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115-685: Moroccan nationalism developed during the 1930s; the Istiqlal Party was formed, pushing for independence. In 1953 sultan Mohammed V of Morocco called for independence. On March 2, 1956, Morocco became independent of France. Mohammed V became ruler of independent Morocco. In 1954, Algeria formed the National Liberation Front (FLN) as it split from France. This resulted in the Algerian War , which lasted until independence negotiations in 1962. Muhammad Ahmed Ben Bella

230-422: A proposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken. Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature with Morocco's first opposition-led government coming to power. King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI . He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation. Mohammed VI paid

345-623: A provisional government in exile . In course of the insurgency, however, this government-in-exile splintered several times, resulting in infighting and several factions claiming to be the legitimate leadership of Ambazonia. This infighting hampered the coordination among the rebels as well as negotiations between separatists and the Cameroonian government. Despite the Interim Government's internal disputes, its members and other exile activists have maintained some influence over

460-508: A cable TV distributor got arrested for four days for airing images of the SCBC. On social media platforms such as Facebook , hate speech, propaganda and disinformation have been shown by both sides. The Ambazonians have been accused of using fake news headlines and photo manipulation. Over the course of the insurgency, Ambazonian insurgents have also framed their struggle in religious terms to gain support. The separatist insurgents involved in

575-577: A church. The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb that had begun during the mid-7th century was completed under the Umayyad Caliphate by 709. The caliphate introduced both Islam and the Arabic language to the area; this period also saw the beginning of a trend of Arab migration to the Maghreb which would last for centuries and effect a demographic shift in the region. While constituting part of

690-685: A controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002. Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in 2007. The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal. Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in New York City but failed to come to any agreement. In 2010, security forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent demonstrations in

805-612: A distinctive Maghrebi ancestry formed from a mixture of Near Eastern and African ancestry, which is still found as a part of the genome of modern Northwest Africans. Later during the Neolithic , from around 7,500 years ago onwards, there was a migration into Northwest Africa of European Neolithic Farmers from the Iberian Peninsula (who had originated in Anatolia several thousand years prior), as well as pastoralists from

920-627: A fear of domination by much larger Nigeria. Endeley was defeated in elections on 1 February 1959 by John Ngu Foncha . Southern Cameroons federated with Cameroon on 1 October 1961 as " West Cameroon ", with its own prime minister . However, the English-speaking peoples of the Southern Cameroons did not believe that they were fairly treated by the 80% majority French-speaking government of the country. Then-president Ahmadou Ahidjo feared that Southern Cameroons would secede from

1035-421: A federal republic . Over time, the power of the central government, dominated by Francophones , expanded at the expense of the region's autonomy. Many inhabitants identify as Anglophones and resent what they perceive as discrimination and efforts to eliminate Anglophone legal, administrative, educational, and cultural institutions by the Cameroonian government. In 2016 and 2017, a widespread protest movement

1150-615: A joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions of Moroccan soldiers ( Goumiers or regular troops and officers) served in the French army in both World War I and World War II , and in the Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after ( Regulares ). The institution of slavery was abolished in 1925. Between 1921 and 1926, an uprising in

1265-537: A new constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a landslide victory in a referendum on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate the Arab Spring protests. In the first general elections that followed, the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party won a plurality of seats, with Abdelilah Benkirane being designated as head of government per the new constitution. Despite

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1380-491: A population of approximately 37 million. Islam is both the official and predominant religion, while Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Additionally, French and the Moroccan dialect of Arabic are widely spoken. The culture of Morocco is a mix of Arab , Berber , African and European cultures. Its capital is Rabat , while its largest city is Casablanca . The region constituting Morocco has been inhabited since

1495-658: A reference to the destruction caused by the civil war. The area around the mouth of the Wouri River is where the English language was permanently established for the first time in Southern Cameroons, when missionary Alfred Saker founded a settlement of freed slaves by Ambas Bay in 1858, which was later renamed Victoria (present-day Limbe ). In 1884, the area became the British Ambas Bay Protectorate, with Victoria as its capital. Britain ceded

1610-418: A state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965. In 1971 and 1972, there were two failed attempts to depose the king and establish a republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission. In 1963,

1725-566: A strong reaction from the German Empire ; and a crisis loomed in 1905. The matter was resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 increased tensions between European powers. The 1912 Treaty of Fez made Morocco a protectorate of France, and triggered the 1912 Fez riots . Spain continued to operate its coastal protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over

1840-602: A succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso . Many states have failed to develop their economies despite enviable natural resources, and political instability is often accompanied by undemocratic government. The central regions of Africa were traditionally regarded to be the regions between Kilwa and the mouth of the Zambesi river. Due to its isolated position from the coasts, this area has received minimal attention from historians pertaining to Africa. It also had one of

