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116-594: Patroon Creek, starting with Henry Hudson 's discovery of the Hudson River, was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland and the patroonship of Rensselaerswyck, founded in 1630. On the 1632 Map of Rensselaerswyck the mouth of the Patroon Creek is labeled as "Bloommaert's Burt", and Patroon Creek gained the name of Bloomaert's Kill , kill being the Dutch word for creek or stream. Another early name for

232-487: A Martensite phase transformation ), while the remainder of the mold, being formed of sand, allowed the metal to cool slowly and the body of the shot to be made tough (resistant to shattering). These chilled iron shots proved very effective against wrought iron armour but were not serviceable against compound and steel armour, which was first introduced in the 1880s. A new departure, therefore, had to be made, and forged steel rounds with points hardened by water took

348-515: A rifled gun. HEAT shells were developed during World War II as a munition made of an explosive shaped charge that uses the Munroe effect to create a very high-velocity particle stream of metal in a state of superplasticity , and used to penetrate solid vehicle armour . HEAT rounds caused a revolution in anti-tank warfare when they were first introduced in the later part of World War II. One infantryman could effectively destroy any extant tank with

464-408: A silicon - manganese -chromium-based alloy when those grades became scarce. The latter alloy, although able to be hardened to the same level, was more brittle and had a tendency to shatter on striking highly sloped armour. The shattered shot lowered penetration, or resulted in total penetration failure; for armour-piercing high-explosive (APHE) projectiles, this could result in premature detonation of

580-514: A barrel or barrel extension which taperes towards the muzzle – a system known as the Gerlich principle . This projectile design is very similar to the APCR-design - featuring a high-density core within a shell of soft iron or another alloy - but with the addition of soft metal flanges or studs along the outer projectile wall to increase the projectile diameter to a higher caliber. This caliber

696-428: A certain mass-ratio between length and diameter (calibre) for accurate flight, traditionally a length-to-diameter ratio less than 10 (more for higher density projectiles). If a spin-stabilized projectile is made too long it will become unstable and tumble during flight. This limits how long APDS sub-projectiles of can be in relation to its sub-calibre, which in turn limits how thin the sub-projectile can be without making

812-459: A core of depleted uranium . Depleted-uranium penetrators have the advantage of being pyrophoric and self-sharpening on impact, resulting in intense heat and energy focused on a minimal area of the target's armour. Some rounds also use explosive or incendiary tips to aid in the penetration of thicker armour. High explosive incendiary/armour piercing ammunition combines a tungsten carbide penetrator with an incendiary and explosive tip. Energy

928-636: A gun, the 7.5 cm fired by the Kw.K.37 L/24 of the Panzer IV tank and the Stug III self-propelled gun (7.5 cm Gr.38 Hl/A, later editions B and C). In mid-1941, Germany started producing HEAT rifle grenades, first issued to paratroopers and by 1942 to regular army units. In 1943, the Püppchen , Panzerschreck and Panzerfaust were introduced. The Panzerfaust and Panzerschreck or 'tank terror' gave

1044-418: A handheld weapon, thereby dramatically altering the nature of mobile operations. During World War II, weapons using HEAT warheads were known as having a hollow charge or shaped charge warhead. Claims for priority of invention are difficult to resolve due to subsequent historic interpretations, secrecy, espionage, and international commercial interest. Shaped-charge warheads were promoted internationally by

1160-472: A hardened steel plate at high velocity imparted significant force to the projectile and standard armour-piercing shells had a tendency to shatter instead of penetrating, especially at oblique angles, so shell designers added a mild steel cap to the nose of the shells. The more flexible mild steel would deform on impact and reduce the shock transmitted to the projectile body. Shell design varied, with some fitted with hollow caps and others with solid ones. Since

1276-527: A large metal arrow. APFSDS sub-projectiles can thus achieve much higher length-to-diameter ratios than APDS-projectiles, which in turn allows for much higher sub-calibre ratios (smaller sub-calibre to the full-calibre), meaning that APFSDS-projectiles can have an extremely small frontal cross-section to decrease air-resistance , thus increasing velocity , while still having a long body to retain great mass by length, meaning more kinetic energy . Velocity and kinetic energy both dictates how much range and penetration

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1392-408: A large-calibre anti-tank gun, because of the high mass of the shot, its rigidity, short overall length, and thick body. The APS uses fragmentation warheads or projected plates, and both are designed to defeat the two most common anti-armour projectiles in use today: HEAT and kinetic energy penetrator . Defeating HEAT projectiles can occur by damaging or detonating their explosive filling, or by damaging

1508-469: A much reduced armour penetrating ability. The filling was detonated by a rear-mounted delay fuze. The explosive used in APHE projectiles needs to be highly insensitive to shock to prevent premature detonation. The US forces normally used the explosive Explosive D , otherwise known as ammonium picrate, for this purpose. Other combatant forces of the period used various explosives, suitably desensitized (usually by

1624-708: A new discovery and naming it "Sir Thomas Smith's Island", though the first verifiable records of the discovery of the island had been made a year earlier, in 1614. In 1609, Hudson was chosen by merchants of the Dutch East India Company in the Netherlands to find an easterly passage to Asia. While awaiting orders and supplies in Amsterdam, he heard rumours of a northwest route to the Pacific through North America. Hudson had been told to sail through

1740-584: A route above the Arctic Circle . In 1609, he landed in North America on behalf of the Dutch East India Company and explored the region around the modern New York metropolitan area . Looking for a Northwest Passage to Asia on his ship Halve Maen ("Half Moon"), he sailed up the Hudson River , which was later named after him, and thereby laid the foundation for Dutch colonization of

