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67-597: The term refers to both the individual and to the position on the Shuttle crew. The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 states that NASA should provide the "widest practicable and appropriate dissemination of information concerning its activities and the results thereof". The Naugle panel of 1982 concluded that carrying civilians—those not part of the NASA Astronaut Corps —on the Space Shuttle

134-586: A commercial or scientific satellite. On Spacelab and other missions with science components, payload specialists were scientists with expertise in specific experiments. The term also applied to representatives from partner nations who were given the opportunity of a first flight on board of the Space Shuttle (such as Saudi Arabia and Mexico), to Congressmen and the Teacher in Space program. Under Secretary of

201-553: A contracted European Space Agency -chosen payload specialist—control as well, causing conflicts. JSC director Chris Kraft and members of the NASA astronaut corps believed that mission specialists—many with doctoral degrees or other scientific background, and all with full-time astronaut training—could operate all experiments. Rick Chappell, chief scientist of MSFC, believed that the scientific community insisted on its own scientists being able to operate experiments in exchange for support of

268-416: A couple of hundred hours of training over four or five weeks. International or scientific payload specialists were generally assigned a back-up who trained alongside the primary payload specialist and would replace them in the event of illness or other disability. Both primary and backup payload specialists received mission-specific and general training. Michael Lampton estimated that about 20% of his training

335-697: A larger vehicle. Only NASA astronauts piloted the space shuttle, but mission specialist astronauts worried about competing with American and international payload specialists for very limited flight opportunities. In 1984 about 45 mission specialists competed for about 15 seats on the five shuttle flights. Only three payload specialists flew that year, but in 1985 eight of nine shuttle flights carried 15 payload specialists (Walker flying twice), no doubt angering mission specialists. Some payload specialists like Walker and Byron Lichtenberg were rejected as full-time astronauts but flew as payload specialists before many selected as such, and some may have flown without understanding

402-685: A monarchy to rule over the previously decentralised Israelite tribal confederacy. Increasing pressure from the Philistines and other neighboring tribes is said by the Bible to have forced the Israelites to unite as a more singular state. The northern Kingdom of Israel was destroyed in c.  720 BCE by the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its population was forcibly restructured through imperial policy. The southern Kingdom of Judah

469-559: A ninth objective was added: The Act abolished the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), transferring its activities and resources to NASA effective October 1, 1958. The Act also created a Civilian-Military Liaison Committee, later known as the National Aeronautics and Space Council (NASC) , for the purpose of coordinating civilian and military space applications, and keeping NASA and

536-555: A passenger despite being a former Mercury Seven astronaut. A 1986 post- Challenger article in The Washington Post reviewed the issue, reporting that as far back as 1982, NASA was concerned with finding reasonable justifications for flying civilians on the Shuttle as was directed by the Reagan administration. The article says that "A review of records and interviews with past and present NASA and government officials shows

603-648: A phenomenon known in Hebrew as yerida ("descent", in contrast to aliyah , which means "ascent"). Emigrants have various reasons for leaving, but there is generally a combination of economic and political concerns. The main Israeli ethnic and religious groups are as follows: Among the Israeli-born Jewish population, most are descended from Ashkenazi Jews , Mizrahi Jews , Sephardic Jews , Ethiopian Jews , and other Jewish ethnic divisions . Due to

670-607: A suit. In 2007, Ornan's suit was joined by former minister Shulamit Aloni and other activists. In the ruling, Justice Hanan Melcer noted Israel currently considers "citizenship and nationality [to be] separate." The term "Israelite" refers to members of the Jewish tribes and polities of the Iron Age known from the Hebrew Bible and extra-biblical historical and archaeological sources. The term "Israeli", by contrast, refers to

737-548: A while to disguise your initial skepticism about this whole thing'". Merbold said that at JSC he was treated as an intruder. Once payload specialists were assigned to a mission, however, full-time astronauts treated them respectfully and often began long-term friendships. Mullane became less critical of them after his first mission; he and Hartsfield approved of Walker, as did Hoffman of Garn after STS-51-D. The following list are people who were named as backup (also known as alternate) payload specialists. These people typically received

