Postmodernity ( post-modernity or the postmodern condition ) is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity . Some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late 20th century – in the 1980s or early 1990s – and that it was replaced by postmodernity, and still others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity. The idea of the postmodern condition is sometimes characterized as a culture stripped of its capacity to function in any linear or autonomous state like regressive isolationism, as opposed to the progressive mind state of modernism .
112-416: Postmodernity can mean a personal response to a postmodern society, the conditions in a society which make it postmodern or the state of being that is associated with a postmodern society as well as a historical epoch. In most contexts it should be distinguished from postmodernism , the adoption of postmodern philosophies or traits in the arts, culture and society. In fact, today's historical perspectives on
224-567: A philosophe (albeit an erratic one) who shared the basic beliefs of his Enlightenment contemporaries. But similar to McMahon, Garrard traces the beginning of Counter-Enlightenment thought back to France and prior to the German Sturm und Drang movement of the 1770s. Garrard's book Counter-Enlightenments (2006) broadens the term even further, arguing against Berlin that there was no single "movement" called "The Counter-Enlightenment". Rather, there have been many Counter-Enlightenments, from
336-687: A copulative or copular verb . In English primary education grammar courses, a copula is often called a linking verb . In other languages, copulas show more resemblances to pronouns , as in Classical Chinese and Guarani , or may take the form of suffixes attached to a noun, as in Korean , Beja , and Inuit languages . Most languages have one main copula (in English, the verb "to be"), although some (like Spanish , Portuguese and Thai ) have more than one, while others have none . While
448-468: A sentence to a subject complement , such as the word is in the sentence "The sky is blue" or the phrase was not being in the sentence "It was not being cooperative." The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a "link" or "tie" that connects two different things. A copula is often a verb or a verb-like word, though this is not universally the case. A verb that is a copula is sometimes called
560-734: A "convergence" marked by the rise of " participatory culture " in the words of Henry Jenkins . One demarcation point of this era is the liberalization of China in the early 1980s and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Francis Fukuyama wrote " The End of History? " in 1989 in anticipation of the Fall of the Berlin Wall . He predicted that the question of political philosophy had been answered, that large scale wars over fundamental values would no longer arise since "all prior contradictions are resolved and all human needs satisfied." This
672-405: A "fundamental mutation" so that it has "now become a set of texts or simulacra ". Whereas modernist art sought to redeem and sacralize the world, to give life to world (we might say, following Graff, to give the world back the enchantment that science and the decline of religion had taken away from it), postmodernist art bestows upon the world a "deathly quality… whose glacéd X-ray elegance mortifies
784-422: A class or a subset relationship: She was a nurse. Cats are carnivorous mammals. Similarly they may express some property, relation or position, permanent or temporary: The trees are green. I am your boss. The hen is next to the cockerel. The children are confused. Some languages use different copulas, or different syntax, to denote a permanent, essential characteristic of something versus
896-552: A copula. Some co-occurrences are common. The English verb to be is also used as an auxiliary verb , especially for expressing passive voice (together with the past participle ) or expressing progressive aspect (together with the present participle ): The man was killed. (passive) It is raining. (progressive) Other languages' copulas have additional uses as auxiliaries. For example, French être can be used to express passive voice similarly to English be ; both French être and German sein are used to express
1008-548: A cultural condition characterized by constant change in the pursuit of progress . Postmodernity then represents the culmination of this process where constant change has become the status quo and the notion of progress obsolete. Following Ludwig Wittgenstein 's critique of the possibility of absolute and total knowledge, Lyotard further argued that the various metanarratives of progress such as positivist science, Marxism , and structuralism were defunct as methods of achieving progress. The literary critic Fredric Jameson and
1120-698: A form of critique that is "postmodern" in that it breaks with utopian and transcendental "modern" critiques by calling universal norms of the Enlightenment into question. Giddens rejects this characterisation of "modern critique", pointing out that a critique of Enlightenment universals was central to philosophers of the modern period, most notably Nietzsche . Jameson views a number of phenomena as distinguishing postmodernity from modernity. He speaks of "a new kind of superficiality " or "depthlessness" in which models that once explained people and things in terms of an "inside" and an "outside" (such as hermeneutics ,
1232-433: A historical condition that marks the reasons for the end of modernity. This usage is ascribed to the philosophers Jean-François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard . One "project" of modernity is said by Jürgen Habermas to have been the fostering of progress by incorporating principles of rationality and hierarchy into public and artistic life. (See also post-industrial , Information Age ) Lyotard understood modernity as
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#17327726953121344-430: A human ' , (te) ember vagy ' you are a human ' , mi emberek vagyunk ' we are humans ' , (ti) emberek vagytok ' you (all) are humans ' . The copula also reappears for stating locations: az emberek a házban vannak ' the people are in the house ' , and for stating time: hat óra van ' it is six o'clock ' . However, the copula may be omitted in colloquial language: hat óra (van) ' it
