58-623: Jules-Jean-Paul Fort (1 February 1872 – 20 April 1960) was a French poet associated with the Symbolist movement . At the age of 18, reacting against the Naturalistic theatre, Fort founded the Théâtre d'Art (1890–93). He also founded and edited the literary reviews Livre d'Art with Alfred Jarry and Vers et Prose (1905–14) with poet Guillaume Apollinaire , which published the work of Paul Valéry and other important Symbolist writers. Fort
116-651: A heckler . In the A version, the emperor asks Faust to relent, and he does; in the B version a longer scene follows in which the knight and his friends attack Faustus; all are given horns. In both versions, Faustus then plays tricks on a horse dealer. Faustus and Mephistophilis then put on a magic show for the Duke and Duchess of Vanholt . When Faustus's 24 years are nearly up, he bequeaths his possessions to Wagner. He conjures Helen of Troy for some students, and, when he starts to think of repenting again, renews his pledge to Lucifer and asks Mephistophilis for Helen as his lover. In
174-484: A consensus of scholars through their interpretation of the work. Various synonyms exist for this type of symbol, based on specific genre , artistic medium , or domain: visual symbol , literary symbol , poetic symbol , etc. Some symbolism appears commonly in works of poetry, fiction, or visual art. For instance, often, a rose symbolizes beauty; a lion symbolizes strength; and certain colors symbolize national flags and thus, by extension, certain nations. The latter
232-685: A dilemma in terms of theodicy . At the time Doctor Faustus was performed, this doctrine was on the rise in England, and under the direction of Puritan theologians at Cambridge and Oxford had come to be considered the orthodox position of the Church of England . Nevertheless, it remained the source of vigorous and, at times, heated debate between Calvinist scholars, such as William Whitaker and William Perkins , and anti-Calvinists, such as William Barrett and Peter Baro . The dispute between these Cambridge intellectuals had quite nearly reached its zenith by
290-517: A doctorate in theology at the University of Wittenberg . However, his interest in learning and his pride soon led him to necromancy. In the first scene of the play, Faustus expresses his boredom and impatience with the various branches of knowledge and concludes that only magic is worth learning. He asks his servant Wagner to return with the magicians Valdes and Cornelius, who have been trying to interest him in magic for some time. While he waits, he
348-593: A noted part of the artistic community of Montparnasse . He sought out the company of avant-garde artists and befriended André Gide and Pierre Louÿs . His work in the independent theatre movement spanned 1890 through 1892. Fort then devoted himself to poetry, publication, and advancing new writers. By 1912, his accomplishments and influence were such that he was given the title "Prince of the Poets" (honorific title given in France to poets, such as Verlaine and Mallarmé, after
406-541: A reference to Mephistopheles in Faustbuch , the source work, which appeared in English translation in about 1588. The relationship between the texts is uncertain and many modern editions print both. As an Elizabethan playwright, Marlowe had nothing to do with the publication and had no control over the play in performance, so it was possible for scenes to be dropped or shortened, or for new scenes to be added, so that
464-511: A related legend, that Edward Alleyn , lead actor of The Admiral's Men, devoted his later years to charitable endeavours, like the founding of Alleyn's College , in direct response to this incident. Given its source in the Historia von D. Johann Fausten , published as a chapbook in Germany in 1587, and the fact that the earliest known translation of the latter work into English was in 1592,
522-490: A seminal actor in the nascent avant-garde theatre movement, and would appear in 22 plays with the Théâtre d'Art. Among her rôles was Mephistopheles—a dandy with a monocle and in a smoking jacket—in their 1892 French adaptation of Christopher Marlowe 's Doctor Faustus . Although she won admiration as Geneviève in Pelléas et Mélisande , the 1893 opening event of the new Théâtre de l'Œuvre , it would be her only performance for
580-599: A single book. In the corresponding comedic scene, Robin, a hostler , has stolen a conjuring book, and plans mischief with it. Faustus begins to waver and think about God, and is visited again by the Good and Bad Angels. Lucifer arrives to remind him of his contract, and entertains him with a show of the Seven Deadly Sins. Faustus and Mephistophilis then travel Europe, eventually arriving in Rome, where they play tricks on
