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91-463: Paul Leroy Robeson ( / ˈ r oʊ b s ən / ROHB -sən ; April 9, 1898 – January 23, 1976) was an American bass-baritone concert artist, actor, professional football player, and activist who became famous both for his cultural accomplishments and for his political stances. In 1915, Robeson won an academic scholarship to Rutgers College in New Brunswick, New Jersey , where he

182-694: A baritonal tessitura . Secondly, however, it needs to have the ripely resonant lower range typically associated with the bass voice. For example, the role of Wotan in Die Walküre covers the range from F 2 (the F at the bottom of the bass clef) to F ♯ 4 (the F ♯ above middle C), but only infrequently descends beyond C 3 (the C below middle C). Bass-baritones are typically divided into two separate categories: lyric bass-baritone and dramatic bass-baritone . Bass-baritones should not be confused with their vocal cousin—the so-called Verdi baritone . This type of Italianate baritone voice has

273-496: A brighter tone colour and sings at a slightly higher tessitura than that possessed by the bass-baritone. In addition to the operas of Giuseppe Verdi , its natural home is to be found in operatic music composed after about 1830 by the likes of Donizetti , Ponchielli , Massenet , Puccini and the verismo composers. The term bass-baritone is roughly synonymous with the Italian vocal classification basso cantante ; for example, in

364-640: A concert. The pair's rendition of African-American folk songs and spirituals was captivating, and Victor Records signed Robeson to a contract in September 1925. The Robesons went to London for a revival of The Emperor Jones , before spending the rest of the fall on holiday on the French Riviera, socializing with Gertrude Stein and Claude McKay . Robeson and Brown performed a series of concert tours in America from January 1926 until May 1927. During

455-725: A department of the College until 2001. On July 1, 2001, the seminary began operating independently of the college, and in March 2002, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS), the college's accrediting agency acknowledged that the seminary was a separate institution, sponsored by the AME Zion Church independently of the college. The AME Zion missionaries are active in North and South America, Africa, and

546-576: A disagreement between William and white financial supporters of the Witherspoon church arose with apparent racial undertones, which were prevalent in Princeton. William, who had the support of his entirely black congregation, resigned in 1901. The loss of his position forced him to work menial jobs. Three years later when Robeson was six, his mother, who was nearly blind, died in a house fire. Eventually, William became financially incapable of providing

637-578: A few months. In 1928, Robeson played "Joe" in the London production of the American musical Show Boat , at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane . His rendition of " Ol' Man River " became the benchmark for all future performers of the song. Some black critics objected to the play due to its usage of the then-common racial epithet " nigger ". It was, nonetheless, immensely popular with white audiences. He

728-528: A hiatus in New York, Robeson learned that Essie was several months pregnant. Paul Robeson Jr. was born in November 1927 in New York, while Robeson and Brown toured Europe. Essie experienced complications from the birth, and by mid-December, her health had deteriorated dramatically. Ignoring Essie's objections, her mother wired Robeson and he immediately returned to her bedside. Essie completely recovered after

819-656: A house for himself and his children still living at home, Ben and Paul, so they moved into the attic of a store in Westfield, New Jersey. William found a stable parsonage at the St. Thomas A.M.E. Zion in 1910, where Robeson filled in for his father during sermons when he was called away. In 1912, Robeson began attending Somerville High School in New Jersey, where he performed in Julius Caesar and Othello , sang in

910-543: A human being for the first time in my life ... I walk in full human dignity." He undertook the role of Bosambo in the movie Sanders of the River (1935), which he felt would render a realistic view of colonial African culture. Sanders of the River made Robeson an international movie star; but the stereotypical portrayal of a colonial African was seen as embarrassing to his stature as an artist and damaging to his reputation. The Commissioner of Nigeria to London protested

1001-704: A lawyer, but he renounced a career in law because of racism . His wife supported them financially. She was the head histological chemist in Surgical Pathology at New York-Presbyterian Hospital . She continued to work there until 1925 when his career took off. They frequented the social functions at the future Schomburg Center . In December 1924 he landed the lead role of Jim in Eugene O'Neill 's All God's Chillun Got Wings , which culminated with Jim metaphorically consummating his marriage with his white wife by symbolically emasculating himself. Chillun's opening