1456-429: A human ' ; Arabic: أنا إنسان , ʾana ʾinsān ' I (am a) human ' ; Hebrew: אני אדם , ʔani ʔadam ' I (am a) human ' ; Geʽez: አነ ብእሲ/ብእሲ አነ , ʔana bəʔəsi / bəʔəsi ʔana ' I (am a) man ' / ' (a) man I (am) ' ; Southern Quechua : payqa runam ' s/he (is) a human ' . The usage is known generically as the zero copula. In other tenses (sometimes in forms other than third person singular),
1568-412: A non-copular use as an existential verb, meaning "to exist". This use is illustrated in the following sentences: I want only to be , and that is enough ; I think therefore I am ; To be or not to be , that is the question. In these cases, the verb itself expresses a predicate (that of existence ), rather than linking to a predicative expression as it does when used as a copula. In ontology it
1680-585: A noun, but they may still behave otherwise like ordinary verbs: -u- in Inuit languages . In some other languages, like Beja and Ket , the copula takes the form of suffixes that attach to a noun but are distinct from the person agreement markers used on predicative verbs . This phenomenon is known as nonverbal person agreement (or nonverbal subject agreement ), and the relevant markers are always established as deriving from cliticized independent pronouns. In some languages, copula omission occurs within
1792-485: A particular grammatical context. For example, speakers of Bengali , Russian , Indonesian , Turkish , Hungarian , Arabic , Hebrew , Geʽez and Quechuan languages consistently drop the copula in present tense: Bengali: আমি মানুষ , Aami manush, 'I (am a) human'; Russian: я человек , ya chelovek ' I (am a) human ' ; Indonesian: saya seorang manusia ' I (am) a human ' ; Turkish: o insan ' s/he (is a) human ' ; Hungarian: ő ember ' s/he (is)
1904-606: A piece of drawing chalk. Even the rational critic is inspired by irrational dream-content under the gaze of the sharp-eyed lynx. Marshall Brown makes much the same argument as Barzun in Romanticism and Enlightenment , questioning the stark opposition between these two periods. By the middle of the 19th century, the memory of the French Revolution was fading and so was the influence of Romanticism. In this optimistic age of science and industry, there were few critics of
2016-525: A positive development. Other philosophers, particularly those seeing themselves as within The Modern Project , see the state of postmodernity as a negative consequence of holding postmodernist ideas. For example, Jürgen Habermas and others contend that postmodernity represents a resurgence of long running Counter-Enlightenment ideas, that the modern project is not finished and that universality cannot be so lightly dispensed with. Postmodernity,
2128-483: A second, distinct phase that is nevertheless still "modernity": this has been termed the "second" or "risk" society by Ulrich Beck , "late" or "high" modernity by Giddens, "liquid" modernity by Bauman, and the "network" society by Manuel Castells . Third are those who argue that contemporary society has moved into a literally post-modern phase distinct from modernity. The most prominent proponents of this position are Lyotard and Baudrillard. Another set of issues concerns
2240-453: A temporary state. For examples, see the sections on the Romance languages , Slavic languages and Irish . In many languages the principal copula is a verb , like English (to) be , German sein , Mixtec kuu , Touareg emous , etc. It may inflect for grammatical categories like tense , aspect and mood , like other verbs in the language. Being a very commonly used verb, it
2352-439: A tradition of relativist , anti-rationalist , vitalist , and organic thinkers stemming largely from Hamann and subsequent German Romantics. While Berlin is largely credited with having refined and promoted the concept, the first known use of the term in English occurred in 1949 and there were several earlier uses of it across other European languages, including by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche . Despite criticism of
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#17327726953122464-481: A unified theory of copular sentences, it has been proposed that the English there -sentences are subtypes of inverse copular constructions . Predicates formed using a copula may express identity: that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have the same referent or express an identical concept: I want only to be myself. The Morning Star is the Evening Star. They may also express membership of
2576-450: A universal practice. Jameson argues that distance "has been abolished" in postmodernity, that we "are submerged in its henceforth filled and suffused volumes to the point where our now postmodern bodies are bereft of spatial co-ordinates". This "new global space" constitutes postmodernity's "moment of truth". The various other features of the postmodern that he identifies "can all now be seen as themselves partial (yet constitutive) aspects of
2688-460: Is " digitality " – the increasing power of personal and digital means of communication including fax machines , modems , cable and high speed internet , which has altered the condition of postmodernity dramatically: digital production of information allows individuals to manipulate virtually every aspect of the media environment. This has brought producers into conflict with consumers over intellectual capital and intellectual property and led to
2800-410: Is a human ' ; but: (paykuna) runakunam kanku ' (they) are human ' . In Māori , the zero copula can be used in predicative expressions and with continuous verbs (many of which take a copulative verb in many Indo-European languages) — He nui te whare , literally ' a big the house ' , ' the house (is) big ' ; I te tēpu te pukapuka , literally ' at (past locative particle)
2912-437: Is a kind of 'endism' also taken up by Arthur Danto who in 1964 acclaimed that Andy Warhol 's Brillo boxes asked the right question of art and hence art had ended. The debate on postmodernity has two distinct elements that are often confused; (1) the nature of contemporary society and (2) the nature of the critique of contemporary society. The first of these elements is concerned with the nature of changes that took place during