1856-437: A series of bombs propelled by rockets to assist in penetrating the armour of ships and similar targets. Armour-piercing rifle and pistol cartridges are usually built around a penetrator of hardened steel , tungsten , or tungsten carbide , and such cartridges are often called "hard-core bullets". Rifle armour-piercing ammunition generally carries its hardened penetrator within a copper or cupronickel jacket, similar to

1972-403: A shell version. They had been using APHE since the invention of the 1.5% high-explosive Palliser shell in the 1870s and 1880s, and understood the tradeoffs between reliability, damage, percentage of high explosive, and penetration, and deemed reliability and penetration to be most important for tank use. Naval APHE projectiles of this period, being much larger used a bursting charge of about 1–3% of

2088-499: A shock-buffering cap is placed between the core and the outer ballistic shell as with APC rounds. However, because the round is lighter but still the same overall size it has poorer ballistic qualities, and loses velocity and accuracy at longer ranges. The APCR was superseded by the APDS, which dispensed with the outer light alloy shell once the round had left the barrel. The concept of a heavy, small-diameter penetrator encased in light metal

2204-419: A small calibre and very high velocity. The entire projectile is not normally made of the same material as the penetrator because the physical characteristics that make a good penetrator (i.e. extremely tough, hard metal) make the material equally harmful to the barrel of the gun firing the cartridge. Most modern active protection systems (APS) are unlikely to be able to defeat full-calibre AP rounds fired from

2320-410: A smaller but dense penetrating body within a larger shell, firing at a very-high muzzle velocity . Modern penetrators are long rods of dense material like tungsten or depleted uranium (DU) that further improve the terminal ballistics. The late 1850s saw the development of the ironclad warship , which carried wrought iron armour of considerable thickness. This armour was practically immune to both

2436-413: A type of shaped charge used to defeat armoured vehicles. They are very efficient at defeating plain steel armour but less so against later composite and reactive armour . The effectiveness of such shells is independent of velocity, and hence the range: it is as effective at 1000 metres as at 100 metres. This is because HEAT shells do not lose penetrating ability over distance. The speed can even be zero in

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2552-522: A watershed of 3 square miles (7.8 km). Henry Hudson Henry Hudson ( c. 1565 – disappeared 23 June 1611) was an English sea explorer and navigator during the early 17th century, best known for his explorations of present-day Canada and parts of the Northeastern United States. In 1607 and 1608, Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a rumoured Northeast Passage to Cathay via

2668-464: A young boy arrived in a small wooden boat. The Inuit had never seen a white person before, but they took them to an encampment and fed them. After the old man died, the Inuit tethered the boy to one of their houses so he would not run away. Despite the long time passed, the story might be given some credence after long-ignored Inuit testimonies proved reliable enough to lead to the discovery of the wrecks of

2784-654: Is 80° 49′ N) when really it trended to the east. Encountering ice packed along the north coast, they were forced to turn back south. Hudson wanted to make his return "by the north of Greenland to Davis his Streights ( Davis Strait ), and so for Kingdom of England", but ice conditions would have made this impossible. The expedition returned to Tilbury Hope on the River Thames on 15 September. Hudson reported large numbers of whales in Spitsbergen waters during this voyage. Many authors credit his reports as

2900-591: Is a saboted sub-calibre high-sectional density projectile, typically known as a long rod penetrator (LRP), which has been outfitted with fixed fins at the back end for ballistic-stabilization (so called aerodynamic drag stabilization). The fin-stabilisation allows the APFSDS sub-projectiles to be much longer in relation to its sub-calibre thickness compared to the very similar spin-stabilized ammunition type APDS (armour-piercing discarding sabot). Projectiles using spin-stabilization ( longitudinal axis rotation ) requires

3016-521: Is a projectile which has a core of high-density hard material, such as tungsten carbide , surrounded by a full-bore shell of a lighter material (e.g., an aluminium alloy). However, the low sectional density of the APCR resulted in high aerodynamic drag . Tungsten compounds such as tungsten carbide were used in small quantities of inhomogeneous and discarded sabot round, but that element was in short supply in most places. Most APCR projectiles are shaped like

3132-428: Is added (APC-T). An armour-piercing projectile must withstand the shock of punching through armour plating . Projectiles designed for this purpose have a greatly strengthened body with a specially hardened and shaped nose. One common addition to later projectiles is the use of a softer ring or cap of metal on the nose known as a penetrating cap, or armour-piercing cap . This lowers the initial shock of impact to prevent

3248-486: Is also pyrophoric and may become opportunistically incendiary, especially as the round shears past the armour exposing non-oxidized metal, but both the metal's fragments and dust contaminate the battlefield with toxic hazards. The less toxic WHAs are preferred in most countries except the US and Russia. Armour-piercing bombs dropped by aircraft were used during World War II against capital and other armoured ships. Among

3364-445: Is also no cartographical proof of this supposed discovery. Jonas Poole in 1611 and Robert Fotherby in 1615 both had possession of Hudson's journal while searching for his elusive Hold-with-Hope—which is now believed to have been on the east coast of Greenland—but neither had any knowledge of any discovery of Jan Mayen, an achievement which was only later attributed to Hudson. Fotherby eventually stumbled across Jan Mayen, thinking it

3480-476: Is approximately 600 kilometres (370 mi) south of James Bay, was found to have carving on it with Hudson's initials (H. H.), the year 1612, and the word "captive". While lettering on the stone was consistent with English maps of the 17th century, the Geological Survey of Canada was unable to determine when the carving was made. The bay visited by and named after Hudson is three times the size of