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1092-424: A monthly newspaper, Freedom , showcasing his views and those of his circle. Most issues had a column by Robeson, on the front page. In the final issue, July–August 1955, an unsigned column on the front page of the newspaper described the struggle for the restoration of his passport. It called for support from the leading African-American organizations, and asserted that "Negroes, [and] all Americans who have breathed

1183-653: A propagandist for the Soviet Union, the Soviets brought Feffer from prison to him. Feffer told him that Mikhoels had been murdered, and predicted that he would be executed. To protect the Soviet Union's reputation, and to keep the right wing of the United States from gaining the moral high ground, Robeson denied that any persecution existed in the Soviet Union, and kept the meeting secret for the rest of his life, except from his son. On June 20, 1949, Robeson spoke at

1274-476: A sigh of relief at the easing of international tensions... have a stake in the Paul Robeson passport case". An article by Robeson appeared on the second page continuing the passport issue under the headline: "If Enough People Write Washington I'll Get My Passport in a Hurry." Bass-baritone The bass-baritone voice is distinguished by two attributes. First, it must be capable of singing comfortably in

1365-631: A silent race film directed by Oscar Micheaux , Body and Soul (1925). To support a charity for single mothers, Robeson headlined a concert singing spirituals . He performed his repertoire of spirituals on the radio. Lawrence Benjamin Brown , who had become renowned while touring as a pianist with gospel singer Roland Hayes , chanced upon Robeson in Harlem. The two ad-libbed a set of spirituals, with Robeson as lead and Brown as accompanist. This so enthralled them that they booked Provincetown Playhouse for

1456-557: A tour in 1940, the Beverly Wilshire Hotel was the only major Los Angeles hotel willing to accommodate him due to his race, at an exorbitant rate and registered under an assumed name, and he therefore dedicated two hours every afternoon to sitting in the lobby, where he was widely recognised, "to ensure that the next time Black[s] come through, they'll have a place to stay." Los Angeles hotels lifted their restrictions on black guests soon afterwards. Robeson narrated

1547-547: A touring melodrama, Voodoo , in 1922, and in Emperor Jones in 1925. In 1928, he scored a major success in the London premiere of Show Boat . Living in London for several years with his wife Eslanda , Robeson continued to establish himself as a concert artist and starred in a London production of Othello , the first of three productions of the play over the course of his career. He also gained attention in Sanders of

1638-856: A voice with a range and tone somewhere between a bass and a baritone . The bass-baritone's required range can vary tremendously based on the role, with some less demanding than others. Many bass-baritones have ventured into the baritone repertoire, including (among others) Leopold Demuth , Georges Baklanoff , Rudolf Bockelmann , George London , Thomas Quasthoff , Thomas Stewart , James Morris , and Bryn Terfel . The following operatic parts are performed by bass-baritones but sometimes by high basses: Core bass-baritone operatic parts: Bass-baritone parts in Gilbert and Sullivan works: Other bass-baritone parts: A role also sung by 'standard' baritones African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church , or

1729-484: The Sonderfahndungsliste G.B. as a target for arrest if Germany had occupied Britain. Robeson's last British film was The Proud Valley (1940), set in a Welsh coal-mining town. The film was still being shot when Hitler's invasion of Poland led to England's declaration of war at the beginning of September 1939; several weeks later, just after the completion of filming, Robeson and his family returned to

1820-546: The AME Zion Church ( AMEZ ) is a historically African-American Christian denomination based in the United States. It was officially formed in 1821 in New York City , but operated for a number of years before then. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church adheres to Wesleyan-Arminian theology . The AME Zion Church is not to be confused with the similarly named African Methodist Episcopal Church , which

1911-688: The China Aid Council and United China Relief at Washington's Uline Arena on April 24, 1941. The Washington Committee for Aid to China 's booking of Constitution Hall had been blocked by the Daughters of the American Revolution owing to Robeson's race. The indignation was so great that Eleanor Roosevelt and Hu Shih , the Chinese ambassador, became sponsors. However, when the organizers offered tickets on generous terms to

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2002-908: The Communist guerrilla army meant that China was fighting Japan "with one hand tied behind its back". March of the Volunteers ( Chee lai! ) became newly founded People's Republic of China 's National Anthem after 1949. Its Chinese lyricist, Tian Han , died in a Beijing prison in 1968, but Robeson continued to send royalties to his family. After the Moore's Ford lynchings of four African Americans in Georgia on July 25, 1946, Robeson met with President Truman and admonished Truman by stating that if he did not enact legislation to end lynching , "the Negroes will defend themselves". Truman immediately terminated

