reaction against all religious dissenters outside the established Church of England. Catholics still suffered under popular hostility and legal discrimination. Anti-Catholic hysteria flared up lightly during
4681-780: The Heilbronn League in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at Oldendorf . Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb. The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Emperor Ferdinand reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern
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4832-539: The Inquisition continued, and had 300 Protestants burned at the stake, causing many Englishmen to associate Catholicism with the involvement of foreign powers and religious persecution. Mary was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth I (1558–1603), who again broke away from Rome and suppressed Catholicism. Elizabeth and later Protestant monarchs caused to be hanged and mutilated hundreds of Catholic priests and laymen. This, and her dubious legitimacy – she
4983-682: The Low Countries , Northern Italy , and present-day France. These ranged in size and importance from the seven prince-electors who voted for the Holy Roman Emperor , down to prince-bishoprics and Imperial cities like Hamburg . Each also belonged to a regional grouping or " Imperial circle ", which primarily focused on defence and operated as autonomous bodies. Above all of these was the Imperial Diet , which only assembled on an irregular basis, and then largely served as
5134-523: The North , South , and along the Pyrenees . Since many foreign rulers were also Imperial princes, divisions within the empire drew in external powers like Christian IV of Denmark , who joined the war in 1625 as Duke of Holstein-Gottorp . Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588 Cologne War , caused when its ruler converted to Calvinism. More common were events such as
5285-766: The Philippines , and much of the Americas . In contrast, Austria was a land-based power, focused on ensuring their pre-eminence within Germany and securing their eastern border against the Ottoman Empire . Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. These included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic Bavaria , as well as France, confronted by Habsburg lands on its borders to
5436-483: The Privy Council later that month, and the Council interrogated Oates for several hours; Tonge, who was generally believed to be mad, was simply laughed at, but Oates made a much better impression on the council. On 28 September Oates made 43 allegations against various members of Catholic religious orders – including 541 Jesuits – and numerous Catholic nobles. He accused Sir George Wakeman and Edward Colman ,
5587-654: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt in early 1625. As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the Øresund . In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son Frederick became joint-administrator of Lübeck , Bremen , and Verden ; possession ensured Danish control of
5738-882: The Sack of Magdeburg in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory. Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631 Treaty of Bärwalde provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg. These amounted to 400,000 Reichstaler per year, or one million livres , plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops. Gustavus used this army to win victories at Breitenfeld in September 1631, then Rain in April 1632, where Tilly
5889-637: The Schmalkaldic War , a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics within the Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg tried to prevent their recurrence by fixing boundaries between the two faiths, using the principle of cuius regio, eius religio . This designated individual states as either Lutheran , then the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the religion of their ruler. Other provisions protected substantial religious minorities in cities like Donauwörth , and confirmed Lutheran ownership of property taken from
6040-480: The Upper Palatinate . Many Protestant rulers had supported Ferdinand against Frederick because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia. On the same grounds, they viewed Frederick's removal as an infringement of "German liberties", while for Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire. At
6191-621: The Upper Saxon Circle and Brandenburg the Lower , both kreise had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist George William, Elector of Brandenburg became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored
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6342-862: The Valtellina , cutting the link between Spanish controlled Milan and the Empire. In May, their main army of 35,000 invaded the Spanish Netherlands, but withdrew in July after suffering 17,000 casualties. In March 1636 , France joined the Thirty Years War as an ally of Sweden, whose loss of most of the territories gained by Gustavus and their taxes made it increasingly reliant on French financing. The Spanish then invaded Northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat. A Swedish army under Johan Banér defeated
6493-759: The 1606 "Battle of the Flags" in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession. Emperor Rudolf approved intervention by the Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria . In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic. When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought formal re-confirmation of
6644-495: The 1670s. In December 1677 an anonymous pamphlet (possibly by Andrew Marvell ) spread alarm in London by accusing the Pope of plotting to overthrow the lawful government of England. The fictitious Popish Plot unfolded in a very peculiar fashion. Oates and Israel Tonge , a fanatically anti-Catholic clergyman (who was widely believed to be insane), had written a large manuscript that accused the Catholic Church authorities of approving