3596-408: Is concentrated by using a reduced-diameter tungsten shot, surrounded by a lightweight outer carrier, the sabot (a French word for a wooden shoe ). This combination allows the firing of a smaller diameter (thus lower mass/aerodynamic resistance/penetration resistance) projectile with a larger area of expanding-propellant "push", thus a greater propelling force and resulting kinetic energy. Once outside

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3712-648: Is increased velocity for the projectile. However, projectile impact against armour at higher velocity causes greater levels of shock. Materials have characteristic maximum levels of shock capacity, beyond which they may shatter, or otherwise disintegrate. At relatively high impact velocities, steel is no longer an adequate material for armour-piercing rounds. Tungsten and tungsten alloys are suitable for use in even higher-velocity armour-piercing rounds, due to their very high shock tolerance and shatter resistance, and to their high melting and boiling temperatures. They also have very high density. Aircraft and tank rounds sometimes use

3828-569: Is named after him, as are Hudson County, New Jersey , the Henry Hudson Bridge , the Henry Hudson Parkway , and the city of Hudson, New York . Armor-piercing shot and shell Armour-piercing ammunition ( AP ) is a type of projectile designed to penetrate armour protection, most often including naval armour , body armour , and vehicle armour . The first, major application of armour-piercing projectiles

3944-877: Is normally contained between the cap and penetrating nose, within a hollow at the rear, or a combination of both. If the projectile also uses a tracer , the rear cavity is often used to house the tracer compound. For larger-calibre projectiles, the tracer may instead be contained within an extension of the rear sealing plug. Common abbreviations for solid (non-composite/hardcore) cannon-fired shot are; AP , AP-T , API and API-T ; where "T" stands for "tracer" and "I" for "incendiary". More complex, composite projectiles containing explosives and other ballistic devices tend to be referred to as armour-piercing shells. Early WWII-era uncapped armour-piercing ( AP ) projectiles fired from high-velocity guns were able to penetrate about twice their calibre at close range (100 m). At longer ranges (500–1,000 m), this dropped 1.5–1.1 calibres due to

4060-403: Is the initial full-bore caliber, but the outer shell is deformed as it passes through the taper. Flanges or studs are swaged down in the tapered section so that as it leaves the muzzle the projectile has a smaller overall cross-section. This gives it better flight characteristics with a higher sectional density, and the projectile retains velocity better at longer ranges than an undeformed shell of

4176-404: Is unknown. While Pricket's account is one of the few surviving records of the voyage, its reliability has been questioned by some historians. Pricket's journal and testimony have been severely criticized for bias, on two grounds. Firstly, prior to the mutiny the alleged leaders of the uprising, Greene and Juet, had been friends and loyal seamen of Hudson. Secondly, Greene and Juet did not survive

4292-552: The 4.2 cm Pak 41 and 7.5 cm Pak 41 . Although HE rounds were also put into service, they weighed only 93 grams and had low effectiveness. The German taper was a fixed part of the barrel. In contrast, the British used the Littlejohn squeeze-bore adaptor , which could be attached or removed as necessary. The adaptor extended the usefulness of armoured cars and light tanks, which could not be upgraded with any gun larger than

4408-666: The Albany Pine Bush at its source, the Tivoli Park Preserve, and the Corning Preserve at its mouth. The creek's watershed is roughly 5,000 acres (2,000 ha). The watershed is in an urban environment with a population density of 2,550 inhabitants/mi (965 inhabitants/km), and approximately 17% of the watershed is forested. The Sand Creek, which resides mostly in Colonie, is a major tributary with

4524-629: The Arctic Ocean north of Russia, into the Pacific and so to the Far East . Hudson departed Amsterdam on 4 April, in command of the Dutch ship Halve Maen (English: Half Moon). He could not complete the specified (eastward) route because ice blocked the passage, as with all previous such voyages, and he turned the ship around in mid-May while somewhere east of Norway's North Cape . At that point, acting outside his instructions, Hudson pointed

4640-804: The Baltic Sea , and its many large estuaries afford access to otherwise landlocked parts of Western Canada and the Arctic . This allowed the Hudson's Bay Company to exploit a lucrative fur trade along its shores for more than two centuries, growing powerful enough to influence the history and present international boundaries of western North America. Along with Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait in Canada, many other topographical features and landmarks are named for Hudson. The Hudson River in New York and New Jersey

4756-481: The Tivoli Nature Preserve along the Patroon Creek. The Patroon Creek is 6.2 miles (10.0 km) long from a grate at the eastern end of Rensselaer Lake to a culvert that empties into the Hudson River. About 1/3 of the creek has been moved from its original course and/or buried in culverts since the 19th century to make way for railroads and highways. The creek passes through three nature preserves,

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4872-526: The bombs used by the Imperial Japanese Navy in the attack on Pearl Harbor were 800 kg (1,800 lb) armour-piercing bombs, modified from 41-centimeter (16.1 in) naval shells, which succeeded in sinking the battleship USS  Arizona . The Luftwaffe ' s PC 1400 armour-piercing bomb and the derived Fritz X precision-guided bomb were able to penetrate 130 mm (5.1 in) of armour. The Luftwaffe also developed

4988-412: The 1970s the municipality routinely had sewer pipes outflow into the creeks around the city. In 2000 several office buildings around Everett Road were found to still be dumping into the Patroon Creek and the pipes were corked and the properties connected to the municipal sewer system. In the 1970s the Patroon Creek was diverted around Tivoli Lake and the lake was dredged. In 2010 plans have begun to return

5104-593: The Albany Waterworks Company purchased from the patroon Stephen van Rensselaer a portion of the Patroon Creek for use as a water supply. The Albany Waterworks was a private corporation and was replaced by a municipal water supply in 1850 which then purchased all the water sources from the Albany Waterworks. In 1851 the Patroon Creek was dammed by the city roughly 6 miles (9.7 km) from Albany City Hall where three streams met to form