2093-531: The Hitler-Stalin pact was still in effect, Robeson counseled American blacks that they had no stake in the rivalry of European powers . Once Russia was attacked, he urged blacks to support the war effort, now warning that an Allied defeat would "make slaves of us all". Robeson participated in benefit concerts on behalf of the war effort and at a concert at the Polo Grounds , he met two emissaries from

2184-596: The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenaed Jackie Robinson to comment on Robeson's Paris speech. Robinson testified that Robeson's statements, "'if accurately reported', were silly'". Former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt noted, "Mr. Robeson does his people great harm in trying to line them up on the Communist side of [the] political picture. Jackie Robinson helps them greatly by his forthright statements." Days later,

2275-572: The Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee , Solomon Mikhoels and Itzik Feffer . Subsequently, Robeson reprised his role of Othello at the Shubert Theatre in 1943, and became the first African American to play the role with a white supporting cast on Broadway . The production was a success, running for 296 performances on Broadway (a record for a Shakespeare production on Broadway that still stands), and winning for Robeson

2366-520: The John Street Methodist Church of New York City. Following acts of overt discrimination in New York (such as black parishioners being forced to leave worship), many black Christians left to form their own churches. The first church founded by the AME Zion Church was built in 1800 and was named Zion ; one of the founders was William Hamilton , a prominent orator and abolitionist . These early black churches still belonged to

2457-795: The Korean War and condemned America's nuclear threats against China. In Robeson's opinion, the U.S. had manipulated the United Nations for imperialist purposes, and China's intervention in the Korean War was necessary to defend the security of millions of people in Asia. Robeson credited "American peace sentiment" as a crucial factor in President Truman not using nuclear weapons and in recalling General Douglas MacArthur . A month after Robeson began criticizing his country's role in

2548-536: The Los Angeles Times praised it as "the most complete source of past gridiron scores, players, coaches, etc., yet published", but it failed to list Robeson as ever having played on the Rutgers team or ever having been an All-American. Months later, NBC canceled Robeson's appearance on Eleanor Roosevelt 's television program, which furthered his erasure from public view. Robeson opposed U.S. involvement in

2639-787: The Methodist Episcopal Church denomination, although the congregations were independent. During the Great Awakening , the Methodists and Baptists had welcomed free blacks and slaves to their congregations and as preachers. The fledgling Zion church grew, and soon multiple churches developed from the original congregation. These churches were attended by black congregants, but ministered to by white ordained Methodist ministers. In 1820, six of these churches met to ordain James Varick as an elder, and in 1821 he

2730-876: The National Negro Congress to help fill the larger venue, both sponsors withdrew, objecting to the NNC's Communist ties. Robeson opposed the U.S. support for Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang in China, and denounced U.S. support for Chiang at political events over the course of 1945–1946, including the World Peace Conference and the National Peace Commission. In Robeson's view, the KMT's anti-communist focus and blockade of

2821-481: The Paris Peace Congress saying that "We in America do not forget that it was on the backs of the white workers from Europe and on the backs of millions of Blacks that the wealth of America was built. And we are resolved to share it equally. We reject any hysterical raving that urges us to make war on anyone. Our will to fight for peace is strong. We shall not make war on anyone. We shall not make war on

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2912-558: The Prince Hall Freemasonry , a secular black fraternal organization that strengthened the political and economic forces inside the black community. Hood Theological Seminary in Salisbury, North Carolina is named in this bishop's honor. The Methodist Wesleyan-Holiness movement came to the AME Zion Church, with Julia A. J. Foote among others preaching the doctrine of entire sanctification throughout pulpits of

3003-576: The Savoy Grill , in which he was refused seating, caused him to issue a press release describing the insult which subsequently became a matter of public debate. Essie had learned early in their marriage that Robeson had extramarital affairs, but she tolerated them. However, when she discovered that he was having another affair, she unfavorably altered the characterization of him in his biography, and defamed him by describing him with "negative racial stereotypes". Despite her uncovering of this tryst, there

3094-432: The U.S. State Department withdrew his passport and his income plummeted. He moved to Harlem and published a periodical called Freedom , which was critical of United States policies, from 1950 to 1955. Robeson's right to travel was eventually restored as a result of the 1958 United States Supreme Court decision Kent v. Dulles . Between 1925 and 1961, Robeson released recordings of some 276 songs. The first of these