638-407: Is symbolism . In literature, such as novels, plays, and poems, symbolism goes beyond just the literal written words on a page, since writing itself is also inherently a system of symbols. Artistic symbols may be intentionally built into a work by its creator, which in the case of narratives can make symbolism a deliberate narrative device . However, it also may be decided upon by the audience or by
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#1732798757029696-515: Is a comedic reflection in which Wagner calls two devils, with which he scares the Clown into serving him. Mephistophilis returns, and Faustus signs a contract in his own blood: Mephistophilis will serve him for 24 years, at which point Lucifer will claim him, body and soul. Once the contract is signed, Faustus asks for a wife, but Mephistophilis declines, saying marriage is "but a ceremonial toy"; he asks for books of knowledge, and Mephistophilis provides
754-712: Is getting himself into before going through with the bargain: Think'st thou that I who saw the face of God And tasted the eternal joy of heaven Am not tormented with ten thousand hells In being deprived of everlasting bliss? O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands Which strikes a terror to my fainting soul! However, Faustus believes that supernatural powers are worth a lifetime in Hell: Say he (Faustus) surrender up to him (Lucifer) his soul So he will spare him four and twenty years, Letting him live in all voluptuousness Having thee (Mephistophilis) ever to attend on me Some scholars argue that Mephistophilis depicts
812-429: Is in blank verse and prose in thirteen scenes (1604) or twenty scenes (1616). Blank verse is largely reserved for the main scenes; prose is used in the comic scenes. Modern texts divide the play into five acts; act 5 being the shortest. As in many Elizabethan plays, there is a chorus (which functions as a narrator), that does not interact with the other characters but rather provides an introduction and conclusion to
870-468: Is mentioned in The Diary of Anaïs Nin , in the entry for October 1936 where Nin recounts the evening when they met at a party. Symbolism (arts) In works of art , literature , and narrative , a symbol is a concrete element like an object, character, image, situation, or action that suggests or hints at abstract, deeper, or non-literal meanings or ideas. The use of symbols artistically
928-534: Is notable for his enormous volume of poetry, having published more than thirty volumes of ballads and, according to Amy Lowell , for creating the polyphonic prose form in his 'Ballades francaises'. Paul Fort was born in Reims , Marne département , France in 1872. His father, an insurance agent, moved the family to Paris in 1878. While attending secondary school at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand , he became
986-426: Is specifically an example of color symbolism . While symbols can recur within or even across cultures, other symbols recur only in the context of one particular work. For instance, scholars widely consider references to blood in the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare to be symbolism for the main character's violent behavior and his accompanying guilt. In the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald ,
1044-425: Is visited by a Good Angel, who tries to dissuade him from this path, and a Bad Angel, who encourages him. Valdes and Cornelius arrive and declare that if Faustus devotes himself to magic, great things are indeed possible with someone of Faustus's learning and intelligence. While Faustus is at dinner with the magicians, two scholars notice Faustus's absence and ask Wagner about his whereabouts. When Wagner tells them he
1102-490: Is with Valdes and Cornelius, the scholars worry that the magicians have corrupted him and leave to inform the rector of the university. Faustus attempts to conjure a devil, and Mephistophilis arrives. Faustus believes that he has summoned him, but Mephistophilis says that he came of his own accord, and that he serves Lucifer, and cannot do anything without his leave. Faustus questions Mephistophilis about Lucifer and Hell, and tells him to speak to Lucifer and return. The next scene
1160-532: The Historia von D. Johann Fausten , which itself may have been influenced by even earlier, equally ill-preserved pamphlets in Latin (such as those that likely inspired Jacob Bidermann 's treatment of the damnation of the doctor of Paris, Cenodoxus (1602)). Several soothsayers or necromancers of the late fifteenth century adopted the name Faustus , a reference to the Latin for "favoured" or "auspicious"; typical