1955-708: A total school strike since 2017 due to concerns over the lack of Anglophone teachers and curriculum. Teachers and students have been kidnapped and killed and many schools and school materials burned while many children have had no schooling since the crisis began. Others have alleged that some militias have engaged in ransom attacks against civilians to fund their continued activities. Meanwhile, government forces have torched entire villages suspected of harboring separatists, disappeared and executed civilians without due process, and tortured detainees. Reports of indiscriminate killings, torture, rape and other gender-based violence by both sides have been widely reported. The governments of

2070-419: A united front, and internecine conflicts have hampered efforts to negotiate with Cameroon or establish control over the various militia groups engaged in the fighting. Ongoing violence has led to widely reported human rights abuses by both sides, including indiscriminate killing of civilians, torture , rape and other gender-based crimes, unjustified detentions , and kidnappings . The term "Ambazonia"

2185-639: A variety of terms denoting the Sharifi heritage of the 'Alawi dynasty , such as al-Mamlakah ash-Sharīfah ( المملكة الشريفة ), al-Iyālah ash-Sharīfah ( الإيالة الشريفة ) and al-Imbarāṭūriyyah ash-Sharīfah ( الإمبراطورية الشريفة ), rendered in French as l'Empire chérifien and in English as the 'Sharifian Empire'. The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since at least Paleolithic times , beginning sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. A recent publication has suggested that there

2300-485: Is al-Maghrib ( المغرب , transl.  the land of the sunset; the west ), with the Kingdom's official Arabic name being al-Mamlakah al-Maghribīyah ( المملكة المغربية ; transl.  the kingdom of sunset/the west ). In Turkish , Morocco is known as Fas , a name derived from its medieval capital of Fes which is derived from the Arabic word Faʾs ( فأس ; transl.   pickaxe ), as

2415-454: Is derived from the word Ambozes , the local name for the bay at the mouth of the Wouri river, known in English as Ambas Bay . The name was coined by Fon Gorji Dinka in 1984 as part of a campaign for the restoration of autonomy and preservation of Anglophone institutions in the region. The term Ambazonia is more usually associated with the separatist or independence-seeking faction, while

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2530-730: Is evidence for even earlier human habitation of the area: Homo sapiens fossils that had been discovered in the late 2000s near the Atlantic coast in Jebel Irhoud were recently dated to roughly 315,000 years ago. During the Upper Paleolithic , the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling a savanna , in contrast to its modern arid landscape. DNA studies of Iberomaurusian peoples at Taforalt , Morocco dating to around 15,000 years ago have found them to have

2645-708: The Abbasids in the Hejaz . He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a major regional power . The Idrisids were ousted in 927 by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa broke off relations with

2760-874: The Banu Hilal Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Zenata Berber Marinids held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads through military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by the Wattasids . In the 15th century, the Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Iberia and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco. Portuguese efforts to control

2875-582: The Berber people . Its total area is about 446,300 km (172,317 sq mi). Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast, though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994. Spanish territory in Northwest Africa neighbouring Morocco comprises five enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta , Melilla , Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera , Peñón de Alhucemas ,

2990-619: The Cameroonian English dialect . However, separatist forces have also developed a unique slang in the context of the insurgency. For instance, rebels call their camps "churches", conveying deeper spiritual meaning to these important places where insurgents can organize and hide. Researcher Roderick Lando also speculated that the term "church" was connected to the rebels conducting rituals invoking protective magic at their camps. Similarly, some rebels refer to their guns as "bibles" and their attacks as "crusades", whereas others use

3105-638: The Chafarinas islands, and the disputed islet Perejil . Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese . To the north, Morocco is bordered by the Strait of Gibraltar, where international shipping has unimpeded transit passage between the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The Rif mountains stretch over the region bordering the Mediterranean from

3220-733: The Federal Republic of Ambazonia or State of Ambazonia , is a political entity proclaimed by Anglophone separatists who are seeking independence from Cameroon . The separatists claim that Ambazonia should consist of the Northwest Region and Southwest Region of Cameroon. Since 2017, Ambazonian rebels have engaged in armed conflict with the Cameroonian military, in what is known as the Anglophone Crisis , and have attempted to set up governments-in-exile , and supportive militias have exerted control over parts of

3335-516: The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA . This code was used as the basis for Morocco's internet domain, .ma . In area, Morocco's climate is mainly " hot summer Mediterranean " ( Csa ) and " hot desert " ( BWh ) zones. Central mountain ranges and the effects of the cold Canary Current , off the Atlantic coast, are significant factors in Morocco's relatively large variety of vegetation zones, ranging from lush forests in