3024-493: Is a noun. Ba , the past/conditional, cannot be deleted. If the present copula is omitted, the pronoun (e.g., é , í , iad ) preceding the noun is omitted as well. Counter-Enlightenment The Counter-Enlightenment refers to a loose collection of intellectual stances that arose during the European Enlightenment in opposition to its mainstream attitudes and ideals. The Counter-Enlightenment
3136-482: Is also used by a variety of other English speakers. An example is the sentence "I saw twelve men, each a soldier." In Ancient Greek, when an adjective precedes a noun with an article, the copula is understood: ὁ οἴκος ἐστὶ μακρός , "the house is large", can be written μακρός ὁ οἴκος , "large the house (is)." In Quechua ( Southern Quechua used for the examples), zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular ( kan ): Payqa runam ' (s)he
3248-559: Is big ' ; Ko te pukapuka kei te tēpu ' It is the book (that is) on the table ' ; Ko au kei te kai ' It is me eating ' . However, when expressing identity or class membership, ko must be used: Ko tēnei tāku pukapuka ' This is my book ' ; Ko Ōtautahi he tāone i Te Waipounamu ' Christchurch is a city in the South Island (of New Zealand) ' ; Ko koe tōku hoa ' You are my friend ' . When expressing identity, ko can be placed on either object in
3360-586: Is corroding the circumstances that provide for its subsistence and will eventually result in a decline of individualism and the birth of a new neo-Tribal era. According to theories of postmodernity, economic and technological conditions of our age have given rise to a decentralized, media-dominated society in which ideas are only simulacra , inter-referential representations and copies of each other with no real, original, stable or objective source of communication and meaning. Globalization , brought on by innovations in communication, manufacturing and transportation
3472-450: Is fiercely contested. The terms "postmodernity" and "postmodernism" are often hard to distinguish, the former being often the result of the latter. The period has had diverse political ramifications: its "anti-ideological ideas" appear to have been associated with the feminist movement , racial equality movements , LGBT movements , most forms of late 20th century anarchism and even the peace movement as well as various hybrids of these in
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3584-441: Is generally seen to have continued from the 18th century into the early 19th century, especially with the rise of Romanticism . Its thinkers did not necessarily agree to a set of counter-doctrines but instead each challenged specific elements of Enlightenment thinking, such as the belief in progress , the rationality of all humans, liberal democracy , and the increasing secularisation of European society. Scholars differ on who
3696-479: Is likely that the copula has irregular inflected forms; in English, the verb be has a number of highly irregular ( suppletive ) forms and has more different inflected forms than any other English verb ( am , is , are , was , were , etc.; see English verbs for details). Other copulas show more resemblances to pronouns . That is the case for Classical Chinese and Guarani , for instance. In highly synthetic languages , copulas are often suffixes , attached to
3808-436: Is often cited as one force which has driven the decentralized modern life, creating a culturally pluralistic and interconnected global society lacking any single dominant center of political power, communication or intellectual production. The postmodernist view is that intersubjective , not objective, knowledge will be the dominant form of discourse under such conditions and that ubiquity of dissemination fundamentally alters
3920-399: Is often considered to be part of the predicate , the remainder being called a predicative expression . A simple clause containing a copula is illustrated below: The book is on the table. In that sentence, the noun phrase the book is the subject, the verb is serves as the copula, and the prepositional phrase on the table is the predicative expression. In some theories of grammar,
4032-451: Is omitted when introducing oneself. Bora ben ' I am Bora ' is grammatically correct, but Bora ben im (same sentence with the copula) is not for an introduction (but is grammatically correct in other cases). Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted. For example, in the Irish language , is , the present tense of the copula, may be omitted when the predicate
4144-426: Is seen as futile. The third feature of the postmodern age that Jameson identifies is the "waning of affect" – not that all emotion has disappeared from the postmodern age but that it lacks a particular kind of emotion such as that found in " Rimbaud 's magical flowers 'that look back at you'". He notes that " pastiche eclipses parody" as "the increasing unavailability of the personal style" leads to pastiche becoming
4256-467: Is six o'clock ' . Hungarian uses copula lenni for expressing location: Itt van Róbert ' Bob is here ' , but it is omitted in the third person present tense for attribution or identity statements: Róbert öreg ' Bob is old ' ; ők éhesek ' they are hungry ' ; Kati nyelvtudós ' Cathy is a linguist ' (but Róbert öreg volt ' Bob was old ' , éhesek voltak ' they were hungry ' , Kati nyelvtudós volt ' Cathy
4368-582: Is sometimes suggested that the "is" of existence is reducible to the "is" of property attribution or class membership; to be, Aristotle held, is to be something . However, Abelard in his Dialectica made a reductio ad absurdum argument against the idea that the copula can express existence. Similar examples can be found in many other languages; for example, the French and Latin equivalents of I think therefore I am are Je pense, donc je suis and Cogito ergo sum , where suis and sum are
4480-440: Is the beginning of analysis, not the end, because the first task of enquiry is the questioning of accepted "universal" and "objective" norms. The Benhabib-Butler debate demonstrates that there is no simple definition of a postmodern theorist as the very definition of postmodernity itself is contested. Michel Foucault rejected the label of postmodernism explicitly in interviews yet is seen by many, such as Benhabib , as advocating