5220-489: The British. The only British APHE projectile for tank use in this period was the Shell AP, Mk1 for the 2 pdr anti-tank gun and this was dropped as it was found that the fuze tended to separate from the body during penetration. Even when the fuze did not separate and the system functioned correctly, damage to the interior was little different from the solid shot, and so did not warrant the additional time and cost of producing

5336-406: The Dutch for control of northwest routes. It was thought that, because the sun shone for three months in the northern latitudes in the summer, the ice would melt, and a ship could make it across the "top of the world". On 1 May 1607, Hudson sailed with a crew of ten men and a boy on the 80-ton Hopewell . They reached the east coast of Greenland on 13 May, coasting northward until 22 May. Here

5452-624: The German infantryman the ability to destroy any tank on the battlefield from 50–150 m with relative ease of use and training, unlike the UK PIAT. The first British HEAT weapon to be developed and issued was a rifle grenade using a 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 -inch (63.5 mm) cup launcher on the end of the barrel; the British No. 68 AT grenade issued to the British army in 1940. By 1943, the PIAT

5568-715: The Lower and Upper Tivoli Lakes (upper for storage, lower for distribution), the water being from the tributaries that join the Patroon east of the Rensselaer Lake dam. Other reservoirs would be constructed on the creek and its tributaries, the Patroon Creek Reservoir at Russell Road and another north of there on the Sand Creek also next to Russell Road. The Tivoli Lakes supplied water to that portion of

5684-501: The Patroon Creek and its watershed is a factory owned by NL Industries (formerly National Lead). The factory recycled depleted uranium into armor-piercing shot and shell . The factory was closed in 1983 after it was found that its six smokestacks were contaminating the suburban neighborhood of Roessleville with uranium dust. As late as 2003 uranium was found in sediments by the US Army Corps of Engineers at many locations along

5800-534: The QF 2 pdr. Although a full range of shells and shot could be used, changing an adaptor during a battle is usually impractical. The APCNR was superseded by the APDS design which was compatible with non-tapered barrels. An important armour-piercing development was the armour-piercing discarding sabot ( APDS ). An early version was developed by engineers working for the French Edgar Brandt company , and

5916-532: The Swiss inventor Henry Mohaupt , who exhibited the weapon before World War II. Before 1939, Mohaupt demonstrated his invention to British and French ordnance authorities. During the war, the French communicated the technology to the U.S. Ordnance Department, who then invited Mohaupt to the US, where he worked as a consultant on the bazooka project. By mid-1940, Germany had introduced the first HEAT round to be fired by

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6032-399: The aim of the bursting charge was to aid the number of fragments produced by the shell after armour penetration, the energy of the fragments coming from the speed of the shell after being fired from a high velocity anti-tank gun, as opposed to its bursting charge. There were some notable exceptions to this, with naval calibre shells put to use as anti-concrete and anti-armour shells, albeit with

6148-471: The area about ten days, the crew replacing a broken mast and fishing for food. On the 25 July, a dozen men from the Halve Maen , using muskets and small cannon, went ashore and assaulted the village near their anchorage. They drove the people from the settlement and took their boat and other property—probably pelts and trade goods. On 4 August, the ship was at Cape Cod , from which Hudson sailed south to

6264-542: The barrel, the sabot is stripped off by a combination of centrifugal force and aerodynamic force, giving the shot low drag in flight. For a given calibre, the use of APDS ammunition can effectively double the anti-tank performance of a gun. Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot ( APFSDS ) in English nomenclature , alternatively called "arrow projectile" or "dart projectile" ( German : Pfeil-Geschoss , Swedish : pilprojektil , Norwegian : pilprosjektil ),

6380-878: The best-performance penetrating caps were not very aerodynamic, an additional ballistic cap was later fitted to reduce drag. The resulting rounds were classified as armour-piercing capped ballistic capped (APCBC). The hollow ballistic cap gave the rounds a sharper point which reduced drag and broke away on impact. Semi-armour-piercing ( SAP ) shot is a solid shot made of mild steel (instead of high-carbon steel in AP shot). They act as low-cost ammunition with worse penetration characteristics to contemporary high carbon steel projectiles. Armour-piercing composite rigid ( APCR ) in British nomenclature , high-velocity armour-piercing ( HVAP ) in US nomenclature, alternatively called "hard core projectile" ( German : Hartkernprojektil ) or simply "core projectile" ( Swedish : kärnprojektil ),

6496-531: The bursting charge. Armour-piercing high-explosive ( APHE ) shells are armour-piercing shells containing an explosive filling, which were initially termed "shell", distinguishing them from non-explosive "shot". This was largely a matter of British usage, relating to the 1877 invention of the first of the type, the Palliser shell with 1.5% high explosive (HE). By the start of World War II, armour-piercing shells with bursting charges were sometimes distinguished by

6612-409: The case where a soldier places a magnetic mine onto a tank's armour plate. A HEAT charge is most effective when detonated at a certain, optimal distance in front of a target and HEAT shells are usually distinguished by a long, thin nose probe protruding in front of the rest of the shell and detonating it at a correct distance, e.g., PIAT bomb. HEAT shells are less effective when spun, as when fired from

6728-409: The catalyst for several nations sending whaling expeditions to the islands. This claim is contentious; others have pointed to strong evidence that it was Jonas Poole 's reports in 1610, that led to the establishment of English whaling, and voyages of Nicholas Woodcock and Willem Cornelisz van Muyden in 1612, which led to the establishment of Dutch, French and Spanish whaling. The whaling industry