3185-688: The anti-imperialist movement and his association with British socialists led him to visit the Soviet Union . Robeson, Essie, and Marie Seton traveled to the Soviet Union on an invitation from Sergei Eisenstein in December 1934. A stopover in Berlin enlightened Robeson to the racism in Nazi Germany and, on his arrival in Moscow , in the Soviet Union, Robeson said, "Here I am not a Negro but

3276-461: The "untrodden path" of drama, that the true measure of a culture is in its artistic contributions, and that the only true American culture was African-American. The success of his acting placed him in elite social circles and his rise to fame, which was forcefully aided by Essie, had happened very rapidly. Essie's ambition for Robeson was a startling dichotomy to his indifference. She quit her job, became his agent, and negotiated his first movie role in

3367-560: The 1942 documentary Native Land which was labeled by the FBI as communist propaganda. After an appearance in Tales of Manhattan (1942), a production which he felt was "very offensive to my people" due to the way the segment was handled in stereotypes , he announced that he would no longer act in films because of the demeaning roles available to blacks. According to democratic socialist writer Barry Finger's critical appraisal of Robeson, while

3458-545: The AMEZ Board of Bishops. "The Book of Discipline is the instrument for setting forth the laws, plan, polity, and process by which the AME Zion Church governs itself." The denomination operates Livingstone College in Salisbury, North Carolina, and two junior colleges. In 1906 the religious studies department of Livingstone College was renamed Hood Theological Seminary, in honor of the influential bishop. Hood remained

3549-660: The American and Allied war efforts during World War II . His history of supporting civil rights causes and Soviet policies, however, brought scrutiny from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). After the war ended, the CAA was placed on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations . Robeson was investigated during the McCarthy era . When he refused to recant his public advocacy of his political beliefs,

3640-556: The Caribbean region. In 1998, the AME Zion Church commissioned the Reverend Dwight B. and BeLinda P. Cannon as the first family missionaries to South Africa in recent memory. These modern-day missionaries served from 1997 through 2004. Dr. Cannon was Administrative Assistant to the late Bishop Richard K. Thompson, who oversaw the work of South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Swaziland. The AME Zion Church has performed mission work in

3731-765: The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) by testifying that he was not a member of the CPUSA. Nevertheless, two organizations with which Robeson was intimately involved, the Civil Rights Congress (CRC) and the CAA, were placed on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations (AGLOSO). Subsequently, he was summoned before the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary , and when questioned about his affiliation with

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3822-648: The Communist Party, he refused to answer, stating: "Some of the most brilliant and distinguished Americans are about to go to jail for the failure to answer that question, and I am going to join them, if necessary." In 1948, Robeson was prominent in Henry A. Wallace 's bid for the President of the United States, during which Robeson traveled to the Deep South , at risk to his own life, to campaign for him. In

3913-442: The Korean War, the Department of State demanded that he return his passport. Robeson refused. At the FBI's request, the State Department voided Robeson's passport and instructed customs officials to prevent any attempt by him to leave the country. Confining him inside the U.S. afforded him less freedom to express what some saw as his "extreme advocacy on behalf of the independence of the colonial peoples of Africa". It's estimated that

4004-417: The National Football League. In late 1915, Robeson became the third African-American student ever enrolled at Rutgers, and the only one at the time. He tried out for the Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team, and his resolve to make the squad was tested as his teammates engaged in excessive play, during which his nose was broken and his shoulder dislocated. The coach, Foster Sanford , decided he had overcome

4095-468: The North, like Auburn, NY . Later they played an increasingly powerful role in the civil rights movement of the mid-20th century. The AME Zion Church remained smaller than the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, a denomination started in Philadelphia in the early 19th century, because some of its ministers lacked the authority to perform marriages, and many of its ministers avoided political roles. Its finances were weak, and in general its leadership

4186-415: The River (1935) and in the film production of Show Boat (1936). Robeson's political activities began with his involvement with unemployed workers and anti-imperialist students in Britain, and it continued with his support for the Republican cause during the Spanish Civil War and his involvement in the Council on African Affairs (CAA). After returning to the United States in 1939, Robeson supported