4592-508: Is the natural reaction to mass broadcasting in a society conditioned to mass production and mass politics. The work of Alasdair MacIntyre informs the versions of postmodernism elaborated by such authors as Murphy (2003) and Bielskis (2005), for whom MacIntyre's postmodern revision of Aristotelianism poses a challenge to the kind of consumerist ideology that now promotes capital accumulation . The sociological view of postmodernity ascribes it to more rapid transportation, wider communication and
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4704-563: Is the state or condition of being postmodern – after or in reaction to that which is modern, as in postmodern art ( see postmodernism ). Modernity is defined as a period or condition loosely identified with the Progressive Era , the Industrial Revolution , or the Enlightenment . In philosophy and critical theory postmodernity refers to the state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity,
4816-698: Is to be included among the major figures of the Counter-Enlightenment. In Italy, Giambattista Vico criticised the spread of reductionism and the Cartesian method , which he saw as castrating the arts and humanities of the Renaissance . Decades later, Joseph de Maistre in Sardinia and Edmund Burke in Britain both criticised the anti-religious ideas of the Enlightenment for leading to
4928-478: Is to denote an obligatory action or expected occurrence: "I am to serve you". "The manager is to resign". This can be put also into past tense: "We were to leave at 9". For forms like "if I was/were to come", see English conditional sentences . (By certain criteria, the English copula be may always be considered an auxiliary verb; see Diagnostics for identifying auxiliary verbs in English .) The English to be and its equivalents in certain other languages also have
5040-416: The encyclopédistes and fought to prevent the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas in the second half of the century. Many people from earlier times attacked the Enlightenment for undermining religion and the social and political order. It later became a major theme of conservative criticism of the Enlightenment. After the French Revolution, it appeared to vindicate the warnings of the anti-philosophes in
5152-523: The Reign of Terror and an Orwellian police state following the French Revolution . The ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Johann Georg Hamann were also significant to the rise of the Counter-Enlightenment with French and German Romanticism respectively. In the late 20th century, the concept of the Counter-Enlightenment was popularised by pro-Enlightenment historian Isaiah Berlin as
5264-544: The United States but trade volumes increased within the developed core. In 1967–1969 a crucial cultural explosion took place within the developed world as the baby boom generation , which had grown up with postmodernity as its fundamental experience of society, demanded entrance into the political, cultural and educational power structure. A series of demonstrations and acts of rebellion – ranging from nonviolent and cultural, through violent acts of terrorism – represented
5376-461: The death of history and of notions of teleology and progress, and the death of metaphysics defined as the search for objective truth. Benhabib argues forcefully against these critical positions, holding that they undermine the bases upon which feminist politics can be founded, removing the possibility of agency, the sense of self-hood and the appropriation of women's history in the name of an emancipated future. The denial of normative ideals removes
5488-461: The dialectic , Freudian repression , the existentialist distinction between authenticity and inauthenticity, and the semiotic distinction of signifier and signified) have been rejected. Second is a rejection of the modernist " Utopian gesture", evident in Van Gogh , of the transformation through art of misery into beauty whereas in the postmodernism movement the object world has undergone
5600-410: The perfect forms of certain verbs (formerly English be was also): Je suis arrivé(e) French for ' I have arrived ' , literally ' I am arrived ' . The auxiliary functions of these verbs derived from their copular function, and could be interpreted as special cases of the copular function (with the verbal forms it precedes being considered adjectival). Another auxiliary usage in English
5712-575: The philosophes to the instability in France in the 1790s. His Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) identifies the Enlightenment as the principal cause of the French revolution. In Burke's opinion, the philosophes provided the revolutionary leaders with the theories on which their political schemes were based. Augustin Barruel 's Counter-Enlightenment ideas were well developed before
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#17327726953125824-482: The rationalism , universalism and empiricism that are commonly associated with the Enlightenment. Berlin's essay "The Counter-Enlightenment" was first published in 1973, and later reprinted in a collection of his works, Against the Current , in 1981. The term has been more widely used since. Berlin argues that, while there were opponents of the Enlightenment outside of Germany (e.g. Joseph de Maistre ) and before
5936-545: The 1770s (e.g. Giambattista Vico ), Counter-Enlightenment thought did not take hold until the Germans "rebelled against the dead hand of France in the realms of culture, art and philosophy, and avenged themselves by launching the great counter-attack against the Enlightenment." This German reaction to the imperialistic universalism of the French Enlightenment and Revolution, which had been forced on them first by
6048-539: The 18th-century Age of Reason for both 18th and 20th-century totalitarianism also resurged. The locus classicus of this view is Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno 's Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), which traces the degeneration of the general concept of enlightenment from ancient Greece (epitomized by the cunning "bourgeois" hero Odysseus ) to 20th-century fascism . The authors take "enlightenment" as their target including its 18th-century form – which we now call "The Enlightenment". They claim it
6160-459: The 1920s' new movements in the arts. Both of these terms are used by philosophers, social scientists and social critics to refer to aspects of contemporary culture, economics and society that are the result of features of late 20th century and early 21st century life, including the fragmentation of authority and the commoditization of knowledge ( see " Modernity "). The relationship between postmodernity and critical theory, sociology and philosophy