1218-667: The Libération . His work was banned by the CNE ( National Writers' Committee of the intellectual resistance) at the end of war, but the interdiction was rescinded in a second list published in the Les Lettres françaises of 21 October 1944. But he officially recovered when introducing an exhibition dedicated to him in 1954 at the Reims Carnegie Library . In 1956, Paul married Germaine Pouget. His nephew married
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#17327987570291276-410: The 1604 text becomes "Never too late, if Faustus will repent" in the 1616 text, a change that offers a very different possibility for Faustus's hope and repentance. Another difference between texts A and B is the name of the devil summoned by Faustus. Text A states the name is generally "Mephistopheles", while the version of text B commonly states "Mephostophilis". The name of the devil is in each case
1334-640: The A-text a " bad quarto ", and thought that the B-text was linked to Marlowe himself. Since then scholarship has swung the other way, most scholars now considering the A-text more authoritative, even if "abbreviated and corrupt", according to Charles Nicholl . The 1616 version omits 36 lines but adds 676 new lines, making it roughly one third longer than the 1604 version. Among the lines shared by both versions, there are some small but significant changes in wording; for example, "Never too late, if Faustus can repent" in
1392-582: The BBC adapted the play for television as a two-episode production starring Alan Dobie as Faustus; this production was also meant for use in schools. The play was adapted for the screen in 1967 by Richard Burton and Nevill Coghill , who based the film on an Oxford University Dramatic Society production in which Burton starred opposite Elizabeth Taylor as Helen of Troy. There have been several adaptations on BBC Radio and elsewhere: Doctor Faustus has raised much controversy due to its alleged interaction with
1450-498: The Calvinist, Faustus represents the worst kind of sinner, having tasted the heavenly gift and rejected it. His damnation is justified and deserved because he was never truly adopted among the elect. According to this view, the play demonstrates Calvin's "three-tiered concept of causation," in which the damnation of Faustus is first willed by God, then by Satan, and finally, by himself. "Ravished" by magic (1.1.112), Faustus turns to
1508-576: The Le Livre d'art magazine in 1892 where it was relaunched in 1896 with Maurice Dumont. With the latter, he edited L'épreuve, Journal-Album d'art in 1894. By 1903 he organized and held Tuesday poetic lectures at the Closerie des Lilas . In 1905, he began publishing the magazine Vers et prose with Moréas and Salmon, who notably edited the works Guillaume Apollinaire, Max Jacob, Pierre Louÿs. He edited it together with Paul Valéry . Pierre Louÿs, who wrote
1566-575: The Pope. Next, Robin and Rafe (A version) or Dick (B version), having been caught for stealing a goblet, call on Mephistophilis, who arrives and angrily turns them into animals before returning to attend on Faustus. Faustus has been called to the court of the Holy Roman Emperor, where he and Mephistophilis conjure Alexander the Great and his paramour and give a knight cuckold's horns for being
1624-897: The Théâtre d'Art in spring 1891, first appearing in Maurice Maeterlinck 's L'Intruse . For the next two years, he moved regularly between acting for the Théâtre d'Art and directing for the amateur company Le Cercle des Escholiers. Lugné-Poe performed in ten plays altogether for Fort, interpreting, most notably, the Maeterlinck rôles of the Old Man in L'Intruse (1891) and the First Blind Man in Les Aveugles (1891), as well as Satan in Jules Bois' Les Noces de Sathan (1892). He, along with Georgette Camée, forged
1682-434: The audience in an imaginative concern with the happenings on stage". By having Doctor Faustus deliver these soliloquies at the beginning and end of the play, the focus is drawn to his inner thoughts and feelings about succumbing to the devil. The soliloquies also have parallel concepts. In the introductory soliloquy, Faustus begins by pondering the fate of his life and what he wants his career to be. He ends his soliloquy with
1740-458: The composition of them. The Clown is seen as the archetype for comic relief . Doctor Faustus is based on an older tale; it is believed to be the first dramatisation of the Faust legend . Some scholars believe that Marlowe developed the story from a popular 1592 translation, commonly called The English Faust Book . There is thought to have been an earlier, lost German edition of 1587,
