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140-669: Its followers were called perrepistas . PRP was the predominant political party in the state of São Paulo throughout the First Brazilian Republic . At the federal level, it allied, in most cases, with the Mineiro Republican Party (PRM) in elections and power alternation through the coffee with milk politics . During its active period, the party elected four presidents of the republic : Campos Salles (1898), Rodrigues Alves (1902 and 1918), Washington Luís (1922), and Júlio Prestes (1930). PRP

280-732: A "cautious alignment" with the US in the event of another world conflict. Furthermore, the planned blockade by the British navy on Germany and Italy made large-scale trade with them impossible. After extensive negotiation, Brazil and the United States signed an agreement in which the US committed to finance the construction of a large Brazilian steel plant ( Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional ) in Volta Redonda , Rio de Janeiro , in exchange for permission to set up military bases and airports in

420-721: A big internal market with overland transportation, except for the mule trains, impeded internal economic integration, political cohesion and military efficiency. The regions, "the Brazils" as the British called them, moved to their own rhythms. The Northeast exported its surplus cheap labor and saw its political influence decline as its sugar lost foreign markets to Caribbean producers. The wild rubber boom in Amazônia lost its world primacy to efficient Southeast Asian colonial plantations after 1912. The nationally oriented market economies of

560-495: A broad coalition of middle-class industrialists, planters from outside São Paulo, and the reformist faction of the military known as the tenentes . Together, these disparate groups made up the Liberal Alliance . Support was especially strong in the provinces of Minas Gerais , Paraíba and Rio Grande do Sul , because in nominating another Paulista to succeed himself, outgoing President Washington Luís had violated

700-414: A central government dominated by the coffee interests. Under considerable middle class pressure, a more activist, centralized state adapted to represent the interests that the new bourgeoisie had been demanded for years — one that could utilize a state interventionist policy consisting of tax breaks, lowered duties, and import quotas to expand the domestic capital base. Manufacturers, white-collar workers, and

840-575: A certain extent it was useful, because it led to measures that guaranteed our impeccable neutrality (in the early years of the World War II ). Vargas' cabinet was relatively stable. His ministers of Finance , War , the Navy and Education remained in office throughout the period. The Integralist Uprising on 8 May 1938, which attacked the Guanabara Palace , attempting to depose Vargas,

980-613: A crisis in the São Paulo Masonry, and Dr. José Adriano Marrey Júnior , the grandmaster of the Grand Orient of São Paulo, founded the Democratic Party. The first major electoral dispute between PRP and the Democratic Party occurred in 1928 for the mayoralty of the city of São Paulo through direct vote, when PRP was overwhelmingly victorious, reelecting Mayor Dr. José Pires do Rio . The most serious attack on

1120-410: A federation that was officially governed by a president, a bicameral National Congress (Congresso Nacional; hereafter, Congress), and a judiciary. However, the real power was held by the states, and by local potentates called "colonels." The colonels largely controlled Brazil's internal politics through a system of unwritten agreements known as coronelismo . Coronelismo, which supported state autonomy,

1260-804: A few who even slander me, are opponents of the regime I founded (the Estado Novo), and I even doubt that I will be able to consolidate it in order to pass the government on to my replacement. On 24 October 1943, the first organized protest against the Estado Novo occurred in Minas Gerais, a letter called Manifesto dos Mineiros signed by the state's elite, including many influential political leaders, such as Pedro Aleixo , Afonso Arinos de Melo Franco, Mendes Pimentel, Bueno Brandão and José de Magalhães Pinto . 50 thousand copies were clandestinely printed and distributed. The government reacted and many of

1400-511: A financial crisis, appointed Marshal Floriano Vieira Peixoto Minister of War to ensure the allegiance of the military. The officers who joined Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca in ending the Empire had made an oath to uphold it. The officer corps would eventually resolve the contradiction by linking its duty to Brazil itself, rather than to transitory governments. The Republic was born rather accidentally: Deodoro had intended only to replace

1540-655: A large migration of northeastern Brazilians to the Amazon rainforest , in order to fulfill the latex demand. This revived the area's economy, which had stagnated since the end of the first rubber cycle decades earlier. On 28 January 1943, Vargas and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed at the Natal Conference , to create the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB) in August, a year after

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1680-617: A lesser extent Pernambuco and Bahia . Because the monarchy had been overthrown by the Brazilian military, the history of the outset of republic in Brazil is also the story of the development of the Army as a national regulatory and interventionist institution. With the monarchy suddenly eliminated, the Army was left as the country's only long-lasting and powerful national institution. Although

1820-657: A modern, industrialized society inspired by positivism — the "world power of the future". This sentiment was later nurtured throughout the Vargas years and under successive populist governments, before the 1964 military junta repudiated Brazilian populism. While these populist groups were somewhat ineffectual under the Old Republic, the structural changes in the Brazilian economy opened up by the Great War strengthened these demands. The outbreak of World War I in August 1914

1960-562: A movement nicknamed Queremismo emerged in support of Vargas until a new constitution was promulgated, which never happened. Vargas was deposed on 29 October 1945 by a military movement led by generals from his own ministry. He formally resigned as president of the republic and was replaced by the president of the Federal Supreme Court, José Linhares , since there was no vice-president in the 1937 Constitution. José stayed in office for three months before handing over power to

2100-476: A true obsession with European immigration. At the municipal level, there were political disputes when more than one colonel contested local power. In these cases, politicians from the capital divided themselves, supporting one or another colonel for municipal positions. In the small towns in the interior of São Paulo, the local leader of PRP was typically a colonel, usually the leader of the local Masonic Lodge. Sometimes, two or more colonels competed for control of

2240-488: A unique dictator, because he was a progressive dictator, a humanitarian dictator. Despite one or two accusations of violence, the people don't accept Getúlio as a violent dictator". Vargas and the military maintained a neutral stance from September 1939 to 1941. Public opinion was divided. Many immigrants from the Axis powers sympathized with those countries but the majority of Afro-descendants and communists, especially after

2380-419: Is a sign that the constitutional regime has lost its practical value, existing only as an abstraction". He promulgated a new constitution the same day that gave him absolute control of the country and the power to appoint federal intervenors ( interventores ) with autonomy to replace the states' governors. All governors had already been replaced after Vargas assumed power following the 1930 revolution, with