6844-419: The city east from Pearl Street. In 1875, the Hudson River began to be used as the primary source of water, with the various reservoirs on the Patroon Creek as back-up. The Tivoli Lakes reservoirs were abandoned in 1910. The NYCRR West Albany Rail Yard then became the sole user of the lower portion of Patroon Creek and its tributary the Sand Creek, mostly the water was used for industrial purposes. Rensselaer Lake

6960-491: The conflict, APCBC fired at close range (100 m) from large-calibre, high-velocity guns (75–128 mm) were able to penetrate a much greater thickness of armour in relation to their calibre (2.5 times) and also a greater thickness (2–1.75 times) at longer ranges (1,500–2,000 m). In an effort to gain better aerodynamics, AP rounds were given ballistic caps to reduce drag and improve impact velocities at medium to long range. The hollow ballistic cap would break away when

7076-626: The controlling story of the expedition's disastrous end. Only eight of the thirteen mutinous crewmen survived the return voyage to Europe. They were arrested in England, and some were put on trial, but no punishment was imposed for the mutiny. One theory holds that the survivors were considered too valuable as sources of information to execute, as they had travelled to the New World and could describe sailing routes and conditions. In 1612, Nicolas de Vignau claimed he saw wreckage of an English ship on

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7192-415: The creek through the lake in order to increase the oxygen content and circulation of the lake, along with using the wetlands of the lake as a natural filter to clean the Patroon Creek. This plan has been opposed by groups representing the area around Tivoli Lake who fear that heavy metals such as mercury and depleted uranium will be deposited in the lake and preserve. In 1993 the creek was declared one of

7308-505: The creek, most of those locations the level was below their cleanup criteria, but two locations within the creek near the NL site contained uranium concentrations above the criteria. Mercury has also been found in the creek downstream from the Superfund site and is being investigated by local college professors. Prior to the establishment of Albany's modern sewer system with treatment plants in

7424-487: The creek. The lake formed was named Rensselaer Lake in honor of Stephen van Rensselaer. Water from the lake passed through a 4-foot (1.2 m) tall and 4-mile (6.4 km) long brick pipe to the Bleecker Reservoir (now Bleecker Stadium ) where the water was used for the portion of the city west from Pearl Street to Lark Street . Also in 1851 dams were thrown across the lower portion of Patroon Creek to form

7540-498: The early 2000s onwards, rifled APFSDS mainly exist for small- to medium-calibre (under 60 mm) weapon systems, as such mainly fire conventional full-calibre ammunition and thus need rifling. APFSDS projectiles are usually made from high-density metal alloys, such as tungsten heavy alloys (WHA) or depleted uranium (DU); maraging steel was used for some early Soviet projectiles. DU alloys are cheaper and have better penetration than others, as they are denser and self-sharpening. Uranium

7656-610: The entrance of the Chesapeake Bay . Rather than entering the Chesapeake he explored the coast to the north, finding Delaware Bay but continuing on north. On 3 September, he reached the estuary of the river that initially was called the "North River" or "Mauritius" and now carries his name. He was not the first European to discover the estuary, though, as it had been known since the voyage of Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. On 6 September 1609, John Colman of his crew

7772-518: The helm of his new ship, the Discovery , he stayed to the north (some claim he had deliberately stayed too far south on his Dutch-funded voyage), reached Iceland on 11 May, the south of Greenland on 4 June, and rounded the southern tip of Greenland. On 25 June, the explorers reached what is now the Hudson Strait at the northern tip of Labrador . Following the southern coast of

7888-447: The high-explosive filling. Advanced and precise methods of differentially hardening a projectile were developed during this period, especially by the German armament industry. The resulting projectiles change gradually from high hardness (low toughness) at the head to high toughness (low hardness) at the rear and were much less likely to fail on impact. APHE shells for tank guns, although used by most forces of this period, were not used by

8004-462: The jacket which would surround lead in a conventional projectile . Upon impact on a hard target, the copper case is destroyed, but the penetrator continues its motion and penetrates the target. Armour-piercing ammunition for pistols has also been developed and uses a design similar to the rifle ammunition. Some small ammunition, such as the FN 5.7mm round, is inherently capable of piercing armour, being of

8120-506: The kill and Barent Pietersz Koeymans and Teunis Cornelisz van Spitsbergen obtained a lease for a sawmill higher up the kill. In 1666 Jeremias van Rensselaer , the fourth patroon , established several barns and mills along the kill on what is now Tivoli Street. The Old Manor House was also built by the patroon just north of the creek near its mouth with the Hudson in 1666. In 1844 the railroad between Albany and Schenectady east of Fuller Road

8236-478: The kill was Fifth Kill, it being the fifth (and final) kill (counting from the south) in the colonial Albany area. Early settlers in the 17th century included Gerrit Thensz de Reux who settled a farm on the Blommaerts Kill in 1632, and Rutger Jacobsz in 1645 and Adrian Hybertsz in 1647 who settled just north of the kill. In 1654 Jacob Jansz Flodder was the highest bidder for establishing grist and sawmills on

8352-437: The mutineers and those who went along with the mutiny. In the latter class was ship's navigator, Abacuk Pricket , a survivor who kept a journal that was to become one of the sources for the narrative of the mutiny. According to Pricket, the leaders of the mutiny were Henry Greene and Robert Juet. The latter, a navigator, had accompanied Hudson on the 1609 expedition, and his account is said to be "the best contemporary record of