1798-490: The dark arts when law, logic, science, and theology fail to satisfy him. According to Charles Nicholl this places the play firmly in the Elizabethan period when the problem of magic ("liberation or damnation?") was a matter of debate, and when Renaissance occultism aimed at a furthering of science. Nicholl, who connects Faustus as a "studious artisan" (1.1.56) to the "hands-on experience" promoted by Paracelsus , sees in
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1856-564: The daughter of Alfred Vallette (1858–1935), director of Mercure de France , and Marguerite Eymery (1860–1953), who wrote under the nom de plume Rachilde . Paul Fort was buried at Montlhery on his own property, called Argenlieu. Fort is mentioned by Ernest Hemingway as a customer of La Closerie des Lilas [ fr ] , in A Moveable Feast . Dutch composer Marjo Tal set several of Fort's works to music, as did British composer Eva Ruth Spalding and French composers Beatrice Siegrist , Gabriel Pierné and André Caplet . Fort
1914-769: The death of their predecessor). One of his works, "La Ronde", has become famous worldwide as a plea for world friendship. Fort died on 20 April 1960, in Montlhéry , a suburb south of Paris where he had lived since 1921, and is buried in the Cimetière de Montlhéry . At 17, Fort frequented the Left Bank hangout of the Symbolist poets , the Café Voltaire (1, Place de l'Odéon), where the discussion included contemporary theatre. His activity there would soon cause his expulsion from high school. The group aimed to break with
1972-579: The era to design and paint the sets and backdrops, particularly the "Prophets" of the Nabis group (Paul Sérusier, Emile Bernard, Maurice Denis, Paul Bonnard, Paul Ranson, Eduard Vuillard, and Henry Gabriel Ibels). Fort had appeared as an actor in the June program; Germain, the October. But an important discovery also debuted in the second program: Georgette Camée (d. 1957), a Paris Conservatory student, who became
2030-500: The final scene, Faustus admits to some scholars that he has bargained away his soul; despite their prayers, the devils come for him. The theological implications of Doctor Faustus have been the subject of considerable debate. Among the most complicated points of contention is whether the play supports or challenges the Calvinist doctrine of absolute predestination, which dominated the lectures and writings of many English scholars in
2088-400: The former a follower of the latter, a "magician as technologist". Mephistophilis is a demon whom Faustus conjures up while first using magic. Readers initially feel sympathy for the demon when he attempts to explain to Faustus the consequences of abjuring God and Heaven. Mephistophilis gives Faustus a description of Hell and the continuous horrors it possesses; he wants Faustus to know what he
2146-550: The history of the Théâtre d'Art is that of a failed but fertile experiment, and its principal—and perhaps only—merit is having engendered the Théâtre de l'Œuvre." Following the theatrical adventure he had achieved, he dedicated his life to poetry. He gave his first poems to the Mercure de France in 1896. Those poems consisted the debut of the Ballades françaises (17 volumes written entering 1922 and 1958). He begins to publish into
2204-547: The idiotic lyrical report of Paul Fort, the highfalutin prince of poets, who sings to battles in far away lands in a truly foolish language.” Paul Fort was a leading jury member of the Prix Jeunesse that was created in 1934. Running in 1943 for the Académie Goncourt seat left vacant by the death of Pierre Champion a year earlier, Fort lost to André Billy , though Billy was confirmed to the seat only after
2262-509: The image of huge bespectacled eyes on a billboard may be interpreted as symbolizing the gaze of God. Doctor Faustus (play) Lucifer Mephistophilis Belzebub Seven deadly sins Pope Adrian VI Charles V Duke of Saxony The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus , commonly referred to simply as Doctor Faustus , is an Elizabethan tragedy by Christopher Marlowe , based on German stories about
2320-420: The latter half of the sixteenth century. According to Calvin, predestination meant that God, acting of his own free will, elects some people to be saved and others to be damned—thus, the individual has no control over his own ultimate fate. This doctrine was the source of great controversy because it was seen by the so-called anti-Calvinists to limit man's free will in regard to faith and salvation, and to present