3450-649: The King of Morocco and the prime minister , while legislative power is vested in the two chambers of parliament: the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors . Judicial power rests with the Constitutional Court, which may review the validity of laws, elections, and referendums. The king holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military , foreign policy and religious affairs; he can issue decrees called dahirs , which have

3565-694: The Kingdom of Morocco , is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa . It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to the east , and the disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south . Morocco also claims the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta , Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera , and several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast. It has

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3680-551: The Levant , both of whom also significantly contributed to the ancestry of modern Northwest Africans. The proto-Berber tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the late Bronze - and early Iron ages. In the early part of Classical Antiquity , Northwest Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by the Phoenicians , who established trading colonies and settlements there,

3795-597: The Paleolithic era over 300,000 years ago. The Idrisid dynasty was established by Idris I in 788 and was subsequently ruled by a series of other independent dynasties, reaching its zenith as a regional power in the 11th and 12th centuries, under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, when it controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb. Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since

3910-778: The Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim , led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif . The Spanish used anti-civilian bombing raids and mustard gas to prevent the Rif republic from gaining independence. They lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August 1921 alone. The Riffi were eventually suppressed by 1927 by the Franco-Spanish military. The casualties on the Spanish-French side were 52,000 and from

4025-837: The Rif Mountains . It was founded by Salih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client state to the Umayyad Caliphate. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata . The founder of the Idrisid dynasty and the great-grandson of Hasan ibn Ali , Idris ibn Abdallah , had fled to Morocco after the massacre of his family by

4140-517: The SADR 's admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985. Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in Algeria to be 165,000. Diplomatic relations with Algeria were restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over

4255-547: The Sand War was fought between Algerian and Moroccan troops over Moroccan claims to parts of Algerian territory. A formal peace agreement was signed in February 1964; however, relations remained strained between the two countries following the conflict. The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was returned to Morocco in 1969. The Polisario movement was formed in 1973, with the aim of establishing an independent state in

4370-613: The Spanish name for the country, Marruecos , derived from the name of the city of Marrakesh , which was the capital of the Almoravid dynasty , the Almohad Caliphate , and the Saadian dynasty . During the Almoravid dynasty, the city of Marrakesh was established under the name of Tāmurākušt , derived from the city's ancient Berber name of amūr n Yakuš ( lit.   ' land/country of God ' ). In English,

4485-747: The fifth-largest economy in Africa and wields significant influence in both Africa and the Arab world ; it is considered a middle power in global affairs and holds membership in the Arab League , the Arab Maghreb Union , the Union for the Mediterranean , and the African Union . Morocco is a unitary semi- constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The executive branch is led by

4600-402: The local inhabitants . In 1979, Mauritania relinquished its claim to the area, but the war continued to rage. In 1991, a ceasefire agreement was reached, but the issue of sovereignty remained unresolved. Today, Morocco occupies two-thirds of the territory, and efforts to resolve the dispute have thus far failed to break the political deadlock. The English Morocco is an anglicisation of

4715-416: The siege of Melilla against the Spanish ended in defeat in 1775. Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution , American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attacks by other fleets. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under

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4830-448: The "Buea Declaration", which called for constitutional amendments to restore the 1961 federation. This was followed by the second All Anglophone Conference (AAC2) in Bamenda in 1994. This conference issued the "Bamenda Declaration", which stated that if the federal state was not restored within a reasonable time, Southern Cameroons would declare its independence. The AAC was renamed the Southern Cameroons Peoples Conference (SCPC), and later

4945-433: The 17th century. Morocco faced aggression from Spain in the north, and the Ottoman Empire's allies pressing westward. Under the Saadis, the sultanate ended the Portuguese Aviz dynasty in 1578 at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir . The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a large expedition to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhay Empire in 1591. However, managing

5060-417: The 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Morocco faced external threats to its sovereignty, with Portugal seizing some territory and the Ottoman Empire encroaching from the east. The Marinid and Saadi dynasties otherwise resisted foreign domination, and Morocco was the only North African nation to escape Ottoman dominion. The 'Alawi dynasty , which rules

5175-543: The ASC on some level. There are also dozens of smaller militias. The insurgent groups differ considerably in their aims and methods, though they generally enjoy some level of grassroots support among the rural population. However, civilian support suffered over the rebellion's course, as a growing number of locals became dissatisfied with the separatists' conduct, rebel infighting, and the conflict's extended duration. Most rebel groups engage to some level in criminal activities such as kidnapping for ransom and illegally taxing

5290-434: The African majority, Apartheid represented an entire philosophy of separate racial goals, leading to both the divisive laws of 'petty apartheid,' and the grander scheme of African homelands. In 1994, Apartheid ended, and Nelson Mandela of the African National Congress was elected president after the South African general election, 1994 , the country's first non-racial election. Morocco Morocco , officially