6795-460: The Armada's failure convinced many Englishmen that God was on the Protestant side. Anti-Catholic sentiment reached new heights in 1605 after the failed Gunpowder Plot . Catholic conspirators attempted to topple the Protestant reign of King James I by exploding a bomb during the King's opening of parliament. The plot was thwarted when Guy Fawkes , who was in charge of the explosives, was discovered
6946-503: The Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir Archduke Ferdinand required the immediate restoration of all property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby the court ruled case by case. This demand threatened all Protestants, paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of Imperial neutrality. Loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies; outside travellers often commented on
7097-428: The Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch. On 13 May 1628, his deputy von Arnim besieged Stralsund , the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led Gustavus Adolphus to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by Alexander Leslie who was also appointed governor. Von Arnim
7248-532: The Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I. The exceptions included Christian of Anhalt and Maurice of Orange , for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions. However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing
7399-474: The Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by Count Thurn met in Prague Castle with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, Vilem Slavata and Jaroslav Borzita . In what became known as the Third Defenestration of Prague , both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary Filip Fabricius , although all three survived. Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into Silesia and
7550-565: The Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn in August completed military operations. However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories. With Saxony dominating
7701-420: The Church of England was transformed into a strictly Protestant body, with many remnants of Catholicism suppressed. Edward was succeeded by his half-sister Mary I of England (1553–1558), daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine. She was a Catholic and returned the Church in England to union with the Holy See . Mary tainted her policy with two unpopular actions: she married her cousin, King Philip II of Spain , where
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#17327662176427852-439: The Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including Wimpfen in May 1622 and Höchst in June. By November 1622, the Imperials controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from Frankenthal , which
8003-450: The Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy. Another option was Frederick V, Elector Palatine , a Calvinist who succeeded his father in 1610, and in 1613 married Elizabeth Stuart , daughter of James I of England . Four of
8154-408: The Emperor, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu. In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the Truce of Altmark between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income. Following failed negotiations with
8305-508: The Emperor, Gustavus landed in Pomerania in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the Oder towards Stettin and coerced Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania , into agreeing an alliance which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund. As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634 Smolensk War . However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By
8456-500: The Empire. Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the Republic of Venice to join, but it was overtaken by events. In early 1626, Cardinal Richelieu , main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March Treaty of Monzón , France withdrew from Northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road. Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led
8607-416: The French ambassador, in which he made it clear that he did not believe that there was a word of truth in the plot, and that Oates was "a wicked man"; but that by now he had come round to the view that there must be an investigation, particularly with Parliament about to reassemble. On 6 September Oates was summoned before the magistrate Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey to swear an oath prior to his testimony before
8758-421: The German states and Ferdinand agreed to the Peace of Prague ; in return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues were dissolved and replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict. In March 1635, French soldiers entered
8909-468: The Habsburg heartlands of Lower and Upper Austria , where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for
9060-419: The Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the 1620 Polish war , followed by the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia . On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted
9211-529: The Imperials at Wittstock on 4 October, and re-established their predominance in North-East Germany, despite the defection of most of their German allies. Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III , who faced a deteriorating military position. Although Matthias Gallas and the main Imperial army had forced Banér back to the Baltic, in March 1638, Bernard destroyed an Imperial army at Rheinfelden . His capture of Breisach in December secured French control of Alsace and severed
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#17327662176429362-528: The June 1629 Treaty of Lübeck . Christian retained his German possessions of Schleswig and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state. Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder
9513-474: The King for the first time "began to think that there might be somewhat in the Plot". However, public opinion began to turn against Oates. As Kenyon points out, the steady protestations of innocence by all of those who were executed eventually took hold in the public mind. Outside London, the priests who died were almost all venerable and popular members of the community, and there was widespread public horror at their executions. Even Lord Shaftesbury came to regret