2520-603: The Army General Staff . Captain Olímpio Mourão Filho , an integralist , was accused but acquitted eighteen years later by the Brazilian Army 's Council of Justification (requested on 26 December 1956). He later initiated the 1964 coup d'état . On 19 October, Rio Grande do Sul governor José Flores da Cunha lost control of the state's Military Brigade , which Vargas had subordinated to

2660-624: The Brazilian Revolution of 1930 , were running for presidency in the 1937 Brazilian elections, as well as the fascist-aligned integralist Plínio Salgado . The Vargas government, on 30 September 1937, made public an alleged communist plan aiming to seize the central government, later dubbed the Cohen Plan . The National Congress declared martial law the next day, 1 October. The integralists (right wing) denied participation, however, and blamed General Góis Monteiro , then head of

2800-690: The Central Powers ' strategic ones (demonstrated for example in the German submarine campaign as well as in the Ottoman control over the Middle East), Brazilian involvement in the war would be inevitable. So he advised that the most logical way to proceed would be to follow the United States, which was working for a peace agreement but at the same time since the sinking of the RMS Lusitania

2940-583: The Coffee with Milk politics or Oligarchic Republic originated, with the country being governed by civilian presidents strongly influenced by the agrarian sector of the economy. PRP, through its main leader and ideologue Campos Sales with his "Politics of the States," which was better known as the Governors' Politics , was the political party that played a decisive role in removing the military from politics at

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3080-603: The Middle East . The world's largest Japanese community outside Japan is in São Paulo . In contrast, Brazil's indigenous population, located mainly in the northern and western border regions and in the upper Amazon Basin , continued to decline during this same period; largely due to the effects of contact with the outside world such as commercial expansion into the interior. Consequently, indigenous full-blooded Amerindians now constitute less than 1% of Brazil's population. In

3220-625: The PRM ) was also abolished. First Brazilian Republic The First Brazilian Republic , also referred to as the Old Republic ( Portuguese : República Velha , Portuguese pronunciation: [ʁeˈpublikɐ ˈvɛʎɐ] ), officially the Republic of the United States of Brazil , refers to the period of Brazilian history from 1889 to 1930. The Old Republic began with the coup d'état that deposed emperor Pedro II in 1889, and ended with

3360-607: The Paulista territory, and with the extinction of the Conservative and Liberal Party after the proclamation of the republic, it became practically the only existing political party in the state of São Paulo. Some political parties had ephemeral existence in the state of São Paulo at the beginning of the Republic. PRP elected all the presidents of São Paulo and all state senators and deputies. PRP faced weak competition from

3500-528: The Revolution of 1930 that installed Getúlio Vargas as a new president. During the First Republic, the country's presidency was dominated by the most powerful states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais . Because of the power of these two states, based on the production of coffee and dairy, respectively, the Old Republic's political system has been described as " milk coffee politics ". At local level,

3640-485: The Roman Catholic Church continued its presence throughout the country, it was not national but rather international in its personnel, doctrine, liturgy, and purposes. The Army assumed this new position strategically; the monarchy had become unpopular with Brazil's conservative economic elite after the abolition of slavery, and the Army capitalized on that shift in opinion to amass support for itself within

3780-462: The comparative advantage system and lack of an open market, Brazilian industries could not compete against the technologically superior Anglo-American economies. In this context the Encilhamento (a Boom & Bust process that first intensified, and then crashed, in the years between 1889 and 1891) occurred, the consequences of which were felt in all areas of the Brazilian economy throughout

3920-498: The generals Tasso Fragoso and Mena Barreto and Admiral Isaiah de Noronha ousted President Washington Luís on October 24 and formed a joint government. At 3pm on November 3, 1930, the junta handed power and the presidential palace to Getulio Vargas; the new administration abrogated the 1891 Constitution, dissolved the National Congress and started to rule by decree, ending the Old Republic. A Constituent Assembly

4060-569: The liberal classes, and above all, important rural landowners from São Paulo , coffee growers, known as the conservative classes, supporters of European immigration for coffee plantations and also supporters of the abolition of slavery. Almost all the leadership of PRP, at the time called "próceres," were members of the Freemasons . Meetings of the PRP leadership in the editorial office of Correio Paulistano were traditional. Its first newspaper

4200-697: The revolution that ended the First Republic and launched the Second Brazilian Republic. Several ensuing coup attempts failed to depose him, until he granted himself new powers under the Third Brazilian Republic or Estado Novo. In early 1932, the Constitutionalist Revolution led by the Democratic Party of São Paulo, had failed due to a lack of unity within the alliance. As head of the provisional government (1930–1934), Vargas governed by decree until

4340-620: The 1930 revolution that ended the First Republic . The Estado Novo ended politically on 29 October 1945, and officially on 31 January 1946. It was characterized by Brazilian nationalism , centralized power, anti-communism and authoritarianism . It was part of the period known as the Vargas Era that began with the Second Brazilian Republic . Vargas first took power as provisional president in 1930 following

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4480-426: The 1950s, would later respond to these demands. During this time period, the state of São Paulo was at the forefront of Brazil's economic, political, and cultural life. Known colloquially as a "locomotive pulling the 20 empty boxcars" (a reference to the 20 other states) and still today Brazil's industrial and commercial center, São Paulo led this trend toward industrialization due to the foreign revenues flowing into

4620-624: The Allies' Naval Forces in the Mediterranean . During 1918, protests broke out against the military recruitment; this, in conjunction with the news of the ongoing revolution in Russia , only strengthened the isolationist sentiment among the Brazilian elites. In addition, the devastating advent of Spanish flu further prevented the Brás administration from getting involved more deeply. Ultimately,

4760-785: The Army, the second consisted of Army sergeants and officers, and the third consisted of military aviators , both of Army and Navy. The Army's members were attached to the French Army , and the Navy's aviators to the British Royal Air Force . By 1918 all three groups were already in action in France. By that time Brazil had also sent a Naval fleet , the Naval Division in War Operations or DNOG , to join

4900-487: The Axis countries on 21 January 1942. Nazi espionage in Brazil was active during the war, both as networks and individual actions. The United States created Plan Rubber to invade the northeastern region of Brazil if Vargas did not agree to airbases, which would compromise the country's neutrality. However, the plan was necessary because, with or without Vargas' knowledge, the Brazilian military had since 1934 already reached

5040-657: The Brazilian Army. Surrounded by General Góis Monteiro's men, Flores da Cunha left office and went into exile in Uruguay. He had bought a large quantity of arms into Europe and been the last possible military resistance to the Vargas coup attempt. Armando de Sales might have opposed the coup, but he had already left his position in the São Paulo government to run for presidency in the 1937 election. His successor, José de Melo Neto , promised Vargas that "São Paulo would not have another revolution". Just as in 1930, São Paulo