5405-604: The Anglophone Crisis consider themselves loyal to Ambazonia and use the Ambazonian national symbols, but they are split into dozens of often competing militias of changing political allegiances. The militia commanders have been described as " warlords " by researchers. The armed separatists are locally called "Amba Boys". The militias generally vary in size, ranging from small groups to alliances with hundreds of members. The rebel militias are mainly recruited from Anglophone youths who have either lost family members to Cameroonian security forces or believe that they have no future on

5520-412: The Anglophone regions. In the subsequent trials, Amnesty International and the SCNC found substantive evidence of admissions through torture and force. The raid and trial resulted in a shutdown of SCNC activities. In response to this, in April 1998 a small faction elected Esoka Ndoki Mukete, a high-ranking member of the Social Democratic Front, as the new chair of the SCNC. In October 1999, when many of

5635-434: The Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland. In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad : first the Saadi dynasty who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then the 'Alawi dynasty , who have remained in power since

5750-462: The Cameroon Bar Association Fongum Gorji Dinka wrote that the Cameroonian government led by Paul Biya was unconstitutional and announced the former Southern Cameroons should become independent as the Republic of Ambazonia. Dinka was incarcerated the following January without trial. Three years later, he escaped to Nigeria. In 1993, representatives of Anglophone groups convened the first All Anglophone Conference (AAC1) in Buea. The conference issued

5865-722: The Cameroonian authorities in 2001. In 2006, a faction of SCNC once again declared the independence of Ambazonia. In November 2016, a number of large protests and strikes were organized, initially by Anglophone lawyers, students, and teachers focused on the growing marginalization of English and Anglophone institutions in the law and education. Several demonstrations were violently dispersed by security forces, leading to clashes between demonstrators and police in which several people were killed. Violence by both sides undermined negotiations in early 2017, which fell apart without an agreement. The violence led to additional demonstrations, general strikes (called "lockdowns"), and further crackdowns by

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5980-447: The Cameroonian government and other official sources, such as the UN, continue to refer to the " Northwest Region " and " Southwest Region " (or sometimes the "NoSo" regions), the official names of the two administrative provinces since 1972. As an alternative to "Ambazonia", separatists have also used "Ambaland". Other sources may also refer to "Southern Cameroons", "Anglophone Cameroon" or "Cameroon's Anglophone regions". To refer to

6095-402: The Fatimids in 932, they were removed from power by the Maghrawa of Sijilmasa in 980. From the 11th century onward, a series of Berber dynasties arose. Under the Sanhaja Almoravid dynasty and the Masmuda Almohad dynasty , Morocco dominated the Maghreb, al-Andalus in Iberia , and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century onward the country saw a massive migration of

6210-414: The French-speaking parts of Cameroon, Ambazonian separatists have used the term "la République" and more derogatory descriptors like " banana republic " or "colonial Cameroun". "Banana republic" is used as a criticism of the Cameroonian institutions, whereas "colonial Cameroun" is used to criticize the Francophone dominance. The Ambazonian activists call the war zone of the Anglophone Crisis " Ground Zero ",

6325-457: The Kingdom of Morocco, the United States of America and the State of Israel was signed on 22 December 2020. On 24 August 2021, neighbouring Algeria cut diplomatic relations with Morocco, accusing Morocco of supporting a separatist group and hostile actions against Algeria. Morocco called the decision unjustified. On 8 September 2023, a 6.8 magnitude earthquake hit Morocco killing more than 2,800 people and injuring thousands. The epicentre of

6440-487: The Kingdom of Morocco. A month later Spain forsook its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves ( Ceuta and Melilla ) on the Mediterranean coast which dated from earlier conquests, but over which Morocco still claims sovereignty to this day. Sultan Mohammed became King in 1957. Upon the death of Mohammed V, Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. Morocco held its first general elections in 1963 . However, Hassan declared

6555-413: The Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and the annexed Western Sahara. It is one of only three nations (along with Spain and France ) to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the centre and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by

6670-439: The Red Dragons, Tigers, ARA, Seven Kata, ABL, with varying levels of coordination with and loyalty to Ambazonian political leaders. In practice, pro-independence militias operate largely autonomously from political leaders, who are mostly in exile. On 5 January 2018, members of the Ambazonia Interim Government in exile in Abuja, Nigeria , including President Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe , were arrested and deported to Cameroon into

6785-463: The Riffi 10,000 died. In 1943, the Istiqlal Party (Independence Party) was founded to press for independence, with discreet US support. Moroccan nationalists drew heavily on transnational activist networks for lobbying to end colonial rule, primarily at the United Nations. The Istiqlal Party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement. France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his replacement by