6272-471: The 1960s and 1970s included such a shift, and that this shift should be denoted as from modernity to postmodernity. [See French (2016), French & Ehrman (2016), or Sørensen (2007)]. Criticisms of the postmodern condition can broadly be put into four categories: criticisms of postmodernity from the perspective of those who reject modernism and its offshoots, criticisms from supporters of modernism who believe that postmodernity lacks crucial characteristics of
6384-606: The Counter-Revolutionary antipathy towards the philosophes . All three directly blamed the philosophes in France and the Aufklärer in Germany for devaluing beauty, spirit and history in favour of a view of man as a soulless machine and a view of the universe as a meaningless, disenchanted void lacking richness and beauty. One particular concern to early Romantic writers was the allegedly anti-religious nature of
6496-498: The Enlightenment (2001), historian Darrin McMahon extends the Counter-Enlightenment back to pre-Revolutionary France and down to the level of " Grub Street ". McMahon focuses on the early opponents to the Enlightenment in France, unearthing a long-forgotten " Grub Street " literature in the late 18th and early 19th centuries aimed at the philosophes . He delves into the obscure world of the "low Counter-Enlightenment" that attacked
6608-433: The Enlightenment and the Revolution. They blamed the Enlightenment for undermining traditional beliefs that sustained the ancien regime . As the Revolution became increasingly bloody, the idea of "Enlightenment" was discredited, too. Hence, the French Revolution and its aftermath have contributed to the development of Counter-Enlightenment thought. Edmund Burke was among the first of the Revolution's opponents to relate
6720-546: The Enlightenment being a widely discussed topic in twentieth- and twenty-first century thought, the term "Counter-Enlightenment" was slow to enter general usage. It was first mentioned briefly in English in William Barrett 's 1949 article "Art, Aristocracy and Reason" in Partisan Review . He used the term again in his 1958 book on existentialism, Irrational Man; however, his comment on Enlightenment criticism
6832-428: The Enlightenment might not actually be a creation of its opponents, but the other way round. The fact that the term "Enlightenment" was first used in 1894 in English to refer to a historical period supports the argument that it was a late construction projected back onto the 18th century. By the mid-1790s, the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution fueled a major reaction against the Enlightenment. Many leaders of
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#17327726953126944-462: The Enlightenment since the philosophes and Aufklärer were generally deists , opposed to revealed religion . Some historians, such as Hamann , nevertheless contend that this view of the Enlightenment as an age hostile to religion is common ground between these Romantic writers and many of their conservative Counter-Revolutionary predecessors. However, not many have commented on the Enlightenment, except for Chateaubriand, Novalis, and Coleridge, since
7056-447: The Enlightenment, and few explicit defenders. Friedrich Nietzsche is a notable and highly influential exception. After an initial defence of the Enlightenment in his so-called "middle period" (late 1870s to early 1880s), Nietzsche turned vehemently against it. After World War II , the Enlightenment re-emerged as a key organizing concept in social and political thought and the history of ideas. The Counter-Enlightenment literature blaming
7168-535: The Enlightenment. According to him, "the revolutionary storm is an overwhelming force of nature unleashed on Europe by God that mocked human pretensions." In the 1770s, the " Sturm und Drang " movement started in Germany. It questioned some key assumptions and implications of the Aufklärung and the term " Romanticism " was first coined. Many early Romantic writers such as Chateaubriand , Friedrich von Hardenberg (Novalis) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge inherited
7280-451: The French Revolution and their supporters made Voltaire and Rousseau , as well as Marquis de Condorcet 's ideas of reason, progress , anti-clericalism, and emancipation, central themes to their movement. It led to an unavoidable backlash to the Enlightenment as there were people opposed to the revolution. Many counter-revolutionary writers, such as Edmund Burke , Joseph de Maistre and Augustin Barruel , asserted an intrinsic link between
7392-644: The New Religion of Sincerity", in the American Political Science Review (Vol. 90, No. 2), Arthur M. Melzer corroborates Everdell's view in placing the origin of the Counter-Enlightenment in the religious writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau , further showing Rousseau as the man who fired the first shot in the war between the Enlightenment and its opponents. Graeme Garrard follows Melzer in his "Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment" (2003). This contradicts Berlin's depiction of Rousseau as
7504-594: The Second World War. (See also consumerism , critical theory .) Other academics, such as the archaeologist Artur Ribeiro, also identify postmodernity with late capitalism. Though in the case of Ribeiro, he places the start of modernity at the beginning of the Bretton Woods system. Those who generally view modernity as obsolete or an outright failure, a flaw in humanity's evolution leading to disasters like Auschwitz and Hiroshima , see postmodernity as
7616-546: The ability to abandon standardization of mass production, leading to a system which values a wider range of capital than previously and allows value to be stored in a greater variety of forms. Harvey argues that postmodernity is an escape from " Fordism ", a term coined by Antonio Gramsci to describe the mode of industrial regulation and accumulation which prevailed during the Keynesian era of economic policy in OECD countries from