8468-625: The mutiny, Hudson's shallop broke out oars and tried to keep pace with the Discovery for some time. Pricket recalled that the mutineers finally tired of the David–Goliath pursuit and unfurled additional sails aboard the Discovery , enabling the larger vessel to leave the tiny open boat behind. Hudson and the other seven aboard the shallop were never seen by Europeans again. Despite subsequent searches, including those conducted by Thomas Button in 1612 and by Zachariah Gillam in 1668–1670, their fate

8584-544: The party named a headland "Young's Cape", a "very high mount, like a round castle" near it "Mount of God's Mercy" and land at 73° north latitude " Hold with Hope ". After turning east, they sighted "Newland" ( Spitsbergen ) on 27 May near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later simply named the "Great Indraught" ( Isfjorden ). On 13 July, Hudson and his crew estimated that they had sailed as far north as 80° 23′ N, but had more likely only reached 79° 23′ N. The following day they entered what Hudson later in

8700-481: The place of the Palliser shot. At first, these forged-steel rounds were made of ordinary carbon steel , but as armour improved in quality, the projectiles followed suit. During the 1890s and subsequently, cemented steel armour became commonplace, initially only on the thicker armour of warships. To combat this, the projectile was formed of steel—forged or cast—containing both nickel and chromium . Another change

8816-445: The point from deflecting away from the armour face. Shot and shell used before and during World War I were generally cast from special chromium steel that was melted in pots. They were forged into shape afterward and then thoroughly annealed , the core bored at the rear and the exterior turned up in a lathe . The projectiles were finished in a similar manner to others described above. The final, or tempering treatment, which gave

8932-412: The poor ballistic shape and higher drag of the smaller-diameter early projectiles. In January 1942 a process was developed by Arthur E. Schnell for 20 mm and 37 mm armour piercing rounds to press bar steel under 500 tons of pressure that made more even "flow-lines" on the tapered nose of the projectile, which allowed the shell to follow a more direct nose first path to the armour target. Later in

9048-586: The primary method of conducting anti-tank warfare. They are still in use in artillery above 50 mm calibre, but the tendency is to use semi-armour-piercing high-explosive ( SAPHE ) shells, which have less anti-armour capability but far greater anti-materiel and anti-personnel effects. These still have ballistic caps, hardened bodies and base fuzes , but tend to have far thinner body material and much higher explosive contents (4–15%). Common terms (and acronyms) for modern armour-piercing and semi-armour-piercing shells are: High-explosive anti-tank ( HEAT ) shells are

9164-444: The projectile hit the target. These rounds were classified as armour-piercing ballistic capped (APBC) rounds. Armour-piercing, capped projectiles had been developed in the early 1900s, and were in service with both the British and German fleets during World War I. The shells generally consisted of a nickel steel body that contained the burster charge and was fitted with a hardened steel nose intended to penetrate heavy armour. Striking

9280-433: The projectile mass too light for sufficient kinetic energy (range and penetration), which in turn limits how aerodynamic the projectile can be (smaller calibre means less air-resistance ), thus limiting velocity , etc, etc. To get away from this, APFSDS sub-projectiles instead use aerodynamic drag stabilization (no longitudinal axis rotation), by means of fins attached to the base of the sub-projectile, making it look like

9396-421: The projectile will have. This long thin shape also has increased sectional density , in turn increasing penetration potential. Large calibre (105+ mm) APFSDS projectiles are usually fired from smoothbore (unrifled) barrels, as the fin-stabilization negates the need for spin-stabilization through rifling . Basic APFSDS projectiles can traditionally not be fired from rifled guns, as the immense spinning caused by

9512-564: The region . His contributions to the exploration of the New World were significant and lasting. His voyages helped to establish European contact with the native peoples of North America and contributed to the development of trade and commerce. On his final expedition, while still searching for the Northwest Passage, Hudson became the first European to see Hudson Strait and the immense Hudson Bay . In 1611, after wintering on

9628-685: The required hardness/toughness profile (differential hardening) to the projectile body, was a closely guarded secret. The rear cavity of these projectiles was capable of receiving a small bursting charge of about 2% of the weight of the complete projectile; when this is used, the projectile is called a shell, not a shot. The high-explosive filling of the shell, whether fuzed or unfuzed, had a tendency to explode on striking armour in excess of its ability to perforate. During World War II, projectiles used highly alloyed steels containing nickel -chromium- molybdenum , although in Germany, this had to be changed to

9744-485: The return voyage to England (Juet, who had been the navigator on the return journey, died of starvation a few days before the company reached Ireland ). Pricket knew he and the other survivors of the mutiny would be tried in England for piracy , and it would have been in his interest, and the interest of the other survivors, to put together a narrative that would place the blame for the mutiny upon men who were no longer alive to defend themselves. The Pricket narrative became

9860-573: The rifling damages and destroys the fins of the projectile, etc. This can however be solved by the use of "slipping driving bands" on the sabot ( driving bands which rotates freely from the sabot). Such ammunition was introduced during the 1970s and 1980s for rifled high-calibre tank guns and similar, such as the Western Royal Ordnance L7 and the Eastern D-10T . However, as such guns have been taken out of service since

9976-514: The rigid projectile from shattering, as well as aiding the contact between the target armour and the nose of the penetrator to prevent the projectile from bouncing off in glancing shots. Ideally, these caps have a blunt profile, which led to the use of a further thin aerodynamic cap to improve long-range ballistics . Armour-piercing shells may contain a small explosive charge known as a "bursting charge". Some smaller- calibre armour-piercing shells have an inert filling or an incendiary charge in place of

10092-454: The round cast-iron cannonballs then in use and to the recently-developed explosive shell . The first solution to this problem was effected by Major Sir W. Palliser , who, with the Palliser shot , invented a method of hardening the head of the pointed cast-iron shot. By casting the projectile point downwards and forming the head in an iron mold, the hot metal was suddenly chilled and became intensely hard (resistant to deformation through