6900-437: The Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation (SCAPO), with the Southern Cameroons National Council (SCNC) as the executive governing body. Younger activists formed the Southern Cameroons Youth League (SCYL) in Buea on 28 May 1995. The SCNC sent a delegation, led by John Foncha, to the United Nations, which was received on 1 June 1995 and presented a petition against the 'annexation' of the Southern Cameroons by French Cameroon. This

7015-406: The Southern Cameroons delegation at a conference in London asked for a separate region. The British agreed, and Southern Cameroons became an autonomous region with its capital still at Buea. Elections were held in 1954 and the parliament met on 1 October 1954, with E. M. L. Endeley as Premier. The United Nations organised a plebiscite in the region on 11 February 1961 which put two alternatives to

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7130-429: The Spanish Sahara. On 6 November 1975, King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara. Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the " Green March ". A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara, soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied

7245-427: The United States and Germany have expressed concern over the human rights violations and scaled back or cancelled military cooperation with Cameroon over reported abuses. France, the UK as well as the European Parliament have also expressed concern and pushed for negotiations between the parties to resolve the crisis. The separatists assert that Ambazonia is legally governed by the "Interim Government of Ambazonia", as

7360-403: The accused were found guilty in the 1997 trial, the faction led by Mukete became more assertive. On 1 October 1999, militants took over Radio Buea to proclaim the independence of Southern Cameroons, but failed to do so before security forces intervened. The leadership and many members of the SCNC were subsequently arrested. After clashes with the police, the SCNC was officially declared illegal by

7475-405: The area to the German territory of Kamerun in 1887. Germany had some trouble establishing control over the hinterlands of Victoria, and fought the Bafut Wars against local fondoms until 1907. Following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles , Kamerun was divided between a French and a British League of Nations Mandate . The French mandate was known as Cameroun, and comprised most of

7590-493: The city's founder Idris I ibn Abd Allah reputedly used a silver and gold pickaxe to trace the outlines of the city. In other parts of the Islamic world, for example in Egyptian and Middle Eastern Arabic literature before the mid-20th century, Morocco was commonly referred to as Murrakush ( مراكش ). The term is still used to refer to Morocco today in several Indo-Iranian languages, including Persian , Urdu , and Punjabi . Morocco has also been referred to politically by

7705-400: The claimed territory. No country has recognized Ambazonia's existence as of 2024. Until 1961, the territory of these regions was the southern part of a British trust territory, British Cameroon while the rest of Cameroon was a French trust territory, French Cameroon . At independence, a plebiscite was held, and voters in Southern Cameroons opted to join Cameroon as a constituent state of

7820-458: The constitution, as the majority of deputies from West Cameroon had not consented to legitimize the constitutional changes. They argued that Southern Cameroons had effectively been annexed by Cameroon. Shortly afterwards, French Cameroun's political leadership changed the constitution again, appointed French-speaking Paul Biya as Prime Minister and successor to Ahmadou Ahidjo. In a memorandum dated 20 March 1985, Anglophone lawyer and President of

7935-564: The country to this day, seized power in 1631, and over the next two centuries expanded diplomatic and commercial relations with the Western world . Morocco's strategic location near the mouth of the Mediterranean drew renewed European interest; in 1912, France and Spain divided the country into respective protectorates , reserving an international zone in Tangier . Following intermittent riots and revolts against colonial rule, in 1956, Morocco regained its independence and reunified. Since independence, Morocco has remained relatively stable. It has

8050-433: The custody of government forces to face criminal charges. On 4 February 2018, it was announced that US-based preacher Dr. Samuel Ikome Sako would become the Interim President of the Federal Republic of Ambazonia, temporarily succeeding Ayuk Tabe. However, despite receiving a life sentence on terrorism charges from a Cameroon court, on 2 May 2019, Ayuk Tabe declared from prison the dissolution of Sako's caretaker cabinet and

8165-599: The declaration of independence, while fourteen Cameroonian troops were killed in attacks claimed by the Ambazonia Defence Forces . The Cameroonian government stated that the declaration had no legal weight and on 30 November 2017, the President of Cameroon signaled a harder line on separatist attacks on police and soldiers. A massive military deployment accompanied by curfews and forced evacuations of entire villages. This temporarily ended hopes for continued dialogue and kicked off full-fledged guerilla war in Southern Cameroons. Several different armed factions have emerged such as

8280-642: The early phase of the Anglophone Crisis, the "Southern Cameroons Broadcasting Corporation" (formed by exiles in South Africa) was a major channel to distribute propaganda in Cameroon to incite Anglophones into siding with the rebels. Cameroon attempted to then ban the channel, but failed as people could still view it on the internet. On the same day the BBC reported that, Voice of America reported that