7728-580: The assumption that culture can be positioned outside "the massive Being of capital " upon which left-wing theories of cultural politics are dependent, has become outmoded. The "prodigious new expansion of multinational capital ends up penetrating and colonizing those very pre-capitalist enclaves (Nature and the Unconscious) which offered extraterritorial and Archimedean footholds for critical effectivity". Postmodern sociology can be said to focus on conditions of life which became increasingly prevalent in
7840-409: The backlash against these movements. The postmodern political sphere is marked by multiple arenas and possibilities of citizenship and political action concerning various forms of struggle against oppression or alienation (in collectives defined by sex or ethnicity) while the modernist political arena remains restricted to class struggle. Theorists such as Michel Maffesoli believe that postmodernity
7952-411: The cause of the riot is (not are ) these pictures of the wall . Compare Italian la causa della rivolta sono queste foto del muro ; notice the use of the plural sono to agree with plural queste foto ' these photos ' rather than with singular la causa ' the cause ' . In instances where an English syntactical subject comprises a prepositional object that is pluralized, however,
8064-506: The clause without changing the meaning ( ko tēnei tāku pukapuka is the same as ko tāku pukapuka tēnei ) but not on both ( ko tēnei ko tāku pukapuka would be equivalent to saying "it is this, it is my book" in English). In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular and plural: Ő ember / Ők emberek — ' s/he is a human ' / ' they are humans ' ; but: (én) ember vagyok ' I am
8176-498: The consequence of holding postmodern ideas, is generally a negative term in this context. Postmodernity is a condition or a state of being associated with changes to institutions and creations and with social and political results and innovations, globally but especially in the West since the 1950s, whereas postmodernism is an aesthetic, literary, political or social philosophy, the "cultural and intellectual phenomenon", especially since
8288-437: The copula in bold and the predicative expression in italics: Mary and John are my friends . The sky was blue . I am taller than most people . The birds and the beasts were there . The three components (subject, copula and predicative expression) do not necessarily appear in that order: their positioning depends on the rules for word order applicable to the language in question. In English (an SVO language),
8400-412: The copula usually reappears. Some languages drop the copula in poetic or aphoristic contexts. Examples in English include Such poetic copula dropping is more pronounced in some languages other than English, like the Romance languages . In informal speech of English, the copula may also be dropped in general sentences, as in "She a nurse." It is a feature of African-American Vernacular English , but
8512-473: The creation of a new economy whose supporters argue that the dramatic fall in information costs will alter society fundamentally. Digitality, or what Esther Dyson referred to as "being digital", emerged as a separate condition from postmodernity. The ability to manipulate items of popular culture, the World Wide Web, the use of search engines to index knowledge, and telecommunications were producing
8624-502: The current anti-globalization movement . Though none of these institutions entirely embraces all aspects of the postmodern movement in its most concentrated definition they all reflect, or borrow from, some of its core ideas. Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard, believe that modernity ended in the late 20th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely postmodernity, while others, such as Zygmunt Bauman and Anthony Giddens , would extend modernity to cover
8736-542: The decades prior to 1789. Cardiff University professor Graeme Garrard claims that historian William R. Everdell was the first to situate Rousseau as the "founder of the Counter-Enlightenment" in his 1971 dissertation and in his 1987 book, Christian Apologetics in France, 1730–1790: The Roots of Romantic Religion . In his 1996 article, "the Origin of the Counter-Enlightenment: Rousseau and
8848-527: The developments denoted by postmodernity. Others still contend that modernity ended with the Victorian Age at the turn of the 20th century. Postmodernity has gone through two relatively distinct phases: the first beginning in the late 1940s and 1950s and ending with the Cold War (when analog media with limited bandwidth encouraged a few, authoritative media channels), and the second beginning at
8960-469: The developments of postmodern art (postmodernism) and postmodern society (postmodernity) can be best described as two umbrella terms for processes engaged in an ongoing dialectical relationship like post-postmodernism , the result of which is the evolving culture of the contemporary world . Some commentators deny that modernity ended, and consider the post-WWII era to be a continuation of modernity, which they refer to as late modernity . Postmodernity
9072-410: The difficulty of maintaining, in the case of such sentences, the usual division into a subject noun phrase and a predicate verb phrase . Another issue is verb agreement when both subject and predicative expression are noun phrases (and differ in number or person): in English, the copula typically agrees with the syntactical subject even if it is not logically (i.e. semantically ) the subject, as in
9184-402: The early 1930s to the 1970s. Fordism for Harvey is associated with Keynesianism in that the first concerns methods of production and capital-labor relations while the latter concerns economic policy and regulation. Post-Fordism is therefore one of the basic aspects of postmodernity from Harvey's point of view. Artifacts of postmodernity include the dominance of television and popular culture,
9296-477: The end of the Cold War (marked by the spread of cable television and " new media " based on digital means of information dissemination and broadcast). The first phase of postmodernity overlaps the end of modernity and is part of the modern period (see lumpers/splitters , periodization ) . Television became the primary news source, manufacturing decreased in importance in the economies of Western Europe and