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804-785: Is also a significant African population in the southern Israeli cities of Eilat, Arad and Beer Sheva. Approximately 100–200 refugees from Bosnia , Kosovo , and North Korea live in Israel as refugees, most of them with Israeli resident status. Through the years, the majority of Israelis who emigrated from Israel went to the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. It is currently estimated that there are 330,000 native-born Israelis, including 230,000 Jews, living abroad, or even more. The number of immigrants to Israel who later returned to their home countries or moved elsewhere

871-679: Is also a significant population of Israeli Druze , estimated at 117,500 at the end of 2006. All Druze in British Mandate Palestine became Israeli citizens upon the foundation of the State of Israel. There are about 7,000 Maronite Christian Israelis, living mostly in the Galilee but also in Haifa , Nazareth , and Jerusalem . They are mostly pro-Israeli Lebanese former militia members and their families who fled Lebanon after

938-567: Is disputed and controversial, but it is estimated that at least 16,000 refugees, mainly from Eritrea , Sudan , South Sudan , Ethiopia and the Ivory Coast , reside and work in Israel. A check in late 2011, published in Ynet reported that the number just in Tel Aviv is 40,000, which represents 10 percent of the city's population. The vast majority lives in the southern parts of the city. There

1005-750: Is estimated at 200–400. Most of them came to Israel between 1976 and 1979, after the Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin granted them political asylum. The Vietnamese people living in Israel are Israeli citizens who also serve in the Israel Defense Forces . Today, the majority of the community lives in the Gush Dan area in the center of Israel but also a few dozen Vietnamese-Israelis or Israelis of Vietnamese origin live in Haifa , Jerusalem and Ofakim . The number and status of African refugees in Israel

1072-667: Is estimated that almost 10 percent of the general Israeli population lives abroad, particularly in Russia (with Moscow housing the single largest Israeli community outside of Israel), India , Canada , the United Kingdom , the United States , and throughout Europe. As of 2013, Israel's population is 8 million, of which the Israeli civil government records 75.3% as Jews , 20.7% as non-Jewish Arabs , and 4.0% other. Israel's official census includes Israeli settlers in

1139-413: Is more difficult to calculate. For many years definitive data on Israeli emigration was unavailable. In The Israeli Diaspora sociologist Stephen J. Gold maintains that calculation of Jewish emigration has been a contentious issue, explaining, "Since Zionism, the philosophy that underlies the existence of the Jewish state, calls for return home of the world's Jews, the opposite movement – Israelis leaving

1206-583: The 2000 withdrawal of IDF from South Lebanon . Some, however, are from local Galilean communities such as Jish . There are about 1,000 Coptic Israeli citizens. In September 2014, Israel recognized the "Aramean" ethnic identity of hundreds of the Christian citizens of Israel. This recognition comes after about seven years of activity by the Aramean Christian Foundation in Israel – Aram, led by IDF Major Shadi Khalloul Risho and

1273-737: The Bedouin . Israeli Bedouin include those who live in the north of the country, for the most part in villages and towns, and the Bedouin in the Negev , who are semi-nomadic or live in towns or unrecognized Bedouin villages . In 1999, 110,000 Bedouin lived in the Negev, 50,000 in the Galilee and 10,000 in the central region of Israel. As of 2013, the Negev Bedouin number 200,000–210,000. There

1340-571: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The Act, which followed close on the heels of the Soviet Union 's launch of Sputnik , was drafted by the United States House Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration and on July 29, 1958 was signed by President Eisenhower . Prior to enactment, the responsibility for space exploration was deemed primarily a military venture, in line with

1407-541: The United Kingdom 2001 Census , as many as 11,892 Israelis lived in the United Kingdom in 2001. The majority live in London . In 2013 a three-judge panel of the Supreme Court of Israel 's headed by Court President Asher Grunis rejected an appeal requesting that state-issued identification cards state the nationality of citizens as "Israeli" rather than their religion of origin. In his opinion, Grunis stated that it

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1474-571: The citizens and nationals of the State of Israel . The country's populace is composed primarily of Jews and Arabs , who respectively account for 75 percent and 20 percent of the national figure, followed by other ethnic and religious minorities , who account for 5 percent. Early Israeli culture was largely defined by communities of the Jewish diaspora who had made aliyah to British Palestine from Europe , Western Asia , and North Africa in

1541-451: The former Soviet Union most of whom are Zera Yisrael (descendants of Jews) who are Russians , Ukrainians , Moldovans and Belarusians , who were eligible to immigrate due to having, or being married to somebody who has, at least one Jewish grandparent. In addition, a certain number of former Soviet citizens, primarily women of Russian and Ukrainian ethnicity, immigrated to Israel after marrying Arab citizens of Israel who went to study in