8395-885: The first vowel has been changed, likely influenced by the word "Moor". Historically, the territory has been part of what Muslim geographers referred to as al-Maghrib al-Aqṣā    [ ar ] ( المغرب الأقصى , 'the Farthest West [of the Islamic world]' designating roughly the area from Tiaret to the Atlantic ) in contrast with neighbouring regions of al-Maghrib al-Awsaṭ    [ ar ] ( المغرب الأوسط , 'the Middle West': Tripoli to Béjaïa ) and al-Maghrib al-Adnā    [ ar ] ( المغرب الأدنى , 'the Nearest West': Alexandria to Tripoli ). Morocco's modern Arabic name

8510-444: The force of law, and can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the prime minister and the president of the constitutional court. Morocco claims ownership of the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara , which it has designated its Southern Provinces . In 1975, after Spain agreed to decolonise the territory and cede its control to Morocco and Mauritania , a guerrilla war broke out between those powers and some of

8625-448: The former German territory. The British mandate was an elongated strip of land along the border of Colonial Nigeria , consisting of Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons, including the historical Ambas Bay Protectorate. This territory was organized as British Cameroons . The British administered the territories through indirect rule , allowing native authorities to administer the population according to their own traditions. In 1953,

8740-514: The government into early 2017, including the banning of civil society organizations, cutting off phone and internet connections from January to April, and arrests of demonstrators. Although the government established a Commission to focus on Anglophone grievances and took steps to address issues of language equity in courts and schools, continued distrust and harsh responses to protests prevented significant deescalation. By late 2017, with dialogue efforts moribund and violence continuing on both sides,

8855-530: The growth of different species of oaks, moss carpets, junipers, and Atlantic fir which is a royal conifer tree endemic to Morocco. In the valleys, fertile soils and high precipitation allow for the growth of thick and lush forests. Cloud forests can be found in the west of the Rif Mountains and Middle Atlas Mountains. At higher elevations, the climate becomes alpine in character, and can sustain ski resorts. Ambazonia Ambazonia , alternatively

8970-403: The idea of an Ambazonian nation state, exile activists have also set up a variety of other organizations to support the Interim Government. These include the "Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front" (SCACUF), the "Southern Cameroon Broadcasting Corporation" (SCBC) to spread propaganda, and a "Southern Cameroon Ambazonia Education Board" (SCAEB) to enforce a new curriculum in schools in

9085-605: The illegal migrants to Morocco from Melilla. In 2006, the Spanish Premier Zapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories. The following year, Spanish King Juan Carlos I visited Ceuta and Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the enclaves. During the 2011–2012 Moroccan protests , thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and

9200-473: The kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribes Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727) began to create a unified state. With his Riffian army, he re-occupied Tangier from the English who had abandoned it in 1684 and drove the Spanish from Larache in 1689. The Portuguese abandoned Mazagão , their last territory in Morocco, in 1769. However,

9315-694: The labour market of a Francophone Cameroon. Militias are also known to conscript people, including children, into their ranks. Some rebels have also kidnapped girls to serve as sex slaves. Many guerilla groups have joined the Ambazonia Self-Defence Council (ASC) under the Interim Government. Major non-ASC groups include the Ambazonia Defence Forces (ADF) and the Southern Cameroons Defence Forces (SOCADEF), which both cooperate with

9430-530: The larger empire, Morocco was initially organised as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya , with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan . The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary laws . They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration. The first independent Muslim state in the area of modern Morocco was the Kingdom of Nekor , an emirate in

9545-903: The late 3rd century, direct Roman rule had become confined to a few coastal cities, such as Septum ( Ceuta ) in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis . When, in 429 AD, the area was devastated by the Vandals , the Roman Empire lost its remaining possessions in Mauretania, and local Mauro-Roman kings assumed control of them. In the 530s, the Eastern Roman Empire , under Byzantine control, re-established direct imperial rule of Septum and Tingi , fortified Tingis and erected

9660-615: The latter and describing Cameroonian claims on Ambazonian territories as illegal. Fifteen years later, this stalemate would escalate when Abmazonia formally declared itself as the Federal Republic of Ambazonia. The Mau Mau Uprising took place in Kenya from 1952 until 1956 but was put down by British and local forces. A state of emergency remained in place until 1960. Kenya became independent in 1963, and Jomo Kenyatta served as its first president . The early 1960s also signaled

9775-550: The leading Ambazonian nationalist movements organized the umbrella organization Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front (SCACUF). SCACUF unilaterally declared the region's independence as Ambazonia on 1 October, the anniversary of Southern Cameroons' independence from the United Kingdom. SCACUF sought to transition itself into an interim government with its leader, Sisiku Ayuk Tabe Julius , as interim president. At least 17 people were killed in protests following