5180-548: The Chamber of Deputies did not pose obstacles to the president of the republic, who freely conducted his government. Each state of the Brazilian federation had its own Republican Party, but they were not connected to each other and were autonomous. Representatives of the Paulista Republican Party and the Mineiro Republican Party (PRM) alternated in federal power. They controlled the elections and enjoyed

5320-623: The Coffee with Milk Republic, had its governability guaranteed by the Politics of the States. Federal deputies and senators did not hinder the president's politics, and the president did not interfere in state governments. The states were guaranteed broad administrative autonomy in their own affairs. The federal power did not interfere in the internal politics of the states, and state governments did not interfere in municipal politics, ensuring political autonomy and national tranquility. The President of

5460-575: The Constituent Assembly of 1933–1934 adopted a new Brazilian Constitution , alongside a democratically elected legislature. The Estado Novo period (1937–1945), began when in order to perpetuate his rule, Vargas imposed a new, dictatorial Constitution, and shut down the Legislature to rule Brazil as a dictator. Getúlio Vargas took power on 10 November 1937, and in a radio broadcast told the nation that his regime intended to "readjust

5600-1065: The Federal District Police Inspectorate to supervise the Civil Police of the Federal District. The bad reputation of Civil Police of Rio de Janeiro dated back to the Old Republic , and was mocked in the first samba recorded in Brazil, Pelo Telefone , by Donga in 1917: "Over the phone, the Chief of Police tells me that in Carioca there's a roulette wheel to play". Several autobiographies reported imprisonment and torture, without claiming Vargas' direct involvement,examples being Pagu , Carlos Marighella , and Joaquim Câmara Ferreira, who lost his fingernails in prison. Several artists did directly accuse Vargas of restricting individual rights, and he replied on 23 July 1938: "The Estado Novo does not recognize

5740-576: The Forgotten Things: Getúlio Vargas and Brazilian social control – 1930–1954 , published in 2001 by Companhia das Letras . Rose saw the Estado Novo as an unpopular regime that needed to "coerce the people" to survive: "During Vargas' rule, the quality and quantity of human rights abuses reached unprecedented levels. Violence, as a means of coercing the people, was evident in all sectors of the security apparatus... The nation's police forces redefined and in some cases reinvented

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5880-672: The German Navy sank Brazilian civilian ships off the French coast, creating such an opportunity. On October 26 the government declared war on the Central Powers : Germany, Austria-Hungary , and the Ottoman Empire . Soon after, the navy was ordered to capture Central Powers' ships found on the Brazilian coast, and three small military groups were dispatched to the Western Front . The first group consisted of medical staff from

6020-799: The June 1941 invasion of the USSR (aligned with the Allies ), and had great mobilization power and influence in the press. During this period, Vargas wrote in his diary: "It seems to me that the Americans want to drag us into the war, without it being of any use to us or to them!" At the January 1942 Pan-American Conference in Rio de Janeiro, most countries on the continent condemned the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, and broke off diplomatic relations with

6160-406: The Legislature, dominated by the ruling oligarchs). This system resulted in the presidency of Brazil alternating between the oligarchies of the dominant states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais , who governed the country through the Republican Party of São Paulo (PRP) and the Republican Party of Minas Gerais (PRM). This regime is often referred to as " café com leite ", 'coffee with milk', after

6300-422: The National Security Law, which prevented revolutionary movements such as the Communist uprising of 1935. However, Brazil had no federal police force, and state police forces remained under the command of the federal intervenors. The Brazilian Civil Code of 1916 remained in force, and a new, more liberal penal code was adopted. Torture at the Rio de Janeiro Police headquarters in Filinto Müller 's administration

6440-427: The Old Republic, was commanded by the current state president. The leaders who had the most strength on the executive board of PRP were President Jorge Tibiriçá Piratininga , who died in 1928, Colonel Fernando Prestes de Albuquerque , and Dr. Altino Arantes Marques , both deceased after the end of the Old Republic. On March 1, 1930, the presidential candidate of the Republic Party (PRP), Júlio Prestes, received 90% of

6580-420: The PRP leadership and who were bypassed in the choice of PRP candidates for the presidency of the state or other important positions. In 1901, Prudente de Moraes and other deputies founded the Dissident Paulista Republican Party (PRDSP). The final dissidence resulted in the creation of the Democratic Party in February 1926, a party that supported the 1930 Revolution. This last dissidence of PRP originated from

6720-419: The Polish), because it was inspired by the April Constitution of Poland . It shut down the Congress, state and municipal legislatures , and abolished universal suffrage. The constitution also provided for a new legislature and a plebiscite , which did not take place. No elections were held in the Estado Novo period, although the judiciary did preserve its autonomy. The preamble of the constitution explained

6860-419: The Proclamation of the Republic on November 15, 1889, a new cycle of political power began in Brazil known as the Old Republic . The Old Republic was divided into two periods. Initially, the so-called Sword Republic was established, with the military governments of Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca and Marshal Floriano Peixoto consolidating the republican regime in Brazil. After the military left federal power,

7000-400: The Republic supported the actions of state presidents, such as the selection of their successors, and in return, the governors provided support and political assistance to the federal government, collaborating in the election of candidates for the Federal Senate and the Chamber of Deputies who fully supported the President of the Republic. Thus, the state delegations in the Federal Senate and

7140-456: The Republican Federal Party (PRF) of Francisco Glicério , with a municipalist ideology, and the Conservative Republican Party (PRC). It was up to Campos Sales , when president of the State of São Paulo, in 1897 and 1898, to weaken the PRF and municipalism by pressuring the interior colonels to join PRP. In exchange for support for PRP and the state president, the colonels had their local power guaranteed and respected. Campos Sales' actions in

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7280-433: The Second Industrial Revolution in the advanced countries, Latin America responded to mounting European and North American demand for primary products and foodstuffs. A few key export products— coffee , sugar , and cotton — thus dominated agriculture. Because of specialization , Brazilian producers neglected domestic consumption, forcing the country to import four-fifths of its grain needs. As in most of Latin America ,

7420-505: The Secretary of Justice and Public Security (in the so-called "politics without politics"), and in the Mayor of São Paulo and the state government. PRP was defeated in the presidential elections of 1910 when the São Paulo president Albuquerque Lins was the vice-presidential candidate on Rui Barbosa 's ticket in the so-called Civilist Campaign. The political leaders of PRP gained a reputation as good administrators and upright men, and several were considered statesmen. In general, PRP, in