9408-470: The equivalents of English "am", normally used as copulas. However, other languages prefer a different verb for existential use, as in the Spanish version Pienso, luego existo (where the verb existir ' to exist ' is used rather than the copula ser or estar ' to be ' ). Another type of existential usage is in clauses of the there is ... or there are... type. Languages differ in
9520-471: The following years. The historian James Schmidt questioned the idea of "Enlightenment" and therefore of the existence of a movement opposing it. As the conception of "Enlightenment" has become more complex and difficult to maintain, so has the idea of the "Counter-Enlightenment". Advances in Enlightenment scholarship in the last quarter-century have challenged the stereotypical view of the 18th century as an " Age of Reason ", leading Schmidt to speculate on whether
9632-596: The francophile Frederick II of Prussia , then by the armies of Revolutionary France and finally by Napoleon , was crucial to the shift of consciousness that occurred in Europe at this time, leading eventually to Romanticism . The consequence of this revolt against the Enlightenment was pluralism . The opponents to the Enlightenment played a more crucial role than its proponents, some of whom were monists , whose political, intellectual and ideological offspring have been terreur and totalitarianism . In his book Enemies of
9744-470: The geographer David Harvey have identified postmodernity with " late capitalism " or "flexible accumulation", a stage of capitalism following finance capitalism , characterised by highly mobile labor and capital and what Harvey called "time and space compression". They suggest that this coincides with the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system which, they believe, defined the economic order following
9856-438: The late 20th century in the most industrialized nations, including the ubiquity of mass media and mass production, the rise of a global economy and a shift from manufacturing to service economies . Jameson and Harvey described it as consumerism , where manufacturing, distribution and dissemination have become exceptionally inexpensive but social connectedness and community have become rarer. Other thinkers assert that postmodernity
9968-401: The late 20th century. There are three principal analyses. Theorists such as Alex Callinicos and Craig Calhoun offer a conservative position on the nature of contemporary society, downplaying the significance and extent of socio-economic changes and emphasizing a continuity with the past. Second a range of theorists have tried to analyze the present as a development of the "modern" project into
10080-484: The middle of the 18th century to the 20th century among critical theorists, postmodernists and feminists. The Enlightenment has opponents on all points of its ideological compass, from the far left to the far right, and all points in between. Each of the Enlightenment's challengers depicted it as they saw it or wanted others to see it, resulting in a vast range of portraits, many of which are not only different but incompatible. The idea of Counter-Enlightenment has evolved in
10192-405: The modern project, critics from within postmodernity who seek reform or change based on their understanding of postmodernism , and those who believe that postmodernity is a passing, and not a growing, phase in social organization. State of being In linguistics , a copula /‘kɒpjələ/ ( pl. : copulas or copulae ; abbreviated cop ) is a word or phrase that links the subject of
10304-419: The nature of critique, often replaying debates over (what can be crudely termed) universalism and relativism , where modernism is seen to represent the former and postmodernity the latter. Seyla Benhabib and Judith Butler pursue this debate in relation to feminist politics, Benhabib arguing that postmodern critique comprises three main elements; an anti-foundationalist concept of the subject and identity,
10416-528: The opposition of the young to the policies and perspectives of the previous age. Opposition to the Algerian War and the Vietnam War , to laws allowing or encouraging racial segregation and to laws which overtly discriminated against women and restricted access to divorce, increased use of marijuana and psychedelics , the emergence of pop cultural styles of music and drama, including rock music and
10528-421: The ordering given above is the normal one, but certain variation is possible: It is also possible, in certain circumstances, for one (or even two) of the three components to be absent: Inverse copular constructions , in which the positions of the predicative expression and the subject are reversed, are found in various languages. They have been the subject of much theoretical analysis, particularly in regard to
10640-461: The other hand, Johann Georg Hamann and his fellow philosophers believe that a more organic conception of social and political life, a more vitalistic view of nature, and an appreciation for beauty and the spiritual life of man have been neglected by the eighteenth century. Isaiah Berlin established this term's place in the history of ideas . He used it to refer to a movement that arose primarily in late 18th- and early 19th-century Germany against
10752-432: The possibility for utopia, central for ethical thinking and democratic action. Butler responds to Benhabib by arguing that her use of postmodernism is an expression of a wider paranoia over anti-foundationalist philosophy, in particular, post-structuralism . A number of positions are ascribed to postmodernism – Discourse is all there is, as if discourse were some kind of monistic stuff out of which all things are composed;
10864-497: The prepositional object agrees with the predicative expression, e.g. "What kind of birds are those?" The definition and scope of the concept of a copula is not necessarily precise in any language. As noted above, though the concept of the copula in English is most strongly associated with the verb to be , there are many other verbs that can be used in a copular sense as well. And more tenuously A copular verb may also have other uses supplementary to or distinct from its uses as
10976-413: The reified eye of the viewer in a way that would seem to have nothing to do with death or the death obsession or the death anxiety on the level of content" (ibid.). Graff sees the origins of this transformative mission of art in an attempted substitution of art for religion in giving meaning to the world that the rise of science and Enlightenment rationality had removed – but in the postmodern period this