10208-520: The same weight. As with the APCR, the kinetic energy of the round is concentrated at the core of impact. The initial velocity of the round is greatly increased by the decrease of barrel cross-sectional area toward the muzzle, resulting in a commensurate increase in velocity of the expanding propellant gases. The Germans deployed their initial design as a light anti-tank weapon, 2.8 cm schwere Panzerbüchse 41 , early in World War II , and followed by

10324-519: The ship west and decided to try to seek a westerly passage through North America. They reached the Grand Banks of Newfoundland on 2 July, and in mid-July made landfall near the LaHave area of Nova Scotia . Here they encountered Indigenous people who were accustomed to trading with the French; they were willing to trade beaver pelts , but apparently no trades occurred. The ship stayed in

10440-484: The ship's boat with five crew members ventured to the vicinity of present-day Albany . On 23 September, Hudson decided to return to Europe. He put in at Dartmouth , England on 7 November, and was detained by authorities who wanted access to his log. He managed to pass the log to the Dutch ambassador to England, who sent it, along with his report, to Amsterdam. While exploring the river, Hudson had traded with several native groups, mainly obtaining furs. His voyage

10556-531: The shore of James Bay , Hudson wanted to press on to the west, but most of his crew mutinied. The mutineers cast Hudson, his son, and six others adrift; what then happened to the Hudsons and their companions is unknown. Virtually nothing of Hudson's early life is known for certain. His year of birth is variously estimated between 1560 and 1570. He may have been born in London and it is possible that his father

10672-400: The shores of James Bay , located on the southern end of Hudson Bay—while this was discounted at the time by Samuel de Champlain , historians believe it may have credence. British-born Canadian author Dorothy Harley Eber (1925–2022) collected Inuit testimonies that she thought made reference to Hudson and his son after the mutiny. According to these, an old man with a long white beard and

10788-499: The standard APCBC round (although some of the German Pzgr. 40 and some Soviet designs resemble stubby arrows), but the projectile is lighter: up to half the weight of a standard AP round of the same calibre. The lighter weight allows a higher muzzle velocity. The kinetic energy of the round is concentrated in the core and hence on a smaller impact area, improving the penetration of the target armour. To prevent shattering on impact,

10904-491: The state's ten worst polluted streams, with no significant living thing found except tube worms . By 1997 the creek had begun to improve, with minnows and crawfish , and in 1998 mayfly were found which indicated better quality water. In 2001 Mayor Jerry Jennings and Governor George Pataki announced a proposed 8-mile (13 km) multi-use path between the Corning Preserve and the Albany Pine Bush by way of

11020-531: The strait on 2 August, the ship entered Hudson Bay . Excitement was very high due to the expectation that the ship had finally found the Northwest Passage through the continent. Hudson spent the following months mapping and exploring its eastern shores, but he and his crew did not find a passage to Asia. In November, the ship became trapped in the ice in James Bay , and the crew moved ashore for

11136-576: The suffix "HE"; APHE was common in anti-tank shells of 75 mm calibre and larger, due to the similarity with the much larger naval armour-piercing shells already in common use. As the war progressed, ordnance design evolved so that the bursting charges in APHE became ever smaller to non-existent, especially in smaller calibre shells, e.g. Panzergranate 39 with only 0.2% high-explosive filling. The primary projectile types for modern anti-tank warfare are discarding-sabot kinetic energy penetrators , such as APDS. Full-calibre armour-piercing shells are no longer

11252-512: The summer they found the ice impenetrable and turned back, arriving at Gravesend on 26 August. According to Thomas Edge , "William [ sic ] Hudson" in 1608 discovered an island he named "Hudson's Tutches" (Touches) at 71° N, the latitude of Jan Mayen . However, records of Hudson's voyages suggest that he could only have come across Jan Mayen in 1607 by making an illogical detour, and historians have pointed out that Hudson himself made no mention of it in his journal. There

11368-447: The target's armour thickness. The penetrator is a pointed mass of high-density material that is designed to retain its shape and carry the maximum possible amount of energy as deeply as possible into the target. Generally, the penetration capability of an armour-piercing round increases with the projectile's kinetic energy, and with concentration of that energy in a small area. Thus, an efficient means of achieving increased penetrating power

11484-551: The two ships in Franklin's lost expedition , HMS  Erebus and HMS  Terror , in the 2010s. Charles Francis Hall , who searched for Franklin in the mid-19th century, also collected Inuit stories that he interpreted as references to the even earlier expedition of Martin Frobisher , who explored the area and mined fool's gold in 1578. In the late 1950s, a 150-pound (68 kg) stone near Deep River, Ontario , which

11600-462: The use of waxes mixed with the explosive). Cap suffixes (C, BC, CBC) are traditionally only applied to AP, SAP, APHE and SAPHE-type projectiles (see below) configured with caps, for example "APHEBC" (armour-piercing high explosive ballistic capped), though sometimes the HE-suffix on capped APHE and SAPHE projectiles gets omitted (example: APHECBC > APCBC). If fitted with a tracer, a "-T" suffix

11716-428: The voyage named "Whales Bay" ( Krossfjorden and Kongsfjorden ), naming its northwestern point "Collins Cape" (Kapp Mitra) after his boatswain , William Collins. They sailed north the following two days. On 16 July, they reached as far north as Hakluyt's Headland (which Thomas Edge says Hudson named on this voyage) at 79° 49′ N, thinking they saw the land continue to 82° N ( Svalbard 's northernmost point