7560-546: The Silent March in which they paraded with black gags to symbolize the lack of freedom of expression. "We were called up as a punishment – as if it could be a punishment to serve Brazil!" wrote one student, Geraldo Vidigal. The role of these students in the war was to disarm landmines before the tanks got through. Vargas expressed concern about the future of the Estado Novo in his diary on 27 January 1942: I have to confess that I feel sad. A large part of those who applaud this attitude (breaking diplomatic relations with Germany),

7700-478: The South were not dramatic, but their growth was steady and by the 1920s allowed Rio Grande do Sul to exercise considerable political leverage. Real power resided in the coffee-growing states of the Southeast— São Paulo , Minas Gerais , and Rio de Janeiro — which produced the most export revenue. Those three and Rio Grande do Sul harvested 60% of Brazil 's crops, turned out 75% of its industrial and meat products, and held 80% of its banking resources. Following

7840-404: The São Paulo oligarchies) and led to the ascension of Getúlio Vargas as president, heralding the start of the Vargas Era . On November 15, 1889, Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca deposed Emperor Pedro II , declared Brazil a republic, and reorganized the government. According to the new republican Constitution enacted in 1891, the government was a constitutional democracy , but democracy

7980-409: The São Paulo province attended. During the imperial period, PRP elected deputies to the General Assembly of the Empire (the current Chamber of Deputies ), Campos Sales and Prudente de Morais, in the 1885-1888 legislature. In 1887, Bernardino de Campos definitively aligned the party with abolitionism, saving it from the crisis caused by the pro-slavery inclination of landowners. Its official organ

8120-408: The acting vice-president of São Paulo and president of the state, was deposed on October 24, 1930, arrested, and exiled. The PRP would no longer govern São Paulo. The 1930 Revolution and the rise of Getúlio Vargas to power broke this cycle, leading to the extinction of all parties, which only returned in the 1933 elections . The domination of the "coffee with milk" politics (represented by the PRP and

8260-437: The agrarian oligarchies. This process was further accelerated by the declining world demand for coffee during World War I. The central government, dominated by rural gentries, responded to falling world coffee demand by bailing out the oligarchs, reinstating the valorization program. Valorization, government intervention to maintain coffee prices by withholding stocks from the market or restricting plantings, had some successes in

8400-567: The appearance of legitimacy, and:...the new regime... must be in direct contact with the people, overriding partisan struggles of any kind, independent of the consultation of groupings, parties or organizations, ostensibly or disguisedly aimed at conquering public power. Vargas opposed political parties and one-party models: We must have no illusions. Given our customs and the low level of our political culture, addicted to oligarchic and personalist practices, this single party will soon begin to subdivide into factions and needlessly agitate and disrupt

8540-404: The armed forces were divided over their status, relationship to the political regime, and institutional goals. The lack of military unity, and the disagreement among civilian elites about the military's role in society, explain partially why a long-term military dictatorship was not established. Although the military did not directly control Brazil, military men were very active in politics; early in

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8680-459: The armistice in November 1918 prevented the government from carrying out its plan for war . Despite its modest participation, Brazil gained the right to partake in the Paris Peace Conference . From 1875 until 1960, about 3 million Europeans emigrated to Brazil, settling mainly in the four southern states of São Paulo , Paraná , Santa Catarina , and Rio Grande do Sul . Immigrants came mainly from Portugal, Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, Poland, and

8820-433: The authority of their legitimate leaders... I would remain in a neutral position to offer all electoral guarantees to the contenders. But the situation of the republic is different... and it is necessary to avoid, with determined effort, the agitations without a basis in the national interest that would only serve to bring disruptive ambitions to the political arena, which have always been and will always be eternal obstacles to

8960-423: The beginning of a struggle by the urban bourgeoisie to seize power from the coffee-producing oligarchy. This era sparked the Tenente revolts as well. Junior military officers ( tenentes , or lieutenants), who had long been active against the ruling coffee oligarchy, staged their own revolt in 1922 amid demands for various forms of social modernization, calling for agrarian reform, the formation of cooperatives, and

9100-467: The beginning of the Republic. Campos Sales expressed his opinion on this matter: Others gave my policy the name "Politics of the Governors." They would have been right if they had said "Politics of the States." This name would better express my thought! And he defined the coffee with milk politics and the politics of the states as follows: If we found ourselves in normal conditions of political life, with well-defined political parties, each obeying

9240-423: The beginning of the Revolution. It spread quickly through the country. Eight state governments in the northeast of Brazil were deposed by revolutionaries. On the 10th of October, Vargas launched the manifesto, "Rio Grande standing by Brazil" and left, by rail, towards Rio de Janeiro , the national capital at the time. It was expected that a major battle would occur in Itararé (on the border with Paraná ), where

9380-448: The cabinet, but the republicans manipulated him into founding a republic. The history of the Old Republic was dominated by a quest for a viable form of government to replace the monarchy . This quest lurched back and forth between state autonomy and centralization. The constitution of 1891, establishing the United States of Brazil ( Estados Unidos do Brasil ), granted extensive autonomy to the provinces, now called States. A federal system

9520-504: The capacity or the courage to do so." The preamble to the 1937 Constitution stated that the Estado Novo was installed to meet "the legitimate aspirations of the Brazilian people for political and social peace, deeply disturbed by notorious factors of disorder... tending, by their natural development, to resolve themselves in terms of violence, placing the nation under the ominous imminence of civil war due to communist infiltration..." The Estado Novo rigorously repressed communism, backed by

9660-429: The coffee industry. Prosperity contributed to a rapid rise in the population of recent working class Southern and Eastern European immigrants, a population that contributed to the growth of trade unionism , anarchism , and socialism . In the post-World War I period, Brazil was hit by its first wave of general strikes and the establishment of the Communist Party in 1922. Meanwhile, the divergence of interests between

9800-413: The coffee oligarchs— devastated by the Depression— and the burgeoning, dynamic urban sectors was intensifying. According to prominent Latin American historian Benjamin Keen, the task of transforming society "fell to the rapidly growing urban bourgeois groups, and especially to the middle class, which began to voice even more strongly its discontent with the rule of the corrupt rural oligarchies". In contrast,