4277-424: The South after the American Civil War to plant new churches with the newly emancipated freedmen . The AME Zion Church had been part of the abolitionist movement and became known as the 'Freedom Church', because it was associated with the period after emancipation of the slaves. Black churches were integral in helping build communities and develop leadership among the freedmen in the South, as well as communities in

4368-478: The Soviet Union . We oppose those who wish to build up imperialist Germany and to establish fascism in Greece . We wish peace with Franco's Spain despite her fascism. We shall support peace and friendship among all nations, with Soviet Russia and the people's Republics ." He was blacklisted for saying this in the mainstream press within the United States, including in many periodicals of the Negro press such as The Crisis . In order to isolate Robeson politically,

4459-519: The United Nations. During this period, Robeson also developed a sympathy for the Republic of China 's side in the Second Sino-Japanese War . In 1940, the Chinese progressive activist, Liu Liangmo taught Robeson the patriotic song " Chee Lai!" ("Arise!"), known as the March of the Volunteers . Robeson premiered the song at a concert in New York City's Lewisohn Stadium and recorded it in both English and Chinese for Keynote Records in early 1941. Robeson gave further performances at benefit concerts for

4550-464: The United States, arriving in New York in October 1939. They lived at first in the Sugar Hill neighborhood of Harlem, and in 1941 settled in Enfield, Connecticut . After his well-received performance of Ballad for Americans on a live CBS radio broadcast on November 5, with a repeat performance on New Year's Day 1940, the song became a popular seller. In 1940, the magazine Collier's named Robeson America's "no. 1 entertainer". Nevertheless, during

4641-460: The Verdian repertoire, Philip II in Don Carlos is sung by a true bass, while Ferrando in Il trovatore is often taken by a bass-baritone, though the two roles' ranges are very similar. In Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande the role of Golaud, created by Hector Dufranne , sits between Pelléas (high baritone) and Arkel (bass). Some of the classical Mozart baritone roles such as Don Giovanni , Count Almaviva , and Gugliemo —composed before

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4732-420: The Welsh people killed while fighting for the Republicans, where he recorded a message that became his epitaph: "The artist must take sides. He must elect to fight for freedom or slavery. I have made my choice. I had no alternative." After an invitation from J. B. S. Haldane , he traveled to Spain in 1938 because he believed in the International Brigades 's cause, visited the hospital of Benicàssim , singing to

4823-447: The announcement of a concert headlined by Robeson in New York City provoked the local press to decry the use of their community to support "subversives". The Peekskill riots ensued in which violent anti-Robeson protests shut down a Robeson concert on August 27, 1949, and marred the aftermath of the replacement concert held eight days later. In its review of Christy Walsh's massive 1949 reference, College Football and All America Review ,

4914-434: The best way to diminish the oppression African Americans faced was for his artistic work to be an example of what "men of my colour" could accomplish rather than to "be a propagandist and make speeches and write articles about what they call the Colour Question." After Essie discovered Robeson had been having an affair with Ashcroft, she decided to seek a divorce and they split up. While working in London, Robeson became one of

5005-480: The chorus of an Off-Broadway production of Shuffle Along before he joined Taboo in Britain. The play was adapted by Mrs Patrick Campbell to highlight his singing. After the play's run ended, he befriended Lawrence Benjamin Brown , a classically trained musician, before returning to Columbia while playing for the NFL's Milwaukee Badgers . He ended his football career after the 1922 season, and graduated from Columbia Law School in 1923. Robeson briefly worked as

5096-414: The chorus, and excelled in football, basketball, baseball and track. His athletic dominance elicited racial taunts which he ignored. Prior to his graduation, he won a statewide academic contest for a scholarship to Rutgers and was named class valedictorian. He took a summer job as a waiter in Narragansett Pier , Rhode Island, where he befriended Fritz Pollard , later to be the first African-American coach in

5187-404: The connexion. Foote was the first woman ordained as a deacon within the connexion in 1894 and "in 1899, was ordained—the second female elder in her denomination." In 1924 Cameron Chesterfield Alleyne became the church's first resident bishop in Africa. A general conference is the supreme administrative body of the church. Between meetings of the conference, the church is administered by

5278-706: The countries of Nigeria, Liberia, Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, Côte d'Ivoire, and Ghana in Africa; England, India, and Jamaica, St. Croix-Virgin Islands, Trinidad, and Tobago in the Caribbean; and others. In May 2012, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church entered into full communion with the United Methodist Church , African Methodist Episcopal Church , African Union Methodist Protestant Church , Christian Methodist Episcopal Church , and Union American Methodist Episcopal Church , in which these churches agreed to "recognize each other's churches, share sacraments, and affirm their clergy and ministries." The AME Zion Church has been in negotiations for many years to merge with

5369-421: The ensuing year, Robeson was forced to go overseas to work because his concert performances were canceled at the FBI's behest. While on tour, he spoke at the World Peace Council . The Associated Press published a false transcript of his speech which gave the impression that Robeson had equated America with a Fascist state. In an interview, Robeson said the "danger of Fascism [in the US] has averted". Nevertheless,

5460-440: The field because the Scarlet Knights had fielded a Negro, Robeson. After a standout junior year of football, he was recognized in The Crisis for his athletic, academic, and singing talents. At this time his father fell grievously ill. Robeson took the sole responsibility in caring for him, shuttling between Rutgers and Somerville. His father, who was the "glory of his boyhood years" soon died, and at Rutgers, Robeson expounded on

5551-403: The film as slanderous to his country, and Robeson thereafter became more politically conscious in his choice of roles. He appeared in the play Stevedore at the Embassy Theatre in London in May 1935, which was favorably reviewed in The Crisis by Nancy Cunard , who concluded: " Stevedore is extremely valuable in the racial – social question – it is straight from

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5642-445: The first Donaldson Award for Best Actor in a Play. During the same period, he addressed a meeting with Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis and team owners in a failed attempt to convince them to admit black players to Major League Baseball . He toured North America with Othello until 1945, and subsequently, his political efforts with the CAA to get colonial powers to discontinue their exploitation of Africa were short-circuited by

5733-711: The first artists to record at the new EMI Recording Studios (later known as Abbey Road Studios ), recording four songs in September 1931, almost two months before the studio was officially opened. Robeson returned to Broadway as Joe in the 1932 revival of Show Boat , to critical and popular acclaim. He received, with immense pride, an honorary master's degree from Rutgers. It is said that Foster Sanford, his college football coach advised him that divorcing Essie and marrying Ashcroft would do irreparable damage to his reputation. In any case, Ashcroft and Robeson's relationship ended in 1932, and Robeson and Essie reconciled, leaving their relationship scarred permanently. In 1933, Robeson played

5824-422: The incongruity of African Americans fighting to protect America in World War I but not having the same opportunities in the United States as whites. He finished university with four annual oratorical triumphs and varsity letters in multiple sports. His play at end won him first-team All-American selection, in both his junior and senior years. Walter Camp considered him the greatest end ever. Academically, he

5915-589: The lyrics to standard English and replacing the fatalistic last verse ("Ah gits weary / An' sick of tryin' / Ah'm tired of livin' / An skeered of dyin ' ") with an uplifting verse of his own ("But I keep laffin' / Instead of cryin' / I must keep fightin' / Until I'm dyin ' ") – transforming it from a tragic "song of resignation with a hint of protest implied" into a battle hymn of unwavering defiance. His business agent expressed concern about his political involvement, but Robeson overruled him and decided that contemporary events trumped commercialism. In Wales , he commemorated

6006-440: The meeting and declared that the time was not right to propose anti-lynching legislation. Subsequently, Robeson publicly called upon all Americans to demand that Congress pass civil rights legislation. Robeson founded the American Crusade Against Lynching organization in 1946. This organization was thought to be a threat to the NAACP antiviolence movement. Robeson received support from W. E. B. Du Bois on this matter and launched

6097-425: The music had no connection to his heritage. In early 1934, Robeson enrolled in the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), a constituent college of the University of London , where he studied phonetics and Swahili . His "sudden interest" in African history and its influence on culture coincided with his essay "I Want to be African", wherein he wrote of his desire to embrace his ancestry. His friends in

6188-440: The organization on the anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation , September 23. About this time, Robeson's belief that trade unionism was crucial to civil rights became a mainstay of his political beliefs as he became a proponent of the union activist and Communist Party USA member Revels Cayton . Robeson was later called before the Tenney Committee where he responded to questions about his affiliation with

6279-414: The pro-labor play Plant in the Sun , in which he played an Irishman, his first "white" role. With Max Yergan , and the International Committee on African Affairs (later known as the Council on African Affairs or CAA), Robeson became an advocate for African nationalism and political independence. Paul Robeson was living in Britain until the start of the Second World War in 1939. His name was included in

6370-441: The provocation and announced that he had made the team. Robeson joined the debating team and he sang off-campus for spending money, and on-campus with the Glee Club informally, as membership required attending all-white mixers. He also joined the other collegiate athletic teams. As a sophomore, amidst Rutgers' sesquicentennial celebration, he was benched when a Southern football team, Washington and Lee University , refused to take

6461-442: The revocation of Robeson's travel privileges, and the resulting inability to earn fees overseas, caused his yearly income to drop from $ 150,000 to less than $ 3,000. When Robeson met with State Department officials and asked why he was denied a passport, he was told that "his frequent criticism of the treatment of blacks in the United States should not be aired in foreign countries". In 1950, Robeson co-founded, with W. E. B. Du Bois ,

6552-485: The role of Jim in the London production of Chillun , virtually gratis, then returned to the United States to star as Brutus in the film The Emperor Jones  – the first film to feature an African American in a starring role, "a feat not repeated for more than two decades in the U.S." His acting in The Emperor Jones was well received. On the film set he rejected any slight to his dignity, despite

6643-487: The shoulder". In early 1936, he decided to send his son to school in the Soviet Union to shield him from racist attitudes. He then played the role of Toussaint Louverture in the eponymous play by C. L. R. James at the Westminster Theatre , and appeared in the films Song of Freedom , and Show Boat in 1936, and My Song Goes Forth , King Solomon's Mines . and Big Fella , all in 1937. In 1938, he

6734-628: The speech publicly attributed to him was a catalyst for his being seen as an enemy of mainstream America. Robeson refused to bow to public criticism when he advocated in favor of twelve defendants, including his long-time friend, Benjamin J. Davis Jr. , charged during the Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders . Robeson traveled to Moscow in June 1949, and tried to find Itzik Feffer whom he had met during World War II. He let Soviet authorities know that he wanted to see him. Reluctant to lose Robeson as

6825-543: The struggle against fascism during the Spanish Civil War was a turning point in his life and transformed him into a political activist. In 1937, he used his concert performances to advocate the Republican cause and the war's refugees. He permanently modified his renditions of "Ol' Man River" – initially, by singing the word "darkies" instead of "niggers"; later, by changing some of the stereotypical dialect in

6916-429: The term "baritone" gained currency—are occasionally played by a bass-baritone. Gilbert and Sullivan 's Savoy operas usually featured a comic bass-baritone character, created to make use of D'Oyly Carte company member Richard Temple . In short: the bass-baritone is a voice that has the resonant low notes of the typical bass allied with the ability to sing in a baritonal tessitura. Colloquially, it refers to

7007-450: The widespread Jim Crow atmosphere in the United States. Upon returning to England, he publicly criticized African Americans ' rejection of their own culture . Despite negative reactions from the press, such as a New York Amsterdam News retort that Robeson had made a "jolly well [ass of himself]", he also announced that he would reject any offers to perform central European (though not Russian, which he considered "Asiatic") opera because

7098-529: The wounded soldiers. Robeson also visited the battlefront and provided a morale boost to the Republicans at a time when their victory was unlikely. Back in England, he hosted Jawaharlal Nehru to support Indian independence , whereat Nehru expounded on imperialism's affiliation with Fascism. Robeson reevaluated the direction of his career and decided to focus on the ordeals of "common people". He appeared in

7189-503: Was a member of the Bustills , a prominent Quaker family of mixed ancestry. His father, William, was of Igbo origin and was born into slavery. William escaped from a plantation in his teens and eventually became the minister of Princeton's Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church in 1881. Robeson had three brothers: William Drew Jr. (born 1881), Reeve (born c. 1887), and Ben (born c. 1893); and one sister, Marian (born c. 1895). In 1900,

7280-477: Was accepted into Phi Beta Kappa and Cap and Skull . His classmates recognized him by electing him class valedictorian. The Daily Targum published a poem featuring his achievements. In his valedictory speech, he exhorted his classmates to work for equality for all Americans. At Rutgers, Robeson also gained a reputation for his singing, having a deep rich voice which some saw as bass with a high range, others as baritone with low notes. Throughout his career, Robeson

7371-532: Was classified as a bass-baritone. Robeson entered New York University School of Law in fall 1919. To support himself, he became an assistant football coach at Lincoln University , where he joined the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. However, Robeson felt uncomfortable at NYU and moved to Harlem and transferred to Columbia Law School in February 1920. Already known in the black community for his singing, he

7462-477: Was made the first General Superintendent of the AME Zion Church. A debate raged within the white-dominated Methodist church over accepting black ministers. This debate ended on July 30, 1822, when James Varick was ordained as the first bishop of the AME Zion church, a newly independent denomination. The total membership in 1866 was about 42,000. Two years later, it claimed 164,000 members, as it sent missionaries to

7553-572: Was named by American Motion Picture Herald as the 10th most popular star in British cinema. In 1935, Robeson met Albert Einstein when Einstein came backstage after Robeson's concert at the McCarter Theatre . The two discovered that, as well as a mutual passion for music, they shared a hatred for fascism . The friendship between Robeson and Einstein lasted nearly twenty years, but was not well known or publicized. Robeson believed that

7644-692: Was no public evidence that their relationship had soured. The couple appeared in the experimental Swiss film Borderline (1930). He then returned to the Savoy Theatre , in London's West End to play Othello , opposite Peggy Ashcroft as Desdemona . He cited the lack of a "racial problem" in London as significant in his decision to move to London. Robeson was the first black actor to play Othello in Britain since Ira Aldridge . The production received mixed reviews which noted Robeson's "highly civilized quality [but lacking the] grand style". Robeson stated

7735-525: Was not as strong as that of the AME Church. However, it was the leader among all Protestant denominations in ordaining women and giving them powerful roles in the church. An influential leader bishop was James Walker Hood (1831–1918) of North Carolina . He not only created and fostered his network of AME Zion churches in North Carolina, but he also was the grand master for the entire South of

7826-779: Was officially formed in 1816 by Richard Allen and Daniel Coker in Philadelphia . The denomination was made up of AME churches in the Philadelphia region, including Delaware and New Jersey . Though the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church was founded to grant equal rights to African Americans in Methodist Christianity, its church membership is composed of people of all racial backgrounds. Christianity • Protestantism The origins of this church can be traced to

7917-547: Was postponed due to nationwide controversy over its plot. Chillun's delay led to a revival of The Emperor Jones with Robeson as Brutus, a role pioneered by Charles Sidney Gilpin . The role terrified and galvanized Robeson, as it was practically a 90-minute soliloquy. Reviews declared him an unequivocal success. Though arguably clouded by its controversial subject, his Jim in Chillun was less well received. He answered criticism of its plot by writing that fate had drawn him to

8008-801: Was selected to perform at the dedication of the Harlem YWCA . Robeson began dating Eslanda "Essie" Goode and after her coaxing, he made his theatrical debut as Simon in Ridgely Torrence 's Simon of Cyrene . After a year of courtship, they were married in August 1921. Robeson was recruited by Fritz Pollard to play for the NFL's Akron Pros while he continued his law studies. In the spring of 1922, Robeson postponed school to portray Jim in Mary Hoyt Wiborg 's play Taboo . He then sang in

8099-688: Was summoned for a Royal Command Performance at Buckingham Palace and Robeson was befriended by Members of Parliament (MPs) from the House of Commons . Show Boat continued for 350 performances and, as of 2001, it remained the Royal's most profitable venture. The Robesons bought a home in Hampstead . He reflected on his life in his diary and wrote that it was all part of a "higher plan" and "God watches over me and guides me. He's with me and lets me fight my own battles and hopes I'll win." However, an incident at

8190-457: Was the spiritual " Steal Away ", backed with " Were You There ", in 1925. Robeson's recorded repertoire spanned many styles, including Americana, popular standards, classical music, European folk songs, political songs, poetry and spoken excerpts from plays. Robeson was born in Princeton , New Jersey , in 1898, to Reverend William Drew Robeson and Maria Louisa Bustill . His mother, Maria,

8281-597: Was the only African-American student. While at Rutgers, he was twice named a consensus All-American in football and was elected class valedictorian. He earned his LL.B. from Columbia Law School , while playing in the National Football League (NFL). After graduation, he became a figure in the Harlem Renaissance , with performances in Eugene O'Neill 's The Emperor Jones and All God's Chillun Got Wings . Robeson performed in Britain in

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