9890-463: The local cocoa industry to sustain themselves. A significant number of rebels also use religion to justify their operations. Protective magic and charms ( odeshi ) are important to many insurgents, but "de-contextualised Biblical and Koranic verses" are also used in propaganda videos. Rebel leaders such as General No Pity have publicly suggested that they enjoy mythical and religious protection to enhance their reputation. Ambazonians generally use

10005-605: The modern state of Mauritania ) flourished around 225 BC or earlier. Mauretania became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 33 BC. Emperor Claudius annexed Mauretania directly in 44 AD, making it a Roman province ruled by an imperial governor (either a procurator Augusti , or a legatus Augusti pro praetore ). During the Crisis of the Third Century , parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berbers. By

10120-552: The monarchy of Egypt in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 and came to power as Prime Minister of Egypt . Muammar Gaddafi led the 1969 Libyan coup d'état which deposed Idris of Libya . Gaddafi remained in power until his death in the Libyan Civil War of 2011 . Egypt was involved in several wars against Israel and was allied with other Arab countries . The first was the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , right after

10235-561: The most substantial of which were Chellah , Lixus , and Mogador . Mogador was established as a Phoenician colony as early as the 6th century BC. Morocco later became a realm of the Northwest African civilisation of ancient Carthage , and part of the Carthaginian empire. The earliest known independent Moroccan state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania , under King Baga . This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with

10350-798: The most varied sources of European colonial imperialists including Germany in Cameroon, Britain in Northern Cameroons, Belgium in Congo, and France in CAF. Due to its territory, among the main trope s regarding Central Africa is traversing its lands and the nature of its tropicals. Since 1982, one of the main protracted issues within central Africa has been the ongoing secession movement of the secessionist entity of Ambazonia . The impasse between Cameroon and Ambazonia gained steam in 1992 when Fon Gorji-Dinka filed an international lawsuit against Cameroon claiming that Ambazonian territories are held illegally by

10465-472: The north-west to the north-east. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the northeast to the southwest. Most of the southeast portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that

10580-436: The northern and central mountains, giving way to steppe, semi-arid and desert areas in the eastern and southern regions. The Moroccan coastal plains experience moderate temperatures even in summer. In the Rif, Middle and High Atlas Mountains, there exist several different types of climates: Mediterranean along the coastal lowlands, giving way to a humid temperate climate at higher elevations with sufficient moisture to allow for

10695-606: The northern coastal and southern Saharan zones. Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of rich agricultural land, while others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco – with some Moroccan tribes allying with the French against other competing tribes from early on in its conquest. The French colonial administrator, Governor general Marshal Hubert Lyautey , sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing

10810-535: The people: union with Nigeria or union with Cameroon. The third option, independence, was opposed by the British representative to the UN Trusteeship Council, Sir Andrew Cohen , and as a result was not listed. In the plebiscite, 60% of voters in the Northern Cameroons voted for union with Nigeria, while 70% of voters in the Southern Cameroons opted for union with Cameroon. The results owed partly to

10925-489: The protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The 1786 Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship stands as the United States' oldest unbroken friendship treaty. As Europe industrialised, Northwest Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of

11040-480: The quake was around 70 km southwest of city of Marrakech. Morocco has a coast by the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea . It is bordered by Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with three small Spanish-controlled exclaves , Ceuta , Melilla , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ), Algeria to the east, and Western Sahara to

11155-574: The rebel areas. Currently, a proposal by members of the Ambazonia Interim Government in exile states that the Federal Republic of Ambazonia would be a federation made up of three autonomous states (however, within the proposed constitution in 'Article 1, Section 1.a' this number may be subject to change). Ambazonian separatists have a major presence in the Internet , and effectively use social media to spread their ideas. In

11270-512: The reforms made by Mohammed VI, demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012. Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms. On 10 December 2020, Israel–Morocco normalisation agreement was announced and Morocco announced its intention to resume diplomatic relations with Israel. Joint Declaration of

11385-431: The regional capital El Aaiún . In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the disputed island of Perejil . Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag. There were renewed tensions in 2005, as dozens of African migrants stormed the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. In response, Spain deported dozens of

11500-984: The restoration of his own cabinet. Sako resisted, leading to the 2019 Ambazonian leadership crisis . As the violence intensified, international efforts to resolve the crisis picked up. On 13 May 2019, the United Nations Security Council had an informal meeting to discuss the Anglophone Crisis . Peace talks mediated by the Swiss government have fallen apart multiple times, primarily due to factional divisions and lack of actual control over militias by separatist leaders making even preliminary steps difficult. The war has been characterized by guerilla attacks by separatist militias against both security forces and against civilians suspected of collaboration or simply failing to abide militia's declared school and election boycotts or "lockdowns" which prevent all travel and activity. Many militias have sought to enforce