11088-410: The relationship between reader and that which is read, between observer and the observed, between those who consume and those who produce. Another conception of postmodernity is as an epistemological shift . This perspective suggests that the way people communicate and justify knowledge (i.e. epistemology) changes in conjunction with other societal changes, that the cultural and technological changes of
11200-458: The revolution. He worked as an editor for the anti- philosophes literary journal, L'Année Littéraire . Barruel argues in his Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism (1797) that the Revolution was the consequence of a conspiracy of philosophes and freemasons. In Considerations on France (1797), Joseph de Maistre interprets the Revolution as divine punishment for the sins of
11312-441: The same general spatial object". The postmodern era has seen a change in the social function of culture. He identifies culture in the modern age as having had a property of "semi-autonomy", with an "existence… above the practical world of the existent" but, in the postmodern age, culture has been deprived of this autonomy, the cultural has expanded to consume the entire social realm so that all becomes "cultural". "Critical distance",
11424-637: The subject is dead, I can never say "I" again; there is no reality, only representation. These characterizations are variously imputed to postmodernism or poststructuralism, which are conflated with each other and sometimes conflated with deconstruction, and understood as an indiscriminate assemblage of French feminism, deconstruction, Lacanian psychoanalysis, Foucauldian analysis, Rorty's conversationalism, and cultural studies ... In reality, these movements are opposed: Lacanian psychoanalysis in France positions itself officially against poststructuralism, that Foucauldian rarely relate to Derridideans ... Lyotard champions
11536-477: The table the book ' , ' the book (was) on the table ' ; Nō Ingarangi ia , literally ' from England (s)he ' , ' (s)he (is) from England ' , Kei te kai au , literally ' at the (act of) eating I ' , ' I (am) eating ' . Alternatively, in many cases, the particle ko can be used as a copulative (though not all instances of ko are used as thus, like all other Māori particles, ko has multiple purposes): Ko nui te whare ' The house
11648-399: The term copula is generally used to refer to such principal verbs, it may also be used for a wider group of verbs with similar potential functions (like become , get , feel and seem in English); alternatively, these might be distinguished as "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas". The principal use of a copula is to link the subject of a clause to a subject complement . A copular verb
11760-489: The term itself did not exist at the time and most of their contemporaries ignored it. The historian Jacques Barzun argues that Romanticism has its roots in the Enlightenment. It was not anti-rational, but rather balanced rationality against the competing claims of intuition and the sense of justice. This view is expressed in Goya's Sleep of Reason , in which the nightmarish owl offers the dozing social critic of Los Caprichos
11872-415: The term, but he cannot be made into the example of what all the rest of the purported postmodernists are doing. Lyotard’s work is, for instance, seriously at odds with that of Derrida Butler uses the debate over the nature of the post-modernist critique to demonstrate how philosophy is implicated in power relationships and defends poststructuralist critique by arguing that the critique of the subject itself
11984-469: The ubiquity of stereo, television and radio helped make these changes visible in the broader cultural context. This period is associated with the work of Marshall McLuhan , a philosopher who focused on the results of living in a media culture and argued that participation in a mass media culture both overshadows actual content disseminated and is liberating because it loosens the authority of local social normative standards. The second phase of postmodernity
12096-476: The way they express such meanings; some of them use the copular verb, possibly with an expletive pronoun like the English there , while other languages use different verbs and constructions, like the French il y a (which uses parts of the verb avoir ' to have ' , not the copula) or the Swedish finns (the passive voice of the verb for "to find"). For details, see existential clause . Relying on
12208-429: The whole expression is on the table may be called a predicate or a verb phrase . The predicative expression accompanying the copula, also known as the complement of the copula, may take any of several possible forms: it may be a noun or noun phrase, an adjective or adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase (as above), or an adverb or another adverbial phrase expressing time or location. Examples are given below, with
12320-427: The wide accessibility of information and mass telecommunications. Postmodernity also exhibits a greater resistance to making sacrifices in the name of progress discernible in environmentalism and the growing importance of the anti-war movement . Postmodernity in the industrialised core is marked by increasing focus on civil rights and equal opportunity as well as movements such as feminism and multiculturalism and
12432-425: Was a linguist ' ). In Turkish, both the third person singular and the third person plural copulas are omittable. Ali burada and Ali burada dır both mean ' Ali is here ' , and Onlar aç and Onlar aç lar both mean ' They are hungry ' . Both of the sentences are acceptable and grammatically correct, but sentences with the copula are more formal. The Turkish first person singular copula suffix
12544-425: Was very limited. In Germany, the expression "Gegen-Aufklärung" has a longer history. It was probably coined by Friedrich Nietzsche in "Nachgelassene Fragmente" in 1877. Lewis White Beck used this term in his Early German Philosophy (1969), a book about Counter-Enlightenment in Germany. Beck claims that there is a counter-movement arising in Germany in reaction to Frederick II 's secular authoritarian state. On
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