9664-412: The King made it clear that he approved of Scroggs' conduct. On 31 August 1681, Oates was told to leave his apartments in Whitehall, but remained undeterred and even denounced the King and the Duke of York. He was arrested for sedition , sentenced to a fine of £100,000 and thrown into prison. When James II acceded to the throne in 1685 he had Oates tried on two charges of perjury. The Bench which tried him
9815-529: The King's brother, James, be excluded from the royal succession , prompting the Exclusion crisis . On 5 November 1678, people burned effigies of the Pope instead of those of Guy Fawkes . At the end of the year, the parliament passed a bill, a second Test Act , excluding Catholics from membership of both Houses (a law not repealed until 1829). On 1 November 1678, the House of Commons resolved to proceed by impeachment against "the five popish lords". On 23 November all Arundell's papers were seized and examined by
9966-449: The King. Oates claimed he had been at a Jesuit meeting held at the White Horse Tavern in the Strand, London , on April 24, 1678. According to Oates, the purpose of that meeting was to discuss the assassination of Charles II . The meeting discussed a variety of methods which included: stabbing by Irish ruffians, shooting by two Jesuit soldiers, or poisoning by the Queen's physician, Sir George Wakeman . Oates and Tonge were brought before
10117-607: The London underworld. The King personally interrogated Oates, caught him out in a number of inaccuracies and lies, and ordered his arrest. However, a few days later, with the threat of constitutional crisis, Parliament forced the release of Oates. Hysteria continued: Roger North wrote that it was as though "the very Cabinet of Hell has been opened". Noblewomen carried firearms if they had to venture outdoors at night. Houses were searched for hidden guns, mostly without any significant result. Some Catholic widows tried to ensure their safety by marrying Anglican widowers. The House of Commons
10268-416: The Lords' committee; on 3 December the five peers were arraigned for high treason ; and on 5 December the Commons announced the impeachment of Arundell. A month later Parliament was dissolved, and the proceedings were interrupted. In March 1679, it was resolved by both houses that the dissolution had not invalidated the motions for the impeachment. On 10 April 1679 Arundell and three of his companions (Belasyse
10419-413: The Netherlands, while the loss of 's-Hertogenbosch to the Dutch Army under Frederick Henry in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid. From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a war with Poland–Lithuania , ruled by his Catholic cousin Sigismund , who also claimed the Swedish throne and had Imperial support. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like Hesse-Kassel still openly opposing
10570-462: The Plot, advised the King to order an investigation. Charles II denied the request, maintaining that the entire affair was absurd. He told Danby to keep the events secret so as not to put the idea of regicide into people's minds. However, word of the manuscript spread to the Duke of York, who publicly called for an investigation into the matter. Even Charles admitted that given the sheer number of allegations, he could not say positively that none of them
10721-517: The Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate . Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt , Frederick's participation expanded the fighting into the Palatinate , whose strategic importance drew in the Dutch Republic and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. In addition, the acquisition of territories within the empire by rulers like Christian IV of Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden gave them and other foreign powers an ongoing motive to intervene. Combined with fears
10872-601: The Protestant Netherlands. Furthermore, Charles' brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York , had embraced Catholicism, although his brother forbade him to make any public avowal. In 1672, Charles issued the Royal Declaration of Indulgence , in which he suspended all penal laws against Catholics and other religious dissenters. This fueled Protestant fears of increasing Catholic influence in England, and led to conflict with parliament during
11023-408: The Protestant religion in general was threatened, what started as an internal dynastic dispute became a European conflict. The period from 1618 to 1635 was primarily a civil war within the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After 1635 , the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between France , chiefly supported by Sweden, and Emperor Ferdinand III , whose principal ally
11174-962: The Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the Spanish Road , an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to Flanders . This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the Electoral Palatinate . Since Emperor Matthias had no surviving children, in July 1617 Philip III of Spain agreed to support Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against
11325-659: The Spanish Road, forcing Gallas to divert resources there. Although von Hatzfeldt defeated a combined Swedish-German force at Vlotho in October, lack of supplies forced Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic. In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at Chemnitz , then entered Bohemia in May. To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted Piccolomini 's army from Thionville , ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain. Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut
11476-532: The Swedes and Imperials met at Lützen , where both sides suffered heavy casualties; Gustavus himself was killed, while some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%. Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded. Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed. After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna , and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed
11627-755: The Wakeman trial, and a backlash against Oates and his Whig supporters took place. On 31 August 1681, Oates was told to leave his apartments in Whitehall, but he remained undeterred and even denounced the King and his Catholic brother, the Duke of York . He was arrested for sedition , sentenced to a fine of £100,000 and imprisoned. When the Duke of York acceded to the throne in 1685 as James II, he had Oates retried, convicted and sentenced for perjury, stripped of clerical dress, imprisoned for life, and to be "whipped through
11778-477: The accusations as absurd, pointing out that Belasyse was so afflicted with gout that he could hardly stand, while Arundell and Stafford, who had not been on speaking terms for 25 years, were most unlikely to be intriguing together; but Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury had the lords arrested and sent to the Tower on 25 October 1678. Seizing upon the anti-Catholic tide, Shaftesbury publicly demanded that
11929-487: The aim was to kill him by ill-treatment, as Jeffreys and his fellow judges openly regretted that they could not impose the death penalty in a case of perjury. Oates spent the next three years in prison. In 1689, upon the accession of the Protestant William of Orange and Mary , he was pardoned and granted a pension of £260 a year, but his reputation did not recover. The pension was later suspended, but in 1698
12080-402: The assassination of Charles II. The Jesuits in England were to carry out the task. The manuscript also named nearly 100 Jesuits and their supporters who were supposedly involved in this assassination plot; nothing in the document was ever proven to be true. Oates slipped a copy of the manuscript into the wainscot of a gallery in the house of the physician Sir Richard Barker, with whom Tonge
12231-523: The chemist Christopher Kirkby, and later by Tonge. Charles was unimpressed, but handed the matter over to one of his ministers, Thomas Osborne, Earl of Danby ; Danby was more willing to listen and was introduced to Oates by Tonge. The King's Privy Council questioned Oates. On 28 September, Oates made 43 allegations against various members of Catholic religious orders —including 541 Jesuits—and numerous Catholic nobles. He accused Sir George Wakeman , Queen Catherine of Braganza 's doctor, and Edward Colman ,
12382-403: The countryside, they took with them stories of a kind which were to be familiar enough in 1678 and 1679." Anti-Catholicism was fueled by doubts about the religious allegiance of the King, who had been supported by the Catholic powers during his exile, and had married a Portuguese Catholic princess, Catherine of Braganza . Charles formed an alliance with the leading Catholic power France against
12533-476: The dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives. On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed Protestant religious freedoms , but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of
12684-562: The defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor. Swedish defeat at Nördlingen triggered direct French intervention and thus expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with new subsidies , hired mercenaries led by Bernard of Saxe-Weimar for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 declared war on Spain, starting the 1635 to 1659 Franco-Spanish War . A few days later,
12835-439: The electors were Catholic, and three were Protestant; if this balance changed, it would potentially result in the election of a Protestant emperor. When Ferdinand became king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the predominantly Protestant nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. These factors combined to bring about
12986-588: The empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. In the June 1624 Treaty of Compiègne , France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625 Treaty of The Hague , the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in
13137-614: The end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg, Christian William whose capital was under siege by Tilly. Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave. Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and Frankfurt an der Oder , while
13288-555: The executions and is said to have quietly ordered the release of particular priests, whose families he knew. Accusations of plotting in Yorkshire (the "Barnbow Plot"), where prominent local Catholics like Sir Thomas Gascoigne, 2nd Baronet were accused of signing "the Bloody Oath of Secrecy", were unsuccessful because their Protestant neighbours (who sat on the juries) refused to convict them. A grand jury at Westminster rejected
13439-408: The existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an Imperial edict , once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success. At
13590-461: The following day the petitions were granted. On 1 June 1685, their liberty was formally assured on the ground that the witnesses against them had perjured themselves, and on 4 June the bill of attainder against Stafford was reversed. On 24 November 1678, Oates claimed the Queen was working with the King's physician to poison him and enlisted the aid of "Captain" William Bedloe , a notorious member of
13741-621: The growing militarisation of Germany in this period. In 1608, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine formed the Protestant Union , and Maximilian responded by setting up the Catholic League in July 1609. Both were created to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, but combined with the 1609 to 1614 War of the Jülich Succession , the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire. Some historians who see
13892-404: The help of Danby, the list grew to 81 accusations. Oates was given a squad of soldiers and he began to round up Jesuits, including those who had helped him in the past. On 6 September 1678, Oates and Tonge approached an Anglican magistrate, Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey , and swore an affidavit before him detailing their accusations. On 12 October, Godfrey disappeared, and five days later his dead body
14043-646: The hysteria. They were no longer permitted to have more than a certain number of members or missions within England. John Kenyon points out that European religious orders throughout the Continent were affected since many of them depended on the alms of the English Catholic community for their existence. Many Catholic priests were arrested and tried because the Privy Council wanted to make sure to catch all of those who might possess information about
14194-529: The lack of substantial evidence and inconsistencies in Oates's testimony began to unravel the plot. Eventually, Oates himself was arrested and convicted for perjury , exposing the fabricated nature of the conspiracy. The fictitious Popish Plot must be understood against the background of the English Reformation and the subsequent development of a strong anti-Catholic nationalist sentiment among
14345-479: The lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg , and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for
14496-814: The main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in Magdeburg , supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and Maurice of Hesse-Kassel . The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at Dessau Bridge in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on Wolfenbüttel , where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at Lutter in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November. Many of Christian's German allies, such as Hesse-Kassel and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination with Danish, while few of
14647-471: The manuscript but did not know the author. As Kenyon points out, the government took seriously even the remotest hint of a threat to the King's life or well-being – in the previous spring a Newcastle housewife had been investigated by the Secretary of State simply for saying that "the King gets the curse of many good and faithful wives such as myself for his bad example". Danby, who seems to have believed in
14798-562: The mostly Protestant population of England. The English Reformation began in 1533, when King Henry VIII (1509–1547) sought an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon to marry Anne Boleyn . As the Pope would not grant this, Henry broke away from Rome and took control of the Church in England . Later, he had the monasteries dissolved, causing opposition in the still largely Catholic nation. Under Henry's son Edward VI (1547–1553),
14949-408: The murder of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey , a magistrate and strong supporter of Protestantism, to whom Oates had made his first depositions. His disappearance on 12 October 1678, the finding of his mutilated body on 17 October, and the subsequent failure to solve his murder sent the Protestant population into an uproar. He had been strangled and run through with his own sword. Many of his supporters blamed
15100-577: The murder on Catholics. As Kenyon commented, "Next day, the 18th, James wrote to William of Orange that Godfrey's death was already 'laid against the Catholics', and even he, never the most realistic of men, feared that 'all these things happening together will cause a great flame in the Parliament'." The Lords asked King Charles to banish all Catholics from a radius of 20 miles (32 km) around London, which Charles granted on 30 October 1678, but it
15251-475: The night before. The magnitude of the plot, meant to kill the leading government figures in one stroke, convinced many Englishmen that Catholics were murderous conspirators who would stop at nothing to have their way, laying the groundwork for future allegations. Anti-Catholic sentiment was a constant factor in how England perceived the events of the following decades: the Thirty Years War (1618–1648)
15402-480: The number of innocent men he had been forced to condemn; possibly thinking of the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion , under which he had pardoned many of his former opponents in 1660, he remarked that his people had never previously had cause to complain of his mercy. At the trial of Sir George Wakeman, and several priests who were tried with him, Scroggs virtually ordered the jury to acquit all of them, and despite public uproar,
15553-506: The parish of Bobbing in Kent, 1673–74, and then curate to his father at All Saints', Hastings. During this time Oates accused a schoolmaster in Hastings of sodomy with one of his pupils, hoping to get the schoolmaster's post. However, the charge was shown to be false and Oates himself was soon facing charges of perjury , but he escaped jail and fled to London. In 1675 he was appointed as
15704-608: The plight of the Jesuits during this time period. He comments, "The name of the Jesuit is hated above all else, even by priests both secular and regular, and by the Catholic laity as well, because it is said that the Jesuits have caused this raging storm, which is likely to overthrow the whole Catholic religion". Other Catholic religious orders such as the Carmelites , Franciscans , and the Benedictines were also affected by
15855-419: The plot. Charles was dismissive but Kirkby stated that he knew the names of assassins who planned to shoot the King and, if that failed, the Queen's physician, Sir George Wakeman , would poison him. When the King demanded proof, the chemist offered to bring Tonge who knew of these matters personally. The King did agree to see both Kirkby and Tonge that evening, when he gave them a short audience. At this stage, he
16006-454: The plot; apparently it did not occur to them that Oates' ability to recognise the letters made it more likely, rather than less, that he had forged them. Others Oates accused included Dr. William Fogarty, Archbishop Peter Talbot of Dublin , Samuel Pepys and John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse . The list grew to 81 accusations. Oates was given a squad of soldiers and he began to round up Jesuits. The allegations gained little credence until
16157-507: The plotting charge against Sir John Fitzgerald, 2nd Baronet in 1681. Judges gradually began to take a more impartial line, ruling that it was not treason for a Catholic to advocate the conversion of England to the old faith, nor to give financial support to religious houses (the latter was a criminal offence, just not treason). The supposed plot gained some credence in Ireland , where the two Catholic Archbishops, Plunkett and Talbot , were
16308-541: The principal victims, but not in Scotland . Having had at least twenty-two innocent men executed (the last being Oliver Plunkett , the Catholic Archbishop of Armagh on 1 July 1681), Chief Justice William Scroggs began to declare people innocent and the King began to devise countermeasures. The King, who was notably tolerant of religious differences and generally inclined to clemency, was embittered at
16459-547: The reign of Charles II, which saw disasters such as the Great Plague of London (1665) and the Great Fire of London (1666). Vague rumours blamed the fire on arson by Catholics and especially Jesuits . Kenyon remarks, "At Coventry , the townspeople were possessed by the idea that the papists were about to rise and cut their throats ... A nationwide panic seemed likely, and as homeless refugees poured out from London into
16610-511: The religion practised in their domains, while weakening central authority. Conflict over economic and political objectives frequently superseded religion, with Lutheran Saxony , Denmark–Norway and Sweden competing with each other and Calvinist Brandenburg over the Baltic trade . Managing these issues was hampered by the fragmented nature of the empire. Its representative institutions included 300 Imperial Estates distributed across Germany,
16761-498: The resources needed to achieve this. Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially France , although the strongly Catholic Louis XIII of France faced his own Protestant rebels at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and Savoy . Funded by Frederick and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy ,
16912-565: The same time he agreed to co-author a series of anti-Catholic pamphlets with Israel Tonge , whom he had met through his father Samuel, who had once more reverted to the Baptist doctrine. He is described by John Dryden in Absalom and Achitophel (published 1681) thus— Sunk were his eyes, his voice was harsh and loud, Sure signs he neither choleric was nor proud: His long chin proved his wit, his saint-like grace A church vermilion and
17063-706: The same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their war in the Spanish Netherlands had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the Dutch West India Company captured their treasure fleet at Matanzas in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from
17214-840: The same time, the strategic importance of the Spanish Road to their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate, drew in the Spanish. When an army led by Córdoba occupied the Lower Palatinate in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the Mediterranean , while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in Parliament , who considered his pro-Spanish policy
17365-495: The secretary to Mary of Modena Duchess of York , of planning the assassination. Colman was found to have corresponded with the French Jesuit Fr Ferrier, confessor to Louis XIV , outlining his grandiose schemes for obtaining a dissolution of the present Parliament, in the hope of its replacement by a new and pro-French Parliament; in the wake of this revelation he was condemned to death for treason . Wakeman
17516-493: The secretary to Mary of Modena , Duchess of York , of planning to assassinate Charles. Although Oates may have selected the names randomly, or with the help of the Earl of Danby, Colman was found to have corresponded with a French Jesuit, Father Ferrier, who was confessor to Louis XIV , which was enough to condemn him. Wakeman was later acquitted. Despite Oates's unsavoury reputation, his confident performance and superb memory made
17667-505: The settlement. However, while differences over religion and Imperial authority were important factors in causing the war, some contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the contest for European dominance between Habsburg -ruled Spain and Austria , and the French House of Bourbon . Its outbreak is generally traced to 1618 , when Emperor Ferdinand II was deposed as king of Bohemia and replaced by
17818-402: The streets of London five days a year for the remainder of his life". Oates was taken from his cell wearing a hat with the text "Titus Oates, convicted upon full evidence of two horrid perjuries" and put into the pillory at the gate of Westminster Hall (now New Palace Yard ), where passers-by pelted him with eggs. The next day he was pilloried in London and the third day was stripped, tied to
17969-428: The subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid. Charles I of England allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him. By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg , Pomerania , and Jutland , and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of
18120-443: The supposed plot. The hysteria had serious consequences for ordinary British Catholics as well as priests. On 30 October 1678, a proclamation was made that required all Catholics who were not tradesmen or property owners to leave London and Westminster. They were not to enter a twelve-mile (c.19 km) radius of the city without special permission. Throughout this period Catholics were subject to fines, harassment and imprisonment. It
18271-481: The two empires between different branches of the family. This bond was reinforced by frequent inter-marriage, while Spain retained Imperial territories such as the Spanish Netherlands , Milan and Franche-Comté . Although these links meant the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs often worked together, their objectives did not always align. Spain was a global maritime superpower, whose possessions stretched from Europe to
18422-578: The war as primarily a European conflict argue Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the Dutch Republic the Protestant. External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute due to the imminent expiry of the 1609 Twelve Years' Truce , which suspended the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities, Ambrosio Spinola , commander in