1608-643: The occupied territories (referred to as " disputed " by Israel). 280,000 Israeli settlers live in settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank , 190,000 in East Jerusalem , and 20,000 in the Golan Heights . Among Jews, 70.3% were born in Israel ( sabras ), mostly from the second or third generation of their family in the country, and the rest are Jewish immigrants . Of the Jewish immigrants, 20.5% were from Europe and

1675-908: The Air Force Edward C. Aldridge Jr. was offered a seat to improve relations between NASA and the United States Air Force . NASA expected to also fly "citizen astronauts", ordinary Americans who could describe space to others. In August 1984 President Ronald Reagan announced the Teacher in Space Project , the first such program. NASA expected to fly reporters ( Journalist in Space Project ), entertainers, and creative types later. NASA categorized full-time international astronauts as payload specialists unless they received NASA mission specialist training, which some did. Bilodeau estimated that payload specialists would receive

1742-532: The Americas, and 9.2% were from Asia, Africa, and Middle Eastern countries . Nearly half of all Israeli Jews are descended from immigrants from the European Jewish diaspora. Approximately the same number are descended from immigrants from Arab countries, Iran, Turkey and Central Asia. Over 200,000 are of Ethiopian and Indian-Jewish descent. The official Israel Central Bureau of Statistics estimate of

1809-702: The Arab citizens of Israel are Sunni Muslim, while 9% of them are Christian , and 7.1% of them are Druze . As of 2013, the Arab population of Israel amounts to 1,658,000, about 20.7% of the population. This figure include 209,000 Arabs (14% of the Israeli Arab population) in East Jerusalem, also counted in the Palestinian statistics, although 98 percent of East Jerusalem Palestinians have either Israeli residency or Israeli citizenship. According to

1876-554: The Department of Defense "fully and currently informed" of each other's space activities. To this day, the United States has coordinated but separate military and civilian space programs, with much of the former involved in launching military and surveillance craft and, prior to the Partial Test Ban Treaty , planning counter-measures to the anticipated Soviet launch of nuclear warheads into space. In addition,

1943-620: The Former Soviet Union such as Tatars , Armenians , and Georgians . In Israel, there are also a few thousand Circassians , living mostly in Kfar Kama (2,000) and Reyhaniye (1,000). These two villages were a part of a greater group of Circassian villages around the Golan Heights . The Circassians in Israel enjoy, like Druzes , a status aparte . Male Circassians (at their leader's request) are mandated for military service, while females are not. Non-Jewish immigrants from

2010-937: The Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics census in 2010, the Arab population in Israel lives in 134 Arabic towns and villages ; around 44% of them live in towns, while 48% of them in villages with the status of Local council , and around 4% live in small villages that are part of Regional council . The Arab population in Israel is located in five main areas: Galilee (54.6% of total Israeli Arabs), Triangle (23.5% of total Israeli Arabs), Golan Heights , East Jerusalem , and Northern Negev (13.5% of total Israeli Arabs). Around 8.4% of Israeli Arabs live in officially mixed Jewish-Arab cities (excluding Arab residents in East Jerusalem), in Haifa , Lod , Ramle , Jaffa - Tel Aviv , Acre , Nof HaGalil , and Ma'alot Tarshiha . The Arab citizens of Israel also include

2077-917: The Israeli Christian Recruitment Forum, headed by Father Gabriel Naddaf of the Greek-Orthodox Church and Major Ihab Shlayan. The Aramean ethnic identity will now encompass all the Christian Eastern Syriac churches in Israel, including the Maronite Church , Greek Orthodox Church, Greek Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church and Syriac Orthodox Church. There are around 1,000 Assyrians living in Israel, mostly in Jerusalem and Nazareth . Assyrians are an Aramaic -speaking, Eastern Rite Christian minority who are descended from

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2144-579: The Israeli Jewish population does not include those Israeli citizens, mostly descended from immigrants from the Soviet Union , who are registered as "others", or their immediate family members. Defined as non-Jews and non-Arabs, they make up about 3.5% of Israelis (350,000), and were eligible for Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return. Israel's official language is Hebrew , which serves as