11615-478: The separatist militias operating in Cameroon itself. For instance, separatist exiles have organized fundraising campaigns which included the introduction of their own cryptocurrency , the AmbaCoin ; the resulting money is then used to buy weaponry for the militias on the ground. The commanders of some militias also operate from exile. In order to provide the separatist movement with some cohesion and strengthen

11730-609: The south. Since Morocco controls most of Western Sahara, its de facto southern boundary is with Mauritania . The internationally recognised borders of the country lie between latitudes 27° and 36°N, and longitudes 1° and 14°W . The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara desert. Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and

11845-768: The start of major clashes between the Hutus and the Tutsis in Rwanda and Burundi . In 1994 this culminated in the Rwandan genocide , a conflict in which over 800,000 people were murdered. In 1948 the apartheid laws were started in South Africa by the dominant National Party . These were largely a continuation of existing policies; the difference was the policy of " separate development " (Apartheid). Where previous policies had only been disparate efforts to economically exploit

11960-774: The state of Israel was founded. Egypt went to war again in the Six-Day War of 1967 and lost the Sinai Peninsula to Israel. They went to war yet again in the Yom Kippur War of 1973. In 1979, President of Egypt Anwar Sadat and Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords , which gave back the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for the recognition of Israel. The accords are still in effect today. In 1981, Sadat

12075-525: The strategic position of Morocco with coasts on the Mediterranean and the open Atlantic. In 1860, a dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In 1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco. In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco. Recognition by the United Kingdom of France's sphere of influence provoked

12190-495: The terms "sugarcane" or "stick" for weapons and "groundnuts" for cartridges. Lando argued that the usage of more sacrosanct terms by only some rebel factions may had resulted from the internal disagreements within the separatist movement. In contrast, the term "frying popcorn" for combat situations is very common among rebels. When rebels state that they "wasted" an individual, they describe an assassination. Traitors are termed "blacklegs". Those who had suffered amputations, often as

12305-572: The territories across the Sahara proved too difficult. Upon the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among his sons. After a period of political fragmentation and conflict during the decline of the Saadi dynasty, Morocco was finally reunited by the Alawi sultan al-Rashid in the late 1660s, who took Fez in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1668. The 'Alawis succeeded in stabilising their position, and while

12420-499: The territory. Moroccan and Algerian troops soon clashed in Western Sahara . Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at

12535-571: The union, taking its natural resources with it. Following a French Cameroon unilateral referendum on 20 May 1972, a new constitution was adopted in Cameroon which replaced the federal state with a unitary state , and also gave more power to the president. Southern Cameroons lost its autonomous status and became the Northwest Region and the Southwest Region of the Republic of Cameroon. Pro-independence groups claimed that this violated

12650-468: The unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets. France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. In March 1956 Morocco regained its independence from France as

12765-415: Was annexed by Morocco in 1975 (see Green March ). Morocco claims that the Western Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its Southern Provinces . Morocco's capital city is Rabat ; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca . Other cities recording a population over 500,000 in the 2014 Moroccan census are Fes , Marrakesh , Meknes , Salé and Tangier . Morocco is represented in

12880-893: Was assassinated by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad under Khalid Islambouli . The assassins were Islamists who targeted Sadat for his signing of the Accords. Following World War II, nationalist movements arose across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah . In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies; by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous. Since independence, many West African nations have been plagued by corruption and instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria , Sierra Leone , Liberia , and Ivory Coast , and

12995-476: Was elected President of Algeria . Over a million French nationals, predominantly Pied-Noirs , left the country, crippling the economy. In 1934, the " Neo Destour " (New Constitution) party was founded by Habib Bourguiba pushing for independence in Tunisia . Tunisia became independent in 1955. Its bey was deposed and Habib Bourguiba elected as President of Tunisia . In 1954, Gamal Abdel Nasser deposed

13110-600: Was followed by a signature referendum the same year, which the organisers claim produced a 99% vote in favour of independence with 315,000 people voting. SCNC activities were routinely disrupted by police. On 23 March 1997, about ten people were killed in a raid on a gendarme camp in Bamenda . The police arrested between 200 and 300 people, mostly SCNC supporters, but also members of the Social Democratic Front , an opposition party with significant support in

13225-544: Was met with a violent government crackdown, which led to rioting and violence against security forces and, in 2017, a unilateral declaration of independence by Ambazonian leaders. The violence developed into a guerrilla war , and as of 2023 , clashes continue, with population centers and strategic locations largely controlled by the government engaged in counterinsurgency actions, with swathes of more remote, rural areas controlled by separatist militias and used to launch guerrilla attacks. Ambazonian forces have struggled to form

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