2378-540: The play and, at the beginning of some Acts, introduces events that have unfolded. Along with its history and language style, scholars have critiqued and analysed the structure of the play. Leonard H. Frey wrote a document entitled In the Opening and Close of Doctor Faustus , which mainly focuses on Faustus's opening and closing soliloquies . He stresses the importance of the soliloquies in the play, saying: "the soliloquy, perhaps more than any other dramatic device, involved
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2436-500: The play to John Wright on 13 September 1610. Two versions of the play exist: The 1604 version was once believed to be closer to the play as originally performed in Marlowe's lifetime, simply because it was older. By the 1940s, after influential studies by Leo Kirschbaum and W. W. Greg , the 1604 version came to be regarded as an abbreviation and the 1616 version as Marlowe's original fuller version. Kirschbaum and Greg considered
2494-514: The play was probably written in 1592 or 1593. It may have been entered into the Stationers' Register on 18 December 1592, though the records are confused and appear to indicate a conflict over the rights to the play. A subsequent Stationers' Register entry, dated 7 January 1601, assigns the play to the bookseller Thomas Bushell (variant written forms: Busshell or Bushnell), the publisher of the 1604 first edition. Bushell transferred his rights to
2552-501: The play, which suggests a revival soon after that date . The powerful effect of the early productions is indicated by the legends that quickly accrued around them. In Histriomastix , his 1632 polemic against the drama, William Prynne records the tale that actual devils once appeared on the stage during a performance of Faustus , "to the great amazement of both the actors and spectators". Some people were allegedly driven mad, "distracted with that fearful sight." John Aubrey recorded
2610-473: The plays in either program artistically revolutionary. Fort and Germain parted ways, leaving Fort to rename his company The Art Theatre ( Le Théâtre d'Art ) and to set up an office at 155, rue Montmartre. Fort's two theatre ventures never had a single theatre home; instead, their programs circulated among eight rental performance spaces, mostly on the Right Bank. He engaged the leading Symbolist painters of
2668-606: The prelude to the first volume of the Ballades , defines them as small poems in polymorphous form or in familiar alexandrins, but which bend towards the normal prose form, requiring the rules of rhythmic prose rather than those of verse diction. Given the title “ commandeur de la Légion d'honneur ”, he helped to give the quartier du Montparnasse in Paris its artistic reputation. A poll of five literary magazines ( Gil Blas , Comoedia , La Phalange, Les Loups and Les Nouvelles ) gave him
2726-577: The production was abruptly cancelled. This defeat prompted Fort to give up control of the enterprise altogether and turn his focus to poetry. Lugné-Poe took over the Pelléas and Mélisande project for its premiere in May 1893, which became the first step in launching his own Théâtre de l'Œuvre. In a relatively short time, the Théâtre d'Art had made its mark in the burgeoning avant-garde European theatre. As theatre historian Jacques Robichez has concluded, "In brief,
2784-838: The reigning Naturalistic scene, including the Théâtre Libre created in 1887 by André Antoine , even though Fort admired Antoine and hoped to create a new theatre that would bring together the best of all theater forms, including naturalistic drama. Indeed, the theater Fort founded, The Mixed Theater ( Le Théâtre Mixte ), which debuted on 23 June 1890, announced an eclectic program of varying styles in both new works and long forgotten plays. Combining forces with Louis Germain 's Idealist Theatre (Le Théâtre Idéaliste), they presented four more plays on 5 and 12 October. These inaugural works included not only efforts by Fort and Germain but also Marc Legrand , le Sr de Chanmêlé , Charles Grandmougin , and Joseph Gayda . The critics, however, failed to find
2842-472: The resulting publications may be modified versions of the original script. In the past, it was assumed that the comic scenes were additions by other writers. However, most scholars today consider the comic interludes an integral part of the play, regardless of their author, and so they continue to be included in print. Their tone shows the change in Faustus' ambitions, suggesting Marlowe did at least oversee