9940-582: The country was dominated by a form of machine politics known as coronelism , in which the political and economic spheres were centered around local bosses, who controlled elections. The country was also marked by a series of rebellions and revolutions against the ruling oligarchies, which culminated into the Revolution of 1930 , when the Liberal Alliance , a force of urban middle-class, planters from outside São Paulo and military reformists composed mostly by junior officers (known as Tenetism ), deposed ruling president Washington Luís (representative of

10080-443: The country. Its personnel, its interests, its ideology, and its commitments were national in scope. In the last decades of the 19th century, the United States, much of Europe , and neighboring Argentina expanded the right to vote. Brazil, however, moved to restrict access to the polls. In 1874, in a population of about 10 million, the franchise was held by about one million, but in 1881 this had been cut to 145,296. This reduction

10220-718: The creation of the republic in 1889, there were many political and social rebellions that had to be subdued by the regime, such as the Two Naval Revolts (1891 & 1893–94), the Federalist Rebellion (1893–95), War of Canudos (1896–97), Vaccine Revolt (1904), Revolt of the Whip (1910) and the Revolt of Juazeiro ("Sedição de Juazeiro", 1914). The Contestado War , a rebellion pitting settlers against landowners, also raged from 1912 to 1916. Therefore, with

10360-543: The decade, ten of the twenty state governors were officers. The Constituent Assembly, which drew up the constitution of 1891, was divided between two factions. One group sought to limit executive power, which was dictatorial in scope under President Deodoro da Fonseca ; the other was the Jacobins, radical authoritarians who opposed the paulista coffee oligarchy and who wanted to preserve and intensify presidential authority. The constitution created by this assembly established

10500-784: The declaration of war. The pracinhas , as FEB soldiers became known, were 25,000 in 1945, of an estimated 200,000. They fought in Italy in July 1944, and served from September to the end of the European conflict on 8 May 1945. The US and the UK invited Brazil to join the occupation of Austria , but Brazil refused. Among the FEB soldiers were eight law students from the University of São Paulo , who took part in peaceful demonstrations against Vargas such as

10640-633: The departments that had fallen the lowest in the country's general opinion. This department had long since ceased to be an apparatus of order, but had been transformed into a terrorist organization, whose fame had already spread, with the prestige of sinister things, beyond our borders." These reforms followed the suggestions of the Civil Police Reform Commission of the Federal District under Police Chief João Batista Luzardo. Decree-Law No. 5,504 of May 20, 1943 created

10780-437: The domination of the republic's politics by the landed gentries of that state (dominated by the coffee industry) and Minas Gerais , dominated by dairy interests, known then by observers as the politics of café com leite ; 'coffee with milk'. Long before the first revolts of the urban middle classes to seize power from the coffee oligarchs in the 1920s, Brazil's intelligentsia and farsighted agro-capitalists, dreamed of forging

10920-432: The early twentieth century, demographic changes and structural shifts in the economy threatened the primacy of the agrarian oligarchies. Under the Old Republic, the growth of the urban middle sectors, though slowed by dependency and entrenched oligarchy, was eventually strong enough to propel the middle class into the forefront of Brazilian political life. In time, growing trade, commerce, and industry in São Paulo undermined

11060-431: The economy around the start of the 20th century therefore rested on certain cash crops produced by the fazendeiros , large estate owners exporting primary products overseas who headed their own patriarchal communities. Each typical fazenda (estate) included the owner's chaplain and overseers, his indigent peasants, his sharecroppers, and his indentured servants. Brazil's dependence on factory-made goods and loans from

11200-425: The effectiveness of administrative action... (and explains the need for a vice-president from Minas Gerais for Rodrigues Alves)... I have reasons to believe that Minas will only accept the combination if a person from Minas is also included, and to avoid obstacles, I consider it appropriate to indicate Silviano Brandão as vice president! In this regime, as I said in my last message, the true political force that, in

11340-422: The end of press censorship under the Estado Novo and the weakening and fall of the regime. Despite measures like setting a date for presidential elections on 28 May 1945 (2 December), amnesty for Luís Carlos Prestes and other political prisoners, freedom of party organization and a commitment to elect a new Constituent Assembly , pressure for Getúlio to resign remained strong. Led by businessman Hugo Borghi,

11480-428: The establishment of the dictatorship by describing pre-civil war Brazil. Decree-Law No. 37 of 2 December 1937 abolished political parties, including two that were critical of the then-political system, and preached "direct contact with the masses": Considering that the electoral system then in force...encouraged the proliferation of parties, with the sole and exclusive aim of giving candidacies and elective positions

11620-598: The exception of Minas Gerais , whose governor, Olegário Maciel, was kept in office. Vargas had also appointed tenentist revolutionary leaders for the other states, such as Flores da Cunha in Rio Grande do Sul, Carlos de Lima Cavalcanti in Pernambuco, and João Alberto Lins de Barros in São Paulo. The 1937 constitution , entirely drafted by Francisco Campos, became known as " Polaca " (Portuguese demonym for

11760-512: The federal troops were stationed to halt the advance of the revolutionary forces, led by Colonel Góis Monteiro . However, on October 12 and 13, the Battle of Quatiguá took place (possibly the biggest fight of the revolution), although it has been little studied. Quatiguá is located to the east of Jaguariaíva, near the border between São Paulo state and Paraná. The battle did not occur in Itararé since

11900-466: The government of São Paulo were like an embryo of what he would later do at the national level: the Politics of the States or the Governors' Politics. One of the interior leaders of São Paulo who joined PRP because of Campos Sales' politics and later became an important leader (prócer) of PRP was Dr. Washington Luís . PRP was greatly influenced by the ideals of Freemasonry and positivism , and PRP had

12040-551: The industrialization of Brazil, and created institutions to carry it out such as the Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional and the Companhia Vale do Rio Doce . The Estado Novo is considered a precursor to the military dictatorship in Brazil that began with the 1964 coup , although the two regimes differed on several levels. José Américo de Almeida and Armando de Sales Oliveira , who supported

12180-546: The labor movement in order to prevent new movements from beginning. This repression, supported by legislation, was very effective in preventing the formation of labor unions considered to be really free by the workers involved. There were two main lines of thought regarding Brazil's joining the war: One, led by Ruy Barbosa, called for joining the Entente ; another side was concerned about the bloody and fruitless nature of trench warfare, nurturing critical and pacifist feelings in

12320-466: The labor movement remained small and weak (despite a wave of general strikes in the postwar years), lacking ties to the peasantry, who constituted the overwhelming majority of the Brazilian population. As a result, disparate social reform movements would crop up in the 1920s, ultimately culminating in the Revolution of 1930. The 1920s revolt against the seating of Artur Bernardes as president signaled

12460-502: The last decade of the 19th century and the first of the 20th, a free press created by European immigrant anarchists started to develop, and, due to non-segregated conformation (ethnically speaking) of Brazilian society, spread widely, particularly in large cities. During this period, Brazil did not have a significantly integrated national economy. Rather, Brazil had a grouping of regional economies that exported their own specialty products to European and North American markets. The absence of

12600-589: The life of the country. What was urgent, he said, was "to speed up the process of our development and strengthen the creative energies of progress." The issue of a single-party system then "closed for good". The Estado Novo also opposed regionalism. Flags of the federal states, which were forbidden to bear any symbols, were burned on 4 December in a civic ceremony on the Russel Esplanade in Rio de Janeiro."We no longer have regional problems," Getúlio had said in 1939, "they are all national, and of interest to

12740-522: The local PRP. Local political groups were given nicknames like the Araras against the Pica-Paus (woodpeckers). However, there was always a single candidate for the presidency of the state. The colonels supported the politics of the state presidents in exchange for the presidents respecting the local power of the colonel. There were at least four dissidences within PRP, led by politicians dissatisfied with

12880-476: The manifeto's signatories were removed from their public offices or fired from their jobs due to government pressure. An opponent of the Estado Novo, writer Monteiro Lobato , was imprisoned after accusing Vargas of not allowing Brazilians to search for oil . As World War II ended in 1945, pressures grew for redemocratization. José Américo de Almeida's interview with Carlos Lacerda on 22 February 1945, published in Rio de Janeiro's Correio da Manhã , symbolized

13020-570: The more capital-intensive industries, distinguishing Brazil's industrial revolution from that of the rest of the West. With manufacturing on the rise and the coffee oligarchs imperiled, the old order of café com leite and coronelismo eventually gave way to the political aspirations of the new urban groups: professionals, government and white-collar workers , merchants, bankers, and industrialists. Increasing support for industrial protectionism marked 1920s Brazilian politics with little support from

13160-502: The nationalization of mines. Though ultimately unsuccessful, the Tenente revolts illustrated the conflicts that would go on to underpin the Revolution of 1930. The Great Depression set off the tensions that had been building in Brazilian society for some time, spurring revolutionary leaders to action. The elections of 1930 pitted Júlio Prestes , of the pro-establishment Republican Party of São Paulo , against Getúlio Vargas , who led

13300-481: The need for state and municipal governments to comply with the directives of the PRP leadership. Thus, PRP, upon gaining power with the republic, put into practice its political program of administrative decentralization, establishment of schools, defense of coffee, modernization of the state and the economy, and separation of the Catholic Church from the Brazilian state. PRP only had legal existence within

13440-517: The north and northeast of the country. The German navy extended submarine warfare to Brazilian-flagged merchant ships, and the Italian navy followed suit. However, Vargas did not declare war until 22 August, seven months after the attacks. The Allies needed rubber because the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia meant they could no longer depend on a supply from that region. This resulted in

13580-736: The onset of World War I , Brazilian elites were interested in studying the events of the Mexican Revolution with more attention than those related to the War in Europe. By 1915 it was also clear that the Brazilian elites were dedicated to making sure Brazil followed a conservative political path; they were unwilling to embark upon courses of action, whether domestically (i.e. adopting the secret ballot and universal suffrage) or in foreign affairs (making alliances or long-term commitments), that could have unpredictable consequences and potentially risk

13720-565: The political organism to the economic needs of the country". The 1937 Constitution consolidated his power and allowed him to censor the press and spread propaganda coordinated by the Department of Press and Propaganda (DIP). The National Security Law made it possible to suppress Communism and prevent movements such as the Communist Uprising of 1935. Centralization of power and an import substitution policy helped to fund

13860-672: The power of PRP was the São Paulo Revolt of 1924 , which caused President Carlos de Campos to withdraw to the interior of the state and organize battalions to defend legality, managing to regain power. Many important members of PRP wore uniforms of the São Paulo Public Force, currently the Military Police of the State of São Paulo, organized and commanded the resistance against the rebels. PRP elected all

14000-479: The presidency between them for many years. The system consolidated the state oligarchies around families that had been members of the old monarchical elite. And to check the nationalizing tendencies of the army, this oligarchic republic and its state components strengthened the navy and the state police. In the larger states, the state police were soon turned into small armies. The Head of the Brazilian army ordered that it would doubled so they could defend them. Around

14140-448: The president elected on 2 December 1945, Eurico Gaspar Dutra . The trigger for the military action was the appointment of Getúlio's brother, Benjamim Vargas , as chief of police in Rio de Janeiro. A valuable contribution to Eurico Dutra's electoral victory came from Hugo Borghi, who distributed thousands of pamphlets accusing candidate Eduardo Gomes of saying: "I don't need the votes of the marmiteiros ". In fact, what Eduardo said, at

14280-406: The presidents of the State of São Paulo in the Old Republic and elected six presidents of the Republic, although two of them did not take office: Rodrigues Alves when reelected in 1918 did not take office due to his death, and Júlio Prestes due to the 1930 Revolution. Dr. Washington Luís was deposed in 1930. Washington Luís was a modernizer of PRP, establishing a technical administration, both in

14420-462: The proclamation of the Estado Novo. Never before has a head of state been so loved by his people in our country. His prestige never waned, and Vargas remained beloved until his tragic death." Journalist David Nasser lists some of the more common forms of torture in his Falta Alguém em Nuremberg: Torturas da Polícia de Felinto Strubling Müller . and the 1952 novel The Bowels of Liberty by Jorge Amado , who went into exile in 1948, relate "details of

14560-482: The refugees of the Paris Commune , bringing communist and anarchist ideas. Because of those ideas, problems for the very conservative regime of large estate owners emerged. Further on, masses of industrial workers became unhappy with the status quo and began engaging in massive protests, mostly in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro . After a General Strike in 1917 , the government attempted to brutally repress

14700-658: The repression of the Brazilian Communist Party , censorship, torture and imprisonment" under the Estado Novo, He was arrested in 1936 and 1937 for subversion based on his involvement with the Communist Uprising. In 1937, his books were burned in a public square in Salvador . In his book Tancredo Fala de Getúlio, on the other hand, Tancredo Neves , Minister of Justice from 1953 to 1954, wrote that: "He tried hard to project himself in history as

14840-514: The respective agricultural products of the two states. The Brazilian republic was not an ideological offspring of the republics born of the French or American Revolutions , although the Brazilian regime would attempt to associate itself with both. The republic did not have enough popular support to risk open elections. It was a regime born of a coup d'état that maintained itself by force. The republicans made Deodoro president (1889–91) and, after

14980-438: The rights of individuals against the community. Individuals don't have rights, they have duties! Rights belong to the community! The state, overriding the struggle of interests, guarantees the rights of the community and enforces its duties towards it." "The Vargas regime's relentless persecution of its opponents (real and imagined), whose methods heavily involved the use of torture, violence, deportation and murder," said UOL ,

15120-544: The short term; however, coffee demand plunged even more precipitously during the Great Depression , creating a decline too steep for valorization to reverse. Paradoxically, economic crisis spurred industrialization and a resultant boost to the urban middle and working classes. The depressed coffee sector freed up the capital and labor needed for manufacturing finished goods. A chronically adverse balance of trade and declining rate of exchange against foreign currencies

15260-462: The social, economic, and political power held by the Brazilian elite. This course of conduct would extend throughout the 20th century, an isolationist foreign policy interspersed with sporadic automatic alignments against "disturbing elements of peace and international trade". Ruy Barbosa was the main opposition leader, campaigning for internal political changes. He also stated that, due to the natural conflict between Brazilian commercial interests and

15400-532: The start of the 20th century, the vast majority of the population lived in communities that were essentially semi-feudal in structure, though accumulating capitalist surpluses for overseas export. Because of the legacy of Ibero-American slavery , abolished as late as 1888 in Brazil, there was an extreme concentration of such landownership reminiscent of feudal aristocracies: 464 great landowners held more than 270,000 km of land ( latifúndios ), while 464,000 small and medium-sized farms occupied only 157,000 km . After

15540-421: The subsequent decades. The middle class was not yet active in political life. The patron-client political machines of the countryside enabled the coffee oligarchs to dominate state structures to their advantage, particularly the weak central state structures that effectively devolved power to local agrarian oligarchies. Known as coronelismo , this was a classic boss system under which the control of patronage

15680-523: The support of the agrarian elite, at the time called the conservative classes, from other states in Brazil. With the new republican regime, PRP ceased to be a party of social class and opposition, as it was during the Second Reign , when it was, in fact, a vehicle for the political demands of the great abolitionist coffee planters who used European wage labor. With the Republic, the party also became an institution dedicated to state bureaucracy, with

15820-452: The technologically and economically superior North Atlantic diminished its domestic industrial base. Farm equipment was primitive and largely non-mechanized; peasants tilled the land with hoes and cleared the soil through the inefficient slash-and-burn method. Meanwhile, living standards were generally squalid. Malnutrition, parasitic diseases, and a lack of medical facilities limited the average life span in 1920 to twenty-eight years. Because of

15960-501: The tight unitarianism of the Empire, resided in the central power, has shifted to the states. The Politics of the States, that is, the politics that strengthens the bonds of harmony between the states and the Union, is, therefore, in its essence, national politics. It is there, in the sum of these autonomous units, that the true sovereignty of public opinion is found. What the states think, the Union thinks! The federal political power, in

16100-417: The torture that had already taken place in Brazil since colonial times. The cruelty of their methods was matched only by the fervor with which this example was followed by subsequent generations." However, an October 1954 special edition of the magazine O Mundo Ilustrado said that Vargas enjoyed his greatest popularity in the dictatorial period: "The popular prestige of President Vargas grew even more after

16240-414: The traditional alternation between Minas Gerais and São Paulo. Vargas campaigned carefully, needing to please a large range of supporters. He used populist rhetoric and promoted bourgeois concerns. He opposed the primacy of São Paulo, but did not challenge the planters' legitimacy and kept his calls for social reform moderate. The election itself was plagued by corruption and denounced by both sides: when

16380-530: The union to the originating province (later states). PRP remained in opposition from its foundation in 1873 until the Proclamation of the Republic . After the 1930 Revolution, it returned to being an opposition party. PRP remained in opposition from 1930 until its extinction with the advent of the Estado Novo in 1937. In other words, it started on April 18, 1873, and ended on December 2, 1937. With

16520-511: The upper class. Thanks to their success in this area, the Army's prestige managed to eclipse even other military institutions, like the Navy and the National Guard. The Navy's attempts to prevent such hegemony were defeated militarily during the early 1890s. Although it had more units and men in Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul than elsewhere, the Army's presence was felt throughout

16660-408: The urban proletariat alike had earlier enjoyed the respite of world trade associated with World War I . However, the coffee oligarchs, relying on the decentralized power structure to delegate power to their own patrimonial ruling oligarchies, were uninterested in regularizing Brazil's personalistic politics or centralizing power. Getúlio Vargas , leader from 1930 to 1945 and later for a brief period in

16800-457: The urban worker classes. Therefore, Brazil remained neutral in World War I until 1917. However, as denunciations of corruption exacerbated internal problems in the state, President Venceslau Brás began feeling the need to divert public attention from his government; this goal could be accomplished by focusing on an external enemy and thus stoking a sense of unity and patriotism. During 1917,

16940-485: The valid votes in the State of São Paulo. It was another major victory for the PRP against the Democratic Party, which supported the opposition candidate Getúlio Vargas . However, Júlio Prestes did not take office as he was overthrown by the 1930 Revolution. With the 1930 revolution, several political leaders of the PRP, including the elected president Júlio Prestes, who had resigned from the government of São Paulo, and President Washington Luís, were exiled. Heitor Penteado,

17080-565: The victory of Prestes with 57,7% of votes was declared, Vargas and the Liberal Alliance refused to concede defeat, sparking tensions in the country. On July 26, 1930, vice-presidential candidate João Pessoa of the Liberal Alliance was assassinated in Recife , sparking the beginning of the Brazilian Revolution . The 1930 revolution began in Rio Grande do Sul on October 3 at 5:25pm. Osvaldo Aranha telegraphed Juarez Távora to communicate

17220-404: The war, and the number of enterprises (which stood at about 3,000 in 1908) grew by 5,940 between 1915 and 1918. The war was also a stimulus for the diversification of agriculture. Growing wartime demand of the Allies for staple products— for instance, sugar , beans , and raw materials — sparked a new boom for products other than sugar or coffee . Foreign interests, however, continued to control

17360-622: The whole of Brazil". The government censored the press through the Department of Press and Propaganda (DIP), created by Decree-Law No. 1,915 of 27 December 1939. Vargas said in a speech to the Federal Senate on 13 December 1946 regarding the creation of the DIP: ...I shouldn't solve our problems according to the convenience of international propaganda, but on the basis of the convenience of Brazil and America... The excessive diligence of British propaganda repeatedly disrupted my actions. But to

17500-464: Was "A Província de S. Paulo," now O Estado de S. Paulo , founded in 1875 by the historical republicans, including Campos Sales. The primary goal of PRP was to establish a republican federation in Brazil with a high degree of administrative decentralization, which did not exist during the imperial period (1822-1889). Another important demand of the Republicans was the return of taxes collected by

17640-611: Was adopted, and all powers not granted in the Constitution to the Federal Government belonged to the States. It recognized that the central government did not rule at the local level. The Empire of Brazil had not absorbed fully the regional provinces, and now they reasserted themselves. Into the 1920s, the federal government in Rio de Janeiro was dominated and managed by a combination of the more powerful states of São Paulo , Minas Gerais , Rio Grande do Sul , and to

17780-438: Was also helpful; Brazilian goods were simply cheaper in the Brazilian market. The state of São Paulo , with its relatively large capital base, large immigrant population from Southern and Eastern Europe, and wealth of natural resources, led the trend, eclipsing Rio de Janeiro as the center of Brazilian industry. Industrial production, though concentrated in light industry (food processing, small shops, and textiles) doubled during

17920-453: Was also preparing for war. The formation of the operary class takes it's place at the end of 19th century, and it was related with the ongoing changes caused by the expansion of the coffee economy. Because of that expansion, the "progress" of the capitalist economy sufficed the conditions for the establishment of a nucleus of service and fabril workers at São Paulo . Beyond that, many immigrants from Europe had arrived, and between them were

18060-401: Was called the "politics of the governors". Under it, the local oligarchies chose the state governors, who in turn selected the president. This informal but real distribution of power emerged, the so-called politics of the governors, to take shape as the result of armed struggles and bargaining. The populous and prosperous states of Minas Gerais and São Paulo dominated the system and swapped

18200-504: Was centralized in the hands of a locally dominant oligarch known as a coronel, who would dispense favors in return for loyalty. Thus, high illiteracy rates went hand in hand with the absence of universal suffrage by secret ballot and the demand for a free press, independent from the then dominant economic influence. In regions where there was not even the telegraph , far from major centers, the news could take 4 to 6 weeks longer to arrive. In those circumstances, for lack of alternatives, along

18340-510: Was convened in 1934, following the failed Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 : the Assembly enacted a new Constitution and elected Vargas as new President of Brazil, starting the Second Brazilian Republic . Estado Novo (Brazil) The Estado Novo ( lit.   ' New State ' ), or Third Brazilian Republic , began on 10 November 1937, and consolidated Getúlio Vargas ' power. Vargas had assumed leadership of Brazil following

18480-803: Was dissolved on December 2, 1937, during the Estado Novo . PRP was a republican party with legal existence, even during the Empire of Brazil period, founded during the Convention of Itu on April 18, 1873. It was the result of a political fusion between farmers from the Republican or Radical Club, among whom were prominent figures like Américo Brasiliense , Luís Gama , Américo de Campos , and Bernardino de Campos , Prudente de Morais , Campos Sales , Francisco Glicério , Júlio de Mesquita , and Jorge Tibiriçá Piratininga , its first president. At this first party convention, 124 delegates from various cities in

18620-641: Was divided; the Constitutionalist Party of Armando Sales, heir to the Democratic Party, and the Republican Party of São Paulo (PRP), were unable to cooperate because the PRP had not agreed to support Armando Sales' candidacy. On 10 November 1937, Vargas took office through a coup, stating on the radio that the regime intended to "readjust the political organism to the economic needs of the country". Vargas also stated that "when political disputes threaten to degenerate into civil war, it

18760-570: Was just one of the facets, perhaps the best known, of this period." Lawyer Marina Pasquini Toffolli has called the Estado Nova "a dictatorship that spread terror and built barbarism throughout its territory, suppressing all individual guarantees" and noted the dismissal of the federal, state and municipal parliaments, censorship of the press and repression. The first civilian to examine the secret police archives in Rio de Janeiro, American researcher R.S.Rose, collected material in his book One of

18900-479: Was nominal. In reality, the elections were rigged, voters in rural areas were pressured or induced to vote for the chosen candidates of their bosses (see coronelismo ) and, if all those methods did not work, the election results could still be changed by one sided decisions of Congress' verification of powers commission (election authorities in the República Velha were not independent from the executive and

19040-399: Was one reason the Empire's legitimacy foundered, but the Republic did not move to correct the situation. By 1910 there were only 627,000 voters in a population of 22 million. Throughout the 1920s, only between 2.3% and 3.4% of the total population could vote. The instability and violence of the 1890s were related to the absence of consensus among the elites regarding a governmental model, as

19180-481: Was reported. and some critics of the Estado Novo claim that torture occurred throughout Brazil. On 3 October 1931, Vargas said that due to his changes to the Civil Police of the Federal District in his first year in office, the Civil Police of the Federal District "Under the revolutionary government, the Civil Police of the Federal District redeemed itself in the eyes of public opinion; it was, in fact, one of

19320-582: Was the newspaper " Correio Paulistano ", which, during the Second Reign , belonged to the Conservative Party and was destroyed in 1930 with the victory of the 1930 Revolution , but it resumed circulation and finally ceased its activities in the 1960s. Other newspapers that supported PRP were also destroyed in 1930, including "A Plateia", " A Gazeta ," and "Folha da Manhã," the current Folha de S. Paulo . Its members consisted of liberal professionals ( lawyers , doctors , engineers , etc.), known as

19460-474: Was the only response to the coup. It led him to appoint a personal guard, which the people called the "Black Guard". Vargas said in a Revista do Globo interview that the 1938 Integralist coup attempt: "...was organized by the German embassy. The Brazilians served only as instruments in a plan to hand the country over to the German government. Naturally, if it hadn't been for the help of German agents, they would never have carried it out, because they didn't have

19600-403: Was the turning point for the dynamic urban sectors. Wartime conditions prevented Britain from exporting goods to Brazil, thus creating space for Brazil's domestic manufacturing sector to grow. These structural shifts in the Brazilian economy helped to increase the ranks of the new urban middle classes. Meanwhile, Brazil's manufacturers and those employed by them enjoyed these gains at the expense of

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