2211-413: The Jewish state to reside elsewhere – clearly presents an ideological and demographic problem." Among the most common reasons for emigration of Israelis from Israel are most often due to Israel's ongoing security issues, economic constraints, economic characteristics, disappointment in the Israeli government, as well as the excessive role of religion in the lives of Israelis. Many Israelis immigrated to

2278-593: The Jews to develop autonomous institutions such as the Histadrut and the Knesset. The resulting influx of Jewish immigrants, as well as the creation of many new settlements, was crucial for the functioning of these new institutions in what would, on 14 May 1948, become the State of Israel . By 1960, 25% of Israelis were Holocaust survivors. The largest cities in the country Haifa , Tel Aviv , and Jerusalem are also

2345-570: The Memorial for the eight, was established in 1971 by a group of Finnish Christian Israelis, though today most members are Israeli, and predominantly Hebrew-speaking. The Samaritans are an ethnoreligious group of the Levant . Ancestrally, they are descended from a group of Israelite inhabitants who have connections to ancient Samaria from the beginning of the Babylonian captivity up to

2412-522: The Soviet model that had launched the first orbital satellite. In large measure, the Act was prompted by the lack of response by a US military infrastructure that seemed incapable of keeping up the space race. The original 1958 act charged the new Agency with conducting the aeronautical and space activities of the United States "so as to contribute materially to one or more of the following objectives:" In 2012,

2479-555: The Space Shuttle program. While mission specialists could operate most experiments, "Since we could take passengers, why not take at least a couple of passengers who had spent their whole careers doing the kind of research they were going to do in space?" he said. During the Space Shuttle design process , some said that crews should be no larger than four people; both for safety, and because a commander, pilot, mission specialist, and payload specialist were sufficient for any mission. NASA expected to fly more payload specialists so it designed

2546-408: The United States throughout the period of the declaration of the state of Israel and until today. Today, the descendants of these people are known as Israeli-Americans. According to the 2000 United States Census , 106,839 Americans also hold Israeli citizenship, but the number of Americans of Israeli descent is around half a million. Moscow has the largest single Israeli expatriate community in

2613-541: The agency's director of crew training Jim Bilodeau said in April 1981 "we'll be able to take everybody but the walking wounded". Payload specialists were not required to be United States citizens , but had to be approved by NASA and undergo rigorous but shorter training. In contrast, a Space Shuttle mission specialist was selected as a NASA astronaut first and then assigned to a mission. Payload specialists on early missions were technical experts to join specific payloads such as

2680-821: The ancient Mesopotamians . The old Syriac Orthodox monastery of Saint Mark lies in Jerusalem. Other than followers of the Syriac Orthodox Church, there are also followers of the Assyrian Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church living in Israel. The African Hebrew Israelite Nation of Jerusalem is a small religious community whose members believe they are descended from the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. Most of

2747-626: The beginning of the Common Era . Population estimates made in 2007 show that of the 712 Samaritans, half live in Holon in Israel and half at Mount Gerizim in the West Bank. The Holon community holds Israeli citizenship, while the Gerizim community resides at an Israeli-controlled enclave ( Kiryat Luza ), holding dual Israeli-Palestinian citizenship. The number of Vietnamese people in Israel

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2814-546: The citizens of the modern State of Israel, regardless of them being Jewish, Arabs, or of any other ethnicity. The modern State of Israel revived an old name known from the Hebrew Bible and from historical sources, that of the Iron Age Kingdom of Israel. The Bible differentiates between a period of tribal rule among the "children of Israel"; a Kingdom of Israel uniting all twelve biblical Israelite tribes, with

2881-566: The civilian program's controversial background, with different groups pushing for different approaches". The article concludes with: Author Tom Wolfe , who chronicled the early days of the space program in The Right Stuff , wrote after the Challenger explosion that support for the citizen program, and therefore McAuliffe's place aboard the ill-fated shuttle, was part of an insiders' battle. NASA civilians, pitting themselves against

2948-433: The common capital known as the City of David (Jerusalem); and a period in which the northern tribes split away to form an independent Kingdom of Israel , while the southern tribes became part of the Kingdom of Judah . Archaeological research only partially agrees with the biblical narrative. According to the biblical account, the United Monarchy was formed when there was a large popular expression in favour of introducing

3015-632: The cultural heritage of many immigrant groups, is popular. There is also flourishing modern dance. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of 2014, