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117-519: In 1861 the Union captured the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and their main harbor, Port Royal . The white residents fled, leaving behind 10,000 black slaves. Several private Northern charity organizations stepped in to help the former slaves become self-sufficient. The result was a model of what Reconstruction could have been. The African Americans demonstrated their ability to work

234-592: A confederation of independent states, functioning similarly to the European Union . Confederates generally saw the Union as being opposed to slavery, occasionally referring to them as abolitionists, in reference to the U.S. Navy as the "abolition fleet" and the U.S. Army as "abolition forces". In 2015, historian Michael Landis called for an end to the use of the term "Union", writing "The employment of 'Union' instead of 'United States,' implicitly supports

351-534: A Unitarian minister, and the social reformer Dorothea Dix . Systematic funding appeals raised public consciousness as well as millions of dollars. Many thousands of volunteers worked in the hospitals and rest homes, most famously poet Walt Whitman . Frederick Law Olmsted , a famous landscape architect, was the highly efficient executive director of the Sanitary Commission. States could use their own tax money to support their troops, as Ohio did. Under

468-412: A book and so was forced to use charts and the chalkboard. The pupils had to wait until March 1864 to receive the first book, The Phonic Primer and Reader . The experiment concluded that the technique created during his time at Port Royal was effective enough to teach adults. It was a simple method that used a unique phonic teaching method of teaching English reading by the sounds of letters. The research

585-431: A complete regiment. Not until Washington approved gubernatorial control of all new units was the problem resolved. Allan Nevins is particularly scathing of this in his analysis: "A President more exact, systematic and vigilant than Lincoln, a Secretary more alert and clearheaded than Cameron, would have prevented these difficulties." By the end of 1861, 700,000 soldiers were drilling in Union camps. The first wave in spring

702-593: A graduate Degree at Kenyon College . Colton also traveled to Cincinnati. He founded a few schools where Professor Zachos also taught. By 1843, Zachos finished his second degree from Kenyon College . By now Zachos enrolled in Medical School under the prominent Dr. Reuben D. Mussey where he continued his studies for three years. By the late 1840s, Zachos decide not to practice medicine due to his love for teaching and literature. Zachos, Stanley Matthews (judge) , Ainsworth Rand Spofford , and nine others founded

819-633: A modern railroad system, to be mobilized by the United States Military Railroad . The South had resisted policies such as tariffs to promote industry and homestead laws to promote farming because slavery would not benefit. With the South gone and Northern Democrats weak, the Republicans enacted their legislation. At the same time they passed new taxes to pay for part of the war and issued large amounts of bonds to pay for most of

936-550: A national mission that has defined America ever since. Lincoln's charm and willingness to cooperate with political and personal enemies made Washington work much more smoothly than Richmond , the Confederate capital, and his wit smoothed many rough edges. Lincoln's cabinet proved much stronger and more efficient than Davis's, as Lincoln channeled personal rivalries into a competition for excellence rather than mutual destruction. With William Seward at State , Salmon P. Chase at

1053-417: A plantation. He spent a total of 16 months at Parris Island, where he took on many roles: army surgeon, teacher, and storekeeper. He was also in charge of the military stronghold under General Rufus Saxton . Zachos tried to teach the former slaves and studied their ability to learn. The professor realized that older slaves had a hard time because of the years of psychological abuse and torture. Zachos noted it

1170-499: A synonym for "the northern states loyal to the United States government". In this meaning, the Union included 20 free states (in the north and west) and four southern border slave states , Delaware , Maryland , Kentucky , and Missouri , though Missouri and Kentucky both had dual competing Confederate and Unionist governments. The Union Army was a new formation comprising mostly state units, together with units from

1287-525: Is to the Gates of the Temple of Knowledge . The test concluded that the new technique he created during his time at Port Royal was effective enough to teach adults. It was a simple teaching method. The method employed a unique phonic education technique of teaching English reading by sounds of letters. That same year an official book was published to educate the former adult slaves. Phonic Primer and Reader . Thus

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1404-542: The Independent Congregational Church (Unitarian) of Meadville (Pennsylvania), writing: "A call was given, January 28, 1866, to the Rev. John Celivergos Zachos of West Newton, Mass. He accepted the call and began his ministry here at the beginning of May, at a salary of $ 1500, in addition to the rents of the minister's house, and with four weeks' annual vacation." Wilbur wrote further: Something of

1521-838: The Literary Club of Cincinnati in 1849. One year later Rutherford B. Hayes became a member. Other prominent members included William Howard Taft and notable club guests Ralph Waldo Emerson , Booker T. Washington , Mark Twain , and Robert Frost . He married Harriet Tompkins Canfield Zachos on July 26, 1849. Harriet Tompkins was born on January 15, 1824, to George Washington Canfield and Catherine A Clark. Harriet's second cousin John Caldwell Canfield married Ella Todd, Abraham Lincoln 's niece. Harriet Canfield and John Zachos had six children born between 1850 and 1865. His daughter Mary Helena Zachos became an American college professor and elocutionist. His son Ainsworth

1638-869: The Morrill tariff , the Homestead Act , the Pacific Railroad Act , and the National Banking Act . Lincoln paid relatively little attention to this legislation as he focused on war issues but he worked smoothly with powerful Congressional leaders such as Thaddeus Stevens (on taxation and spending), Charles Sumner (on foreign affairs), Lyman Trumbull (on legal issues), Justin Smith Morrill (on land grants and tariffs) and William Pitt Fessenden (on finances). Military and reconstruction issues were another matter. Lincoln, as

1755-589: The Treasury , and (from 1862) Edwin Stanton at the War Department , Lincoln had a powerful cabinet of determined men. Except for monitoring major appointments and decisions, Lincoln gave them free rein to end the Confederate rebellion. The Republican Congress passed many major laws that reshaped the nation's economy, financial system, tax system, land system, and higher education system. These included:

1872-721: The United States when eleven Southern slave states seceded to form the Confederate States of America (CSA), also known as the Confederacy or South, during the American Civil War . The Union was led by Abraham Lincoln , the 16th president of the United States , and sought to preserve the nation, a constitutional federal union . In the context of the Civil War, "Union" is also often used as

1989-610: The 1863 draft law led to riots in several cities and in rural areas as well. By far the most important were the New York City draft riots of July 13 to July 16, 1863. Irish Catholic and other workers fought police, militia and regular army units until the Army used artillery to sweep the streets. Initially focused on the draft, the protests quickly expanded into violent attacks on blacks in New York City, with many killed on

2106-468: The Boston organizations to provide relief and education for the former slaves. Many more relief organizations were established from different parts of the country. Hundreds of teachers were sent to different parts of the South. Around March 14, 1862, more than one hundred and fifty candidates applied for the special position to the special education commission, and 35 candidates were initially chosen. One of

2223-458: The Confederacy gave paper promissory notes when it seized property, so that even loyal Confederates would hide their horses and mules rather than sell them for dubious paper. Overall, the Northern financial system was highly successful in raising money and turning patriotism into profit, while the Confederate system impoverished its patriots. The United States needed $ 3.1 billion to pay for

2340-588: The Confederacy would never voluntarily rejoin the U.S. The most prominent Copperhead was Ohio's Clement L. Vallandigham , a Congressman and leader of the Democratic Party in Ohio. He was defeated in an intense election for governor in 1863. Republican prosecutors in the Midwest accused some Copperhead activists of treason in a series of trials in 1864. Copperheadism was a grassroots movement, strongest in

2457-474: The Confederacy. During the 37th and 38th Congresses, the committee investigated every aspect of Union military operations, with special attention to finding commanders culpable for military defeats. It assumed an inevitable Union victory. Failure was perceived to indicate evil motivations or personal failures. The committee distrusted graduates of the US Military Academy at West Point, since many of

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2574-585: The Copperheads damaged the Union war effort by fighting the draft, encouraging desertion and forming conspiracies. However, other historians say the Copperheads were a legitimate opposition force unfairly treated by the government, adding that the draft was in disrepute and that the Republicans greatly exaggerated the conspiracies for partisan reasons. Copperheadism was a major issue in the 1864 presidential election—its strength waxed when Union armies were doing poorly and waned when they won great victories. After

2691-575: The Democrats gained control of the legislature, they were unable to impede the war effort. Republican Governor Oliver P. Morton was able to maintain control of the state's contribution to the war effort despite the Democratic majority. Washington was especially helpful in 1864 in arranging furloughs to allow Hoosier soldiers to return home so they could vote in elections. Across the North in 1864,

2808-538: The Lost Cause, Confederate view of secession wherein the nation of the United States collapsed [...] In reality, however, the United States never ceased to exist [...] The dichotomy of 'Union v. Confederacy' lends credibility to the Confederate experiment and undermines the legitimacy of the United States as a political entity." In 2021, the Army University Press noted that it was replacing usages of

2925-460: The Midwest and wanted to allow Confederate secession. In the East, opposition to the war was strongest among Irish Catholics, but also included business interests connected to the South typified by August Belmont . The Democratic Party was deeply split. In 1861 most Democrats supported the war. However, the party increasingly split down the middle between the moderates who supported the war effort, and

3042-692: The New England Branch, and the New York National Freedmen's Relief Association became the New York Branch. Many other such philanthropic organizations also merged into different branches of the American Freedman's Union Commission with the intention of the proliferation of the education of African-Americans. Union (American Civil War) The Union , colloquially known as the North , refers to

3159-795: The Ohio State Teachers Association and created the Association for Advancement of Female Education. Zachos was also the editor of the Ohio Journal of Education. During the early 1850s Zachos wrote several books: The New American Speaker and Introductory Lessons in Reading and Elocution . Educator Horace Mann , a fellow Bostonian and close friend to Samuel Gridley Howe , took a position at Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio. Mann invited Zachos to

3276-477: The Republicans and War Democrats joined to campaign under the National Union Party banner, which also attracted most soldiers, and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket against Democratic candidate George B. McClellan . The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare ravaged the countryside. Almost all military actions took place in

3393-435: The South. Michigan was especially eager to send thousands of volunteers. A study of the cities of Grand Rapids and Niles shows an overwhelming surge of nationalism in 1861, whipping up enthusiasm for the war in all segments of society, and all political, religious, ethnic, and occupational groups. However, by 1862 the casualties were mounting, and the war was increasingly focused on freeing the slaves in addition to preserving

3510-506: The South. Prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers' wives, widows, and orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered in order to escape the draft and to take advantage of generous cash bounties on offer from states and localities. Draft resistance

3627-412: The U.S. Army firing grape shot down cobblestone city streets. The Democrats nominated George McClellan , a War Democrat for the 1864 presidential but imposed an anti-war platform on him. In terms of Congress the opposition against the war was nearly powerless—as was the case in most states. In Indiana and Illinois pro-war governors circumvented anti-war legislatures elected in 1862. For 30 years after

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3744-460: The Union. Copperhead Democrats called the war a failure, and it became an increasingly partisan Republican effort. Michigan voters remained evenly split between the parties in the presidential election of 1864. Perman (2010) says historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer, and die over four years: Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about

3861-664: The Union. Most Northern states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort and suppressed anti-war subversion, particularly that that arose in 1863–64. The Democratic Party strongly supported the war at the beginning in 1861, but by 1862, was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element known as Peace Democrats, led by the extremist " Copperheads ". The Democrats made major electoral gains in 1862 in state elections, most notably in New York. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio. In 1864,

3978-523: The United States to educate them. Namely traveling with Zachos and Howe was a young refugee who survived the Chios massacre named Christophoros Castanes . In 1851, he wrote a book on his travels called The Greek Exile, Or, a Narrative of the Captivity and Escape of Christophorus Plato Castanis . This book includes John C. Zachos and other Greek children. In 1830, Zachos was in the United States. He

4095-408: The academy's alumni were leaders of the enemy army. Members of the committee much preferred political generals with a satisfactory political record. Some of the committee suggested that West-Pointers who engaged in strategic maneuver were cowardly or even disloyal. It ended up endorsing incompetent but politically correct generals. The opposition came from Copperhead Democrats , who were strongest in

4212-526: The area just north of the Ohio River, as well as some urban ethnic wards . Some historians have argued that it represented a traditionalistic element alarmed at the rapid modernization of society sponsored by the Republican Party . It looked back to Jacksonian Democracy for inspiration—with ideals that promoted an agrarian rather than industrialized concept of society. Weber (2006) argues that

4329-558: The beginning of October, in order to accept a call to the church at Ithaca, N. Y. His departure was generally lamented, as the loss of a faithful minister who was ready to devote himself to every good cause, and who had endeared himself to all classes by his affable manner and his kindness of heart. By 1868 Zachos moved to Ithaca, New York to the Ithaca Chapter of the Theological Seminary. He remained associated with

4446-489: The book features a large assortment of Shakespearean monologues. As an inventor, he invented the stenotype. His nephew George Canfield Blickensderfer later invented the blickensderfer typewriter . Zachos' daughter Helena Zachos continued his work as a prominent elocutionist. The Helena Zachos Award at Wells College was named after her. He died in New York City at 77 years old. Zachos was born in Constantinople ,

4563-436: The candidates was prominent educator from Ohio John Celivergos Zachos with whom Salmon P. Chase was familiar as senator and governor of Ohio. John Celivergos Zachos , as well as Susan Walker, traveled to Port Royal from Ohio. The Boston and New York Education Commissions sent Zachos to prove that the former slaves could be educated. Zachos was on Parris Island on March 13, 1862, and he was in command of 400 freed slaves on

4680-590: The capital of the Ottoman Empire . His parents were Nicholas and Euphrosyne Zachos. They were from Athens. Nicholas Zachos was a general in the Greek army during the Greek War of Independence , where he was killed in battle in 1824. Samuel Gridley Howe an American surgeon and Philhellene was also fighting for Greek independence. He brought John Celivergos Zachos along with other young Greek people back to

4797-748: The chalkboard. The students had to wait until March 1864 to receive the first book which had an extremely long title The Phonic Primer and Reader, A National Method of teaching Reading by the Sounds of the Letters without altering the Orthography. Designed Chiefly for the Use of Night-Schools Where Adults are Taught, and for the Myriads of Freed Men and Women, Whose First Rush from the Prison-House of Slavery

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4914-521: The college. Zachos became a principal of the preparatory school in 1854 but remained at the post for three years because Mann could not secure his tenure. At Antioch College, Zachos read Shakespeare and lectured courses on the English Poets. During his time at the institution, Zachos stayed busy traveling around Ohio with his many other organizations. By 1857 Zachos moved back to Cincinnati he took random teaching jobs and wrote four more books before

5031-514: The cost of a full-scale war but the Treasury Department under Secretary Salmon P. Chase showed unusual ingenuity in financing the war without crippling the economy. Many new taxes were imposed and always with a patriotic theme comparing the financial sacrifice to the sacrifices of life and limb. The government paid for supplies in real money, which encouraged people to sell to the government regardless of their politics. By contrast l,

5148-540: The critical post of state adjutant general was held in 1861–64 by elderly politician Anthony C. Colby (1792–1873) and his son Daniel E. Colby (1816–1891). They were patriotic, but were overwhelmed with the complexity of their duties. The state lost track of men who enlisted after 1861; it had no personnel records or information on volunteers, substitutes, or draftees, and there was no inventory of weaponry and supplies. Nathaniel Head (1828–1883) took over in 1864, obtained an adequate budget and office staff, and reconstructed

5265-485: The draft law as a violation of their local autonomy. In June 1863, small-scale disturbances broke out; they ended when the Army sent in armed units. The Union economy grew and prospered during the war while fielding a very large army and navy. The Republicans in Washington had a Whiggish vision of an industrial nation, with great cities, efficient factories, productive farms, all national banks, all knit together by

5382-649: The elocutionary method was to assist public speakers, politicians, actors, and lecturers in their presentation of public speech. His elocutionary acting method was broken into five parts: articulation, accent, pronunciation, expression, and gesture. The book featured selected literary works which were treated as monologues also referred to as dialogues during that era. The monologues were introduced by acting style. The first section began with earnest declamation monologues followed by declamation vehement invective monologues. The sections following included: dramatic and descriptive, soliloquy and meditation, wit-humor-burlesque, while

5499-931: The energetic leadership of Governor David Tod , a War Democrat who won office on a coalition "Union Party" ticket with Republicans, Ohio acted vigorously. Following the unexpected carnage at the battle of Shiloh in April 1862, Ohio sent three steamboats to the scene as floating hospitals equipped with doctors, nurses, and medical supplies. The state fleet expanded to 11 hospital ships, and the state set up 12 local offices in main transportation nodes, to help Ohio soldiers moving back and forth. The Christian Commission comprised 6,000 volunteers who aided chaplains in many ways. For example, its agents distributed Bibles, delivered sermons, helped with sending letters home, taught men to read and write, and set up camp libraries. The Army learned many lessons and modernized its procedures, and medical science—especially surgery—made many advances. In

5616-596: The entire United States of America. Using the term "Union" to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the pre-existing political entity. Before the American Civil War, the United States was known as the "United States' federal union", a union of states controlled by the federal government in Washington, D.C. This was opposite to the CSA's first government,

5733-404: The estimated number of plantations upon each is given: Or about two hundred in all. There are several other islands thus protected, without plantations, as Otter , Pritchard , Fripp , Hunting and Phillips . Lemon and Daw have not been explored by the agents engaged in collecting cotton. The populous island of North Edisto , lying in the direction of Charleston , and giving the name to

5850-488: The fall of Atlanta in September 1864, military success seemed assured and Copperheadism collapsed. Enthusiastic young men clamored to join the Union army in 1861. They came with family support for reasons of patriotism and excitement. Washington decided to keep the small regular army intact; it had only 16,000 men and was needed to guard the frontier. Its officers could, however, join the temporary new volunteer army that

5967-435: The fierce battles more typical of the political arena." Historian Michael Smith argues that as the war ground on year after year, the spirit of American republicanism grew stronger and generated fears of corruption in high places. Voters became afraid of power being centralized in Washington, extravagant spending, and war profiteering. Democratic candidates emphasized these fears. The candidates added that rapid modernization

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6084-418: The final section featured works for serious and comic acting. The featured literary works used in his books were taken from various different authors, poets, and playwrights. A huge assortment of the works of William Shakespeare were featured. The purpose of the sections were to utilize acting methods for public speech. The selected works resembled the specific acting method chosen by Zachos for example most of

6201-467: The finest cotton, is still visited by the rebels. A part near Botany Bay Island is commanded by the guns of one of our war vessels, under which a colony of one thousand negroes sought protection, where they have been temporarily subsisted from its stores. The number has within a few days been stated to have increased to 2300. In the summer of 1862, Union troops protecting coastal colonies began to withdraw to reinforce Union General George B. McClellan who

6318-425: The former institution until 1871. While at Ithaca Zachos also lectured and taught classes at the newly founded Cornell University . In 1871, now 51 he moved to New York City where he would stay until the time of his death. Peter Cooper and John C. Zachos became good friends. Zachos influenced the foundation of Cooper Union . He taught literature and public speech. In 1876 he was Peter Cooper's first biographer. He

6435-510: The former slaves but also to aid them on how to govern themselves in normal society. The candidate was also responsible for intellectual, moral, and religious instruction. The Boston Educational Commission for Freedmen was established in response to a call made by E.L. Pierce as a philanthropic organization. Around the same time, the Port Royal Relief Committee of Philadelphia was formed. A New York organization united with

6552-401: The former slaves could be educated. On March 13, 1862, Zachos was on Parris Island in command of 400 freed slaves on a plantation. Zachos spent a total of 16 months at Parris Island. Zachos took on many roles during this time, he was an Army Surgeon, Teacher, Store Keeper. The military stronghold was supervised by Zachos under General Rufus Saxton . He is noted for writing and reciting poetry to

6669-455: The freed slaves. Ye sons of burning Afric's soil, Lift up your hands of hardened toil Your shouts from every hill recoil Zachos left Parris Island towards the end of 1863 to conclude the experiment. While he was at Port Royal he studied the difficulties former slaves encountered with learning how to read. Namely, older slaves had a hard time due to years of torture and psychological abuse. Zachos traveled back to Boston. He lived in

6786-495: The freed slaves. A massive number of organizations were established and continued educating the freed people. On March 3, 1865, roughly two months before the end of the Civil War, the Freedmen's Bureau was established. Within the next five years, it had established 4239 schools, employed 9307 teachers, and instructed 247,333 students. The higher education of African Americans was the bureau's responsibility. In many instances there

6903-674: The governor appointed the senior officers, and Lincoln appointed the generals. Typically, politicians used their local organizations to raise troops and were in line (if healthy enough) to become colonel. The problem was that the War Department, under the disorganized leadership of Simon Cameron , also authorized local and private groups to raise regiments. The result was widespread confusion and delay. Pennsylvania, for example, had acute problems. When Washington called for 10 more regiments, enough men volunteered to form 30. However, they were scattered among 70 different new units, none of them

7020-579: The great majority of soldiers voted Republican. Men who had been Democrats before the war often abstained or voted Republican. As the federal draft laws tightened, there was serious unrest among Copperhead strongholds, such as the Irish in the Pennsylvania coal mining districts. The government needed the coal more than the draftees, so it ignored the largely non-violent draft dodging there. The violent New York City draft riots of 1863 were suppressed by

7137-418: The hard work ethic of the former slaves is mentioned, as well as the urgent need for a basic education of which they had been deprived. Allen also took notes on the language, songs and music he heard which he later published. In 1862, General Ormsby M. Mitchel helped African Americans to found the town of Mitchelville on Hilton Head Island . In 1865 President Andrew Johnson ended the experiment, returning

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7254-460: The immense armies and fleets raised to fight the Civil War—over $ 400 million just in 1862 alone. Apart from tariffs, the largest revenue by far came from new excise taxes —a sort of value added tax —that was imposed on every sort of manufactured item. Second came much higher tariffs, through several Morrill tariff laws. Third came the nation's first income tax; only the wealthy paid and it

7371-486: The importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that, no matter what he thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes affected his reasons for continuing to fight. On

7488-440: The inventor of exercise equipment. Together they wrote instructional books on health and exercise and the benefit of using the equipment. On December 24, 1875, he filed patent number 175892 for typewriters and phenotypic notation application. The machine was a stenotype used for printing legible English text at a high speed. He obtained 10,000 dollars in investment capital for his invention. He continued his advancement of oratory

7605-592: The land efficiently and live independently of white control. They assigned themselves daily tasks for cotton growing and spent their extra time cultivating their own crops, fishing and hunting. By selling their surplus crops, the locals acquired small amounts of property. Among the Northerners who arrived as teachers were Mary Lambert Allen and her husband William Francis Allen from West Newton, Massachusetts. Detailed descriptions of their daily life are provided in his diaries which have been transcribed. Admiration for

7722-615: The land to its previous white owners. In February 1862, a report was made to the Treasury Dept. which gives an indication of the territory held in the Port Royal Experiment: An estimate of the number of plantations open to cultivation, and of the persons upon the territory protected by the forces of the United States, if only approximate to the truth, may prove convenient in providing a proper system of administration. The following islands are thus protected, and

7839-793: The leader of the moderate and conservative factions of the Republican Party, often crossed swords with the Radical Republicans , led by Stevens and Sumner. Author, Bruce Tap, shows that Congress challenged Lincoln's role as commander-in-chief through the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War . It was a joint committee of both houses that was dominated by the Radical Republicans, who took a hard line against

7956-497: The legitimacy of the Confederacy's secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States. In foreign affairs, the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term "Union" occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The subsequent Constitution of 1787

8073-651: The long run, the wartime experiences of the numerous Union commissions modernized public welfare, and set the stage for large—scale community philanthropy in America based on fund raising campaigns and private donations. Additionally, women gained new public roles. For example, Mary Livermore (1820–1905), the manager of the Chicago branch of the US Sanitary Commission, used her newfound organizational skills to mobilize support for women's suffrage after

8190-400: The missing paperwork. As result, widows, orphans, and disabled veterans received the postwar payments they had earned. More soldiers died of disease than from battle injuries, and even larger numbers were temporarily incapacitated by wounds, disease, and accidents. The Union responded by building army hospitals in every state. The hygiene of the camps was poor, especially at the beginning of

8307-433: The much enlarged United States Army Medical Department, and the United States Sanitary Commission , a new private agency. Numerous other new agencies also targeted the medical and morale needs of soldiers, including the United States Christian Commission , as well as smaller private agencies, such as the Women's Central Association of Relief for Sick and Wounded in the Army (WCAR), founded in 1861 by Henry Whitney Bellows ,

8424-422: The muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures. McClintock states: At the time, Northerners were right to wonder at the near unanimity that so quickly followed long months of bitterness and discord. It would not last throughout the protracted war to come—or even through the year—but in that moment of unity was laid bare the common Northern nationalism usually hidden by

8541-419: The neighborhood where he grew up and where Samuel Gridley Howe still maintained a residence. During the beginning of 1864, Zachos assembled a group of uneducated immigrants, both male and female. The test subjects did not speak or read English. Zachos, with the knowledge he acquired from the former slaves, put together a curriculum to instruct the test subjects. Because he did not have a book he used charts and

8658-818: The next two decades. He was a proponent of the Delsarte System of Oratory founded by François Delsarte . He also advocated the James Rush classic, The Philosophy of the Human Voice . James Rush was the son of Benjamin Rush . Zachos's lectures were very popular at Cooper Union. Namely, on Tuesdays and Saturdays, the crowd would exceed 100 to 200 people. Peter Cooper told William Cullen Bryant to personally observe Professor Zachos's lecture. In "The Letters of William Cullen Bryant" Bryant called Zachos an oratory genius. Due to his poetry lectures he also gained

8775-451: The onset of the Civil war. The Primary School Speaker , The High School Speaker , The Analytic and Phonetic Word Book and Analytic Elocution . At this point Zachos was perfecting public speech and education. At the onset of the Civil War, Zachos was summoned by close friend Salmon P. Chase to go to Port Royal. He was formally sent by the Boston and New York Education Commissions to prove

8892-427: The outbreak of war. His father died during the war and he was given to Samuel Gridley Howe by his mother. He was a young refugee traveling to the United States of America. In America, he was educated at Mount Pleasant Classical Institute and one of his teachers included Gregory Anthony Perdicaris . At the academy, he also met Chauncey Colton whom he followed around the country to different educational institutions one

9009-423: The parole exchange system broke down in 1863, about 195,000 went to Confederate prison camps. Some tried to escape but few succeeded. By contrast 464,000 Confederates were captured (many in the final days) and 215,000 imprisoned. Over 30,000 Union and nearly 26,000 Confederate prisoners died in captivity. Just over 12% of the captives in Northern prisons died, compared to 15.5% for Southern prisons. Discontent with

9126-631: The peace element, including Copperheads, who did not. It scored major gains in the 1862 elections, and elected the moderate Horatio Seymour as governor of New York. They gained 28 seats in the House of Representatives , including the Speaker of the House's seat but Republicans retained control of both the House and the Senate. The 1862 election for the Indiana legislature was especially hard-fought. Though

9243-432: The rebel Confederacy, but it took a long time for the Union to fully mobilize these resources. The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins writes: The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment   ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support,

9360-497: The recognition of Ralph Waldo Emerson and James Russell Lowell . His writing was not confined to literature. Zachos also wrote about philosophy, mathematics, science, metaphysics, and other scientific branches. Under the pseudonym " Cadmus " Dr. Zachos wrote about financial and economic subjects that were published in various New York City publications. On January 7, 1896, Harriet Tompkins Zachos died. Roughly two years later on March 20, 1898, John Celivergos Zachos died. His funeral

9477-402: The regular U.S. Army . Keeping the southern border states in the Union was considered essential to its winning the war. The Northeast and Midwest provided the industrial resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies and financing the war. They provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, and training camps. Army hospitals were also set up across

9594-506: The rest. Economic historians attribute the remainder of the cost of the war to inflation. Congress wrote an elaborate program of economic modernization that had the dual purpose of winning the war and permanently transforming the economy. In 1860 the Treasury was a small operation that funded the small-scale operations of the government through land sales and customs based on a low tariff. Peacetime revenues were trivial in comparison with

9711-425: The rifles, cannons, wagons, tents, telegraph sets, and the myriad of other special items the army needed. While business had been slow or depressed in spring 1861, because of war fears and Southern boycotts, by fall business was hiring again, offering young men jobs that were an alternative way to help win the war. Nonpartisanship was the rule in the first year, but by summer 1862, many Democrats had stopped supporting

9828-655: The rural slaveholding South. Additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of five to two at the start of the war. Year by year, the rebel Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources and population. Meanwhile, the United States turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force. However, much of the US strength had to be used to garrison former-Confederate areas, and to protect railroads and other vital points. The loyal states' great advantages in population and industry would prove to be vital long-term factors in its victory over

9945-650: The same time. Samuel Gridley Howe traveled back to Greece to carry relief to the Cretan refugees and Zachos moved to Meadville Lombard Theological School . In May 1866, he became the Professor of Sacred Rhetoric. While at the Theological School he established another Literary Society. American author, historian, and Unitarian minister Edward Everett Hale spoke very highly of John C. Zachos. Historian Earl Morse Wilbur describes Zachos call to minister at

10062-429: The schoolmaster was apparent in his style of preaching. He was a versatile man, with an uncommonly wide range of interests; a Greek in temperament as well as by birth, fond of abstract themes, and inclined to consider subjects rather from the philosophical or speculative than from the practical side. Yet, though fluent in language, he was not considered an especially strong preacher, nor yet a superior pastor. In addition to

10179-498: The slave owners, as the guilty party in the war. Historians have overwhelmingly praised the "political genius" of Abraham Lincoln's performance as president. His first priority was military victory. This required that he master entirely new skills as a strategist and diplomat. He oversaw supplies, finances, manpower, the selection of generals, and the course of overall strategy. Working closely with state and local politicians, he rallied public opinion and (at Gettysburg ) articulated

10296-414: The streets. Small-scale riots broke out in ethnic German and Irish districts, and in areas along the Ohio River with many Copperheads. Holmes County, Ohio was an isolated parochial area dominated by Pennsylvania Dutch and some recent German immigrants. It was a Democratic stronghold and few men dared speak out in favor of conscription. Local politicians denounced Lincoln and Congress as despotic, seeing

10413-438: The surgeons prescribed coffee, whiskey, and quinine. Harsh weather, bad water, inadequate shelter in winter quarters, poor policing of camps, and dirty camp hospitals took their toll. This was a common scenario in wars from time immemorial, and conditions faced by the Confederate army were even worse. What was different in the Union was the emergence of skilled, well-funded medical organizers who took proactive action, especially in

10530-666: The war effort, and volunteering fell off sharply in their strongholds. The calls for more and more soldiers continued, so states and localities responded by offering cash bonuses. By 1863, a draft law was in effect, but few men actually were drafted and served, since the law was designed to get them to volunteer or hire a substitute. Others hid away or left the country. With the Emancipation Proclamation taking effect in January 1863, localities could meet their draft quota by sponsoring regiments of ex-slaves organized in

10647-408: The war the Democrats carried the burden of having opposed the martyred Lincoln, who was viewed by many as the salvation of the Union and the destroyer of slavery. The Copperheads were a large faction of northern Democrats who opposed the war, demanding an immediate peace settlement. They said they wanted to restore "the Union as it was" (that is, with the South and with slavery) but they realized that

10764-400: The war when men who had seldom been far from home were brought together for training with thousands of strangers. First came epidemics of the childhood diseases of chicken pox , mumps , whooping cough , and especially, measles . Operations in the South meant a dangerous and new disease environment, bringing diarrhea , dysentery , typhoid fever , and malaria . There were no antibiotics, so

10881-414: The war. She argued that women needed more education and job opportunities to help them fulfill their role of serving others. The Sanitary Commission collected enormous amounts of statistical data, and opened up the problems of storing information for fast access and mechanically searching for data patterns. The pioneer was John Shaw Billings (1838–1913). A senior surgeon in the war, Billings built two of

10998-633: The whole, the national, state, and local governments handled the avalanche of paperwork effectively. Skills developed in insurance and financial companies formed the basis of systematic forms, copies, summaries, and filing systems used to make sense of masses of human data. The leader in this effort, John Shaw Billings , later developed a system of mechanically storing, sorting, and counting numerical information using punch cards . Nevertheless, old-fashioned methodology had to be recognized and overcome. An illustrative case study came in New Hampshire, where

11115-469: The word "Union" with "Federal Government" or "U.S. Government". The Army University Press stated this was "more historically accurate" as "the term 'Union' always referred to all the states together." Unlike the Confederacy, the loyal areas of the United States had a relatively large industrialized and urbanized area in the Northeast, and more advanced commercial, transportation and financial systems than

11232-670: The work of his ministry, he was professor of Sacred Rhetoric and Oratory in the Theological School during the two years of his residence here, and continued to hold this office during the year after his departure, returning to give lectures. To him, it is said, is due the suggestion that led to the forming of the Meadville Literary Union in December, 1866. Mr. Zachos resigned in July, 1868, and left Meadville at

11349-890: The world's most important libraries, Library of the Surgeon General's Office (now the National Library of Medicine ) and the New York Public Library ; he also figured out how to mechanically analyze data by turning it into numbers and punching onto the computer punch card, later developed by his student Herman Hollerith . Hollerith's company became International Business Machines (IBM) in 1911. Both sides operated prison camps; they handled about 400,000 captives, but many other prisoners were quickly released and never sent to camps. The Record and Pension Office in 1901 counted 211,000 Northerners who were captured. In 1861–63 most were immediately paroled; after

11466-538: Was a Professor and Library Curator at Cooper Union. Zachos invented a medical device called an Improvement to Abdominal & Spinal Supporters. A patent was filed on July 16, 1872. The No. was 129202. The device was also patented in England. Due to his legendary reputation in the Civil War as an Army Surgeon. Zachos also became medical advisor to the Butler Health Lift. He collaborated with David Butler

11583-566: Was called up for only 90 days, then the soldiers went home or reenlisted. Later waves enlisted for three years. The new recruits spent their time drilling in company and regiment formations. The combat in the first year, though strategically important, involved relatively small forces and few casualties. Sickness was a much more serious cause of hospitalization or death. In the first few months, men wore low quality uniforms made of "shoddy" material, but by fall, sturdy wool uniforms—in blue—were standard. The nation's factories were converted to produce

11700-587: Was coined the phrase: The Port Royal Experiment . After his work Salmon P. Chase gave Zachos an extraordinary recommendation. Another notable Greek American abolitionist was a resident of Boston around this period. His name was Chaplain Photius Fisk . Zachos continued living in Boston for another two years. He became a Unitarian Minister. He gave twelve lectures at the Lowell Institute . Both Samuel Gridley Howe and Zachos Departed Boston at around

11817-419: Was easier to educate the younger slaves. Towards the end of 1863, Zachos traveled back to Boston. In early 1864, Zachos assembled a group of Irish and German uneducated immigrants, both male and female. The test subjects did not speak or read English. Zachos assembled a curriculum to instruct the test subjects based on the needs of the former slaves and their ability to learn. Early on, the professor did not have

11934-640: Was engaged in the Peninsula Campaign , a series of battle between March and July. Many of the colonies were consolidated. One example was the migration of camps at Edisto Island to St. Helena Island . A special education commission was established by Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase . E. L. Pierce was the Government Agent overseeing the experiment. The committee was looking for teachers who were sent not only to educate

12051-413: Was formed, with expectations that their experience would lead to rapid promotions. The problem with volunteering, however, was its serious lack of planning, leadership, and organization at the highest levels. Washington called on the states for troops, and every northern governor set about raising and equipping regiments, and sent the bills to the War Department. The men could elect the junior officers, while

12168-540: Was held at the Church of the Messiah (Manhattan) . Among the many in attendance were his pallbearers S. Packard, Augustus D. Juilliard Former NYC mayor William Lafayette Strong and Union army brevet brigadier general Henry Lawrence Burnett . At the time of his death, his residence was 113 west 84th street New York City. Zachos featured his elocutionary technique in his book The New American Speaker . The intention of

12285-638: Was in Classical Greek and the other was in English. As a young adult, he was noted for fine speaking, he won prizes whenever he competed. He was the founder of the Society of Kenyon College. By now, Zachos and Matthews were close friends and the two lived together in Cincinnati, Matthews's hometown. Matthews pursued a law degree under Salmon P. Chase and Zachos was a teacher, while he continued

12402-590: Was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of "We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union   ..." Union , for the United States of America, is then repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV, Section 3. Even before the Civil War began the phrase "preserve the Union" was commonplace, and a "union of states" had been used to refer to

12519-550: Was named after close friend and abolitionist Ainsworth Rand Spofford . By 1850, Zachos was the co-owner and principal of the Cincinnati Female Seminary on the southeast corner of Ninth and Walnut. The school was founded by Miss Margaret Coxe in 1843. Together they were also co-principals of Cooper Female Institute in Dayton Ohio. Zachos was very active in Ohio during the 1850s. He was involved with

12636-585: Was notable in some larger cities, especially in parts of New York City , with its massive anti-draft riots of July 1863 and in some remote districts such as the Coal Region of Northeastern Pennsylvania . In the context of the American Civil War , the Union, or the United States, is sometimes referred to as "the North", both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was often called "the South". The Union (the United States) never recognized

12753-457: Was opposition among the white people of the South; moreover, in one state, the opposition became widely organized. At the same time, many former slavemasters reportedly assisted in establishing schools for the slaves and became their teachers. On May 16, 1866, a convention was held in Cleveland, Ohio , and formed the American Freedman's Union Commission. The Boston Educational Commission became

12870-510: Was outside of Philadelphia and the latter was Kenyon College in Gambier Ohio. Zachos attended Kenyon College and graduated with honors and also obtained a medical degree but did not practice medicine because of his love for literature and teaching. He became an Army surgeon during the American Civil War serving primarily at Port Royal. Zachos became a Unitarian Minister, briefly taught at Cornell, and finally settled in New York City where he

12987-571: Was placed in Mount Pleasant Classical Institute in Amherst Massachusetts with Christophorus P. Castanis and other Greek children. Their instructors were Gregory Anthony Perdicaris and Petros Mengous and the assistant principal and founder was Chauncey Colton D. D. Zachos later traveled to an Episcopalian institution twenty miles north of Philadelphia. Bristol Manual Labor College , Dr Colton

13104-463: Was presented to the Boston and New York Education Commissions and published in the Journal of The Massachusetts Teachers Association . The same year, an official book was published to educate the former adult slaves, The Phonic Primer and Reader . After his work, Salmon P. Chase gave Zachos an extraordinary recommendation. The Port Royal Experiment initiated a systematic outcry for the education of

13221-413: Was putting too much political power in the hands of Eastern financiers and industrialists. They warned that the abolition of slavery would bring a flood of freed blacks into the labor market of the North. Republicans responded with charges of defeatism. They indicted Copperheads for criminal conspiracies to free Confederate prisoners of war and played on the spirit of nationalism and the growing hatred of

13338-400: Was repealed at war's end. John Celivergos Zachos John Celivergos Zachos ( Greek : Ιωάννης Καλίβεργος Ζάχος ; December 20, 1820 – March 20, 1898) was a Greek-American physician, literary scholar, elocutionist, author, lecturer, inventor, and educational pioneer. He was an early proponent of equal education rights for African Americans and women. During the American Civil War, he

13455-732: Was the curator of the library at Cooper Union and a professor at the institution until his death. He was the fourth honorary member of the National Association of Elocutionists. Zachos was one of the founders of the Beta Theta Pi Society, the Literary Club of Cincinnati , and the Ohio Society of New York. He developed the Zachos Method which is outlined in his book The New American Speaker . The technique uses an acting method for public speech and

13572-496: Was the founder and President it combined manual labor and study. He remained there from 1833 to 1836. By 1837 Zachos again followed Dr. Colton to Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio. Chauncey Colton D. D. took a position as Professor of Homiletics at the institution. Zachos' classmates included Rutherford B. Hayes and Stanley Matthews . He graduated from the institution by 1840 with honors. Zachos gave two commencement speeches one

13689-574: Was the superintendent at Port Royal and a main figure in the Port Royal Experiment . In his book, Phonic Primer and Reader he developed a special system to educate freed slaves. He advocated and expanded the oratory systems of François Delsarte and James Rush . He was born in Constantinople modern-day Istanbul to Greek parents. Both his parents participated in the Greek War of Independence and migrated to Greece after

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