18573-427: Was Spain. Fighting ended with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia , the terms of which included greater autonomy within the empire for states like Bavaria and Saxony , as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the balance of power in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of Louis XIV which dominated Europe for the next sixty years. The 1552 Peace of Passau ended
18724-416: Was already sceptical, but he was apparently not ready to rule out the possibility that there might be a plot of some sort (otherwise, Kenyon argues, he would not have given these two very obscure men a private audience). Charles told Kirkby to present Tonge to Thomas Osborne, Lord Danby , Lord High Treasurer , then the most influential of the King's ministers. Tonge then lied to Danby, saying that he had found
18875-457: Was an English priest who fabricated the " Popish Plot ", a supposed Catholic conspiracy to kill King Charles II . Titus Oates was born at Oakham in Rutland. His father Samuel (1610–1683), of a family of Norwich ribbon-weavers, was a graduate of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge , and became a minister who moved between the Church of England (sometime rector of Marsham, Norfolk ) and
19026-416: Was fixed for 13 May, but a quarrel between the two houses as to points of procedure, and the legality of admitting the bishops as judges in a capital trial, followed by a dissolution, delayed its commencement until 30 November 1680. On that day it was decided to proceed first against Lord Stafford, who was condemned to death on 7 December and beheaded on 29 December. His trial, compared to the other Plot trials,
19177-487: Was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at Wolgast . He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the War of the Mantuan Succession , Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in
19328-429: Was found in a ditch at Primrose Hill ; he had been strangled and run through with his own sword. Oates subsequently exploited this incident to launch a public campaign against the " Papists " and alleged that the murder of Godfrey had been the work of the Jesuits. On 24 November 1678, Oates claimed the Queen was working with the King's physician to poison the King. Oates enlisted the aid of "Captain" William Bedloe , who
19479-609: Was hanged for his murder. Bedloe, Turbervile and Dugdale had all died of natural causes while the Plot was still officially regarded as true. The Society of Jesus suffered the most between 1678 and 1681. During this period, nine Jesuits were executed and twelve died in prison. Three other deaths were attributable to the hysteria. They also lost Combe in Herefordshire , which was the Jesuit headquarters for south Wales. A quote from French Jesuit Claude de la Colombière highlights
19630-471: Was held by a small English garrison under Sir Horace Vere . The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in The Hague until his death in November 1632. At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from
19781-564: Was killed. Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at Fürth , from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the Battle of the Alte Veste in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign. Two months later,
19932-454: Was later acquitted. Despite Oates' unsavoury reputation, the councillors were impressed by his confidence, his grasp of detail and his remarkable memory. A turning point came when he was shown five letters, supposedly written by well-known priests and giving details of the plot, which he was suspected of forging: Oates "at a single glance" named each of the alleged authors. At this the council were "amazed" and began to give much greater credence to
20083-525: Was living. The following day Tonge claimed to find the manuscript and showed it to an acquaintance, Christopher Kirkby, who was shocked and decided to inform the King. Kirkby was a chemist and a former assistant in Charles' scientific experiments, and Charles prided himself on being approachable to the general public. On 13 August 1678, whilst Charles was out walking in St. James's Park , the chemist informed him of
20234-599: Was not until the early 19th century that most of the anti-Catholic legislation was removed by the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829 ; anti-Catholic sentiment remained even longer among politicians and the general populace, although the Gordon Riots of 1780 made it clear to sensible observers that Catholics were far more likely to be the victims of violence than its perpetrators. Titus Oates Titus Oates (15 September 1649 – 12/13 July 1705)
20385-517: Was observed scrupulously, and only Oates claimed to have any hard evidence against the remaining Lords. Lord Petre died in the Tower in 1683. His companions remained there until 12 February 1684 when an appeal to the Court of King's Bench to release them on bail was successful. On 21 May 1685 Arundell, Powis, and Belasyse came to the House of Lords to present petitions for the annulling of the charges and on
20536-661: Was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history . Fought primarily in Central Europe , an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of Germany reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the Eighty Years' War , the War of the Mantuan Succession , the Franco-Spanish War , the Torstenson War ,
20687-458: Was presided over by the formidable George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys , who conducted the trial in such a manner that Oates had no hope of acquittal, and the jury brought in the expected guilty verdict. The death penalty was not available for perjury and Oates was sentenced to be stripped of clerical dress, whipped through London twice, and imprisoned for life and pilloried every year (the penalties were so severe that it has been argued that Jeffreys
20838-474: Was quickly exposed, and his frequently blasphemous conversation, and his attacks on the British monarchy, shocked both his teachers and the other students. Thomas Whitbread , the new Provincial, took a much firmer line with Oates than had Strange and, in June 1678, expelled him from St Omer. When he returned to London, he rekindled his friendship with Israel Tonge. Oates claimed that he had pretended to become
20989-583: Was ready to say anything for money. The King personally interrogated Oates and caught him out in a number of inaccuracies and lies. In particular, Oates unwisely claimed to have had an interview with the Regent of Spain, Don John , in Madrid : the King, who had met Don John at Brussels during his Continental exile, pointed out that Oates's hopelessly inaccurate description of his appearance made it clear that he had never seen him. The King ordered his arrest. However,
21140-546: Was reasonably fair, but as in all cases of alleged treason at that date the absence of defence counsel was a fatal handicap (this was finally remedied in 1695), and while Oates' credit had been seriously damaged, the evidence of the principal prosecution witnesses, Turberville and Dugdale, struck even fair-minded observers like John Evelyn as being credible enough. Stafford, denied the services of counsel, failed to exploit several inconsistencies in Tuberville's testimony, which
21291-741: Was restored and increased to £300 a year. Oates died on 12 or 13 July 1705, by then an obscure and largely forgotten figure. Francis Barlow made a comic strip about the Popish Plot and Oates in c. 1682 named A True Narrative of the Horrid Hellish Popish Plot , which is generally considered the earliest example of a signed balloon comic strip. Oates was played by Nicholas Smith in the 1969 BBC TV serial The First Churchills . In Charles II: The Power and The Passion (2003), Eddie Marsan played Oates. Thirty Years War The Thirty Years' War , from 1618 to 1648,
21442-456: Was searched – without result – in the expectation of a second Gunpowder Plot . Anyone even suspected of being Catholic was driven out of London and forbidden to be within ten miles (16 km) of the city. William Staley , a young Catholic banker, made a drunken threat against the King; within 10 days he was tried, convicted of plotting treason and executed. In calmer times, Staley's offence would probably have resulted in him being bound over ,
21593-613: Was seen as an attempt by the Catholic Habsburgs to exterminate German Protestantism. Under the early Stuart Kings, fears of Catholic conspiracies were rampant and the policies of Charles I – especially his church policies, which had a decidedly high church bent – were seen as pro-Catholic and likely induced by a Catholic conspiracy headed by Charles' Catholic queen, Henrietta Maria of France . This, together with accounts of Catholic atrocities in Ireland in 1641, helped trigger
21744-412: Was supplemented by other informers; some like Thomas Dangerfield , were notorious criminals, but others like Stephen Dugdale , Robert Jenison and Edward Turberville were men of good social standing who from motives of greed or revenge denounced innocent victims, and by their apparently plausible evidence made the Plot seem more credible. Dugdale in particular made such a good initial impression that even
21895-638: Was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn – led to Catholic powers not recognising her as queen and favouring her next relative, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots . Elizabeth's reign saw Catholic rebellions like the Rising of the North (1569) as well as intrigues like the Ridolfi Plot (1571) and the Babington Plot (1586), both intending to kill Elizabeth and replace her with Mary under
22046-491: Was to be married to a daughter of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury . After nearly three years and the execution of at least 15 innocent men, opinion began to turn against Oates. The last high-profile victim of the climate of suspicion was Oliver Plunkett , Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh , who was hanged, drawn and quartered on 1 July 1681. William Scroggs , the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , began to declare more people innocent, as he had done in
22197-467: Was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria. Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria , new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at Nördlingen which destroyed Swedish power in Southern Germany and led to
22348-469: Was too ill to attend) were brought to the House of Lords to put in pleas against the articles of impeachment. Arundell complained of the uncertainty of the charges, and implored the peers to have them "reduced to competent certainty" but on 24 April this plea was voted irregular, and on 26 April the prisoners were again brought to the House of Lords and ordered to amend their pleas. Arundell replied by briefly declaring himself not guilty. The impeachment trial
22499-463: Was too late because London was already in a panic, which was long remembered as "Godfrey's autumn". Oates seized on Godfrey's murder as proof that the plot was true. The murder of Godfrey and the discovery of Edward Coleman's letters provided a solid basis of facts for the lies of Oates and the other informers who followed him. Oates was called to testify before the House of Lords and the House of Commons on 23 October 1678. He testified that he had seen
22650-429: Was true, and reluctantly agreed. During the investigation, Oates' name arose. From the first, the King was convinced that Oates was a liar, and Oates did not help his case by claiming to have met the regent of Spain , Don John of Austria . Questioned by the King, who had met Don John in Brussels in 1656, it became obvious that Oates had no idea what he looked like. The King had a long and frank talk with Paul Barillon ,
22801-409: Was trying to kill Oates by ill-treatment). Oates spent the next three years in prison. At the accession of William of Orange and Mary in 1689, he was pardoned and granted a pension of £260 a year, but his reputation did not recover. The pension was suspended, but in 1698 was restored and increased to £300 a year. Oates died on 12 or 13 July 1705, quite forgotten by the public which had once called him
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