11832-508: The voyage". Pricket's narrative tells how the mutineers set Hudson, his teenage son John, and seven crewmen—men who were either sick and infirm or loyal to Hudson—adrift from the Discovery in a small shallop , an open boat, effectively marooning them in Hudson Bay. The Pricket journal reports that the mutineers provided the castaways with clothing, powder and shot, some pikes, an iron pot, some food, and other miscellaneous items. After

11948-423: The weight of the complete projectile, but in anti-tank use, the much smaller and higher velocity shells used only about 0.5% e.g. Panzergranate 39 with only 0.2% high-explosive filling. This was due to much higher armour penetration requirements for the size of shell (e.g. over 2.5 times calibre in anti-tank use compared to below 1 times calibre for naval warfare). Therefore, in most APHE shells put to anti-tank use

12064-532: The winter. When the ice cleared in the spring of 1611, Hudson planned to use his Discovery to further explore Hudson Bay with the continuing goal of discovering the Passage; however, most of the members of his crew ardently desired to return home. Matters came to a head and much of the crew mutinied in June. Descriptions of the successful mutiny are one-sided, because the only survivors who could tell their story were

12180-569: Was an alderman of that city. When Hudson first entered the historical record in 1607, he was already an experienced mariner with sufficient credentials to be commissioned the leader of an expedition charged with a search for a trade route across the North Pole . In 1607, the Muscovy Company of England hired Hudson to find a northerly route to the Pacific coast of Asia. At the time, the English were engaged in an economic battle with

12296-648: Was built by neither Hudson nor Poole—both were dead by 1612. In 1608, English merchants of the East India and Muscovy Companies again sent Hudson in the Hopewell to attempt to locate a passage to the Indies, this time to the east around northern Russia. Leaving London on 22 April, the ship travelled almost 2,500 mi (4,000 km), making it to Novaya Zemlya well above the Arctic Circle in July, but even in

12412-624: Was developed; a combination of a HEAT warhead and a spigot mortar delivery system. While cumbersome, the weapon at last allowed British infantry to engage armour at range; the earlier magnetic hand-mines and grenades required them to approach suicidally close. During World War II, the British referred to the Munroe effect as the cavity effect on explosives . Armour-piercing solid shot for cannons may be simple, or composite, solid projectiles but tend to also combine some form of incendiary capability with that of armour-penetration. The incendiary compound

12528-547: Was fielded in two calibres (75 mm/57 mm for the 75 mm Mle1897/33 anti-tank gun , 37 mm/25 mm for several 37 mm gun types) just before the French-German armistice of 1940. The Edgar Brandt engineers, having been evacuated to the United Kingdom, joined ongoing APDS development efforts there, culminating in significant improvements to the concept and its realization. The APDS projectile type

12644-797: Was further developed in the United Kingdom between 1941 and 1944 by L. Permutter and S. W. Coppock, two designers with the Armaments Research Department. In mid-1944 the APDS projectile was first introduced into service for the UK's QF 6-pdr anti-tank gun and later in September 1944 for the QF-17 pdr anti-tank gun. The idea was to use a stronger and denser penetrator material with smaller size and hence less drag, to allow increased impact velocity and armour penetration. The armour-piercing concept calls for more penetration capability than

12760-553: Was killed by natives with an arrow to his neck. Hudson sailed into the Upper New York Bay on 11 September, and the following day encountered a group of 28 Lenape canoes , buying oysters and beans from the Native Americans, and then began a journey up what is now known as the Hudson River. Over the next ten days his ship ascended the river, reaching a point near Stuyvesant Landing (Old Kinderhook), and

12876-400: Was later employed in small-arms armour-piercing incendiary and HEIAP rounds. Armour-piercing, composite non-rigid ( APCNR ) in British nomenclature , alternatively called "flange projectile" ( Swedish : flänsprojektil ) or less commonly "armour-piercing super-velocity", is a sub-calibre projectile used in squeeze bore weapons (also known as "tapered bore" weapons) – weapons featuring

12992-661: Was moved north from the central part of the city to the Tivoli Hollow Line which ran across the northern border of the city along Patroon Creek and through West Albany . The Albany and Schenectady Railroad which owned this line was merged with nine other railroads as the New York Central Railroad (NYCRR) in 1853, and work soon began on the establishment of a large rail yard, on 250 acres (1.0 km) purchased in 1854 in West Albany. In 1845

13108-415: Was the introduction of a soft metal cap over the point of the shell – so called "Makarov tips" invented by Russian admiral Stepan Makarov . This "cap" increased penetration by cushioning some of the impact shock and preventing the armour-piercing point from being damaged before it struck the armour face, or the body of the shell from shattering. It could also help penetration from an oblique angle by keeping

13224-429: Was to defeat the thick armour carried on many warships and cause damage to their lightly armoured interiors. From the 1920s onwards, armour-piercing weapons were required for anti-tank warfare . AP rounds smaller than 20 mm are intended for lightly armoured targets such as body armour, bulletproof glass , and lightly armoured vehicles. As tank armour improved during World War II , anti-vehicle rounds began to use

13340-608: Was used as a water supply until 1926. From the 1950s to 1998 Mercury Refining Company had a plant along an unnamed tributary to the Patroon Creek. Since 1983 the site has been on the Superfund pollution clean-up list. Several former customers of the plant including National Grid , Eveready , and Union Carbide put up over $ 4 million for the clean-up being supervised by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Another industrial site that has polluted

13456-554: Was used to establish Dutch claims to the region and to the fur trade that prospered there when a trading post was established at Albany in 1614. New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island became the capital of New Netherland in 1625. In 1610, Hudson obtained backing for another voyage, this time under the English flag. The funding came from the Virginia Company and the British East India Company . At

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