2900-809: The signature Symbolist acting style that conveys a religious reverie, with its hieratic poses and gestures, matched with solemn, psalmodized line readings. Under the two and a half years of Fort's leadership, the Théâtre d'Art presented poetry recitations, older, little-seen dramatic work by Marlowe, Shelley, and Hugo, as well as new plays by Rachilde ( La Voix du Sang , 1890; Madame la Mort , 1891), Théodore de Banville ( Phyllis , 1891), Catulle Mendès ( Le Soleil de Minuit , 1891), Paul Verlaine ( Les Uns et les Autres , 1891), Remy de Gourmont ( Théodat , 1891), and especially Maurice Maeterlinck ( L'Intruse and Les Aveugles , both 1891) and Charles van Lerberghe 's Les Flaireurs (1892). As an artistic director, however, he proved himself ambitious but in over his head; he
2958-412: The solution: he will give his soul to the devil. Similarly in the closing soliloquy, Faustus begins pondering, and finally comes to terms with the fate he created for himself. Frey also explains: "The whole pattern of this final soliloquy is thus a grim parody of the opening one, where decision is reached after, not prior to, the survey". The Chorus explains that Faustus was low-born, but quickly achieved
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#17327987570293016-564: The sorrow that comes with separation from God. Mephistophilis is foreshadowing the pain Faustus would have to endure, should he go through with his plan. In this facet, Faustus can be likened to Icarus , whose ambition was the source of his misery and the cause of his death. The first television adaptation was broadcast in 1947 by the BBC starring David King-Wood as Faustus and Hugh Griffith as Mephistopheles. In 1958, another BBC television version starred William Squire as Faustus in an adaptation by Ronald Eyre intended for schools. In 1961,
3074-430: The time Marlowe was a student there in the 1580s, and likely would have influenced him deeply, as it did many of his fellow students. Concerning the fate of Faustus, the Calvinist concludes that his damnation was inevitable. His rejection of God and subsequent inability to repent are taken as evidence that he never really belonged to the elect, but rather had been predestined from the very beginning for reprobation . For
3132-500: The title " Prince of Poets " in 1912. Then, 350 authors voted him as the true heir to Verlaine , Mallarmé and Léon Dierx . In August 1913, his sixteen-year-old daughter Jeanne married futurist painter Gino Severini . Fort lead the ceremonies, Severini had as witnesses Guillaume Apollinaire , and Filippo Marinetti , the author of the Futurist Manifesto . Apollinaire wrote to Madeleine Pagès two years later: “I received
3190-469: The title character Faust . It was probably written in 1592 or 1593, shortly before Marlowe's death. Two different versions of the play were published in the Jacobean era several years later. The Admiral's Men performed the play 23 times between September 1594 and October 1597. On 22 November 1602, the diary of Philip Henslowe recorded a £4 payment to Samuel Rowley and William Bird for additions to
3248-497: The venture. She earned further acclaim in 1894 as Sara in the long-awaited stage presentation of Auguste de Villiers de L'Isle-Adam 's 1890 Symbolist drama Axël . She eventually married writer Maurice Pottecher and joined him in his own regional theatre endeavor, the Théâtre du Peuple, in Bussang, France. A former actor for Antoine's Théâtre Libre, Aurélien Lugné-Poe , who had returned from an abbreviated military service, joined
3306-577: Was Georgius Faustus Helmstetensis , calling himself astrologer and chiromancer , who was expelled from the town of Ingolstadt for such practices. Subsequent commentators have identified this individual as the prototypical Faustus of the legend. Whatever the inspiration, the development of Marlowe's play is very faithful to the Faust Book , especially in the way it mixes comedy with tragedy. However, Marlowe also introduced some changes to make it more original. He made four main additions: The play
3364-575: Was often over budget, unable to deal with his creditors, and straining technically to produce difficult, opaque dramatic material. By 1892, with the Parisian critics begging him to make better choices, Fort sought in vain to produce Villiers de L'Isle-Adam's Axël as the way to reinstate the company's reputation. When it fell through, he tried to shepherd the Paris premiere of Maeterlinck's Pelléas et Mélisande for March 1893, but Maeterlinck and co-producer Tola Dorian appear to have lost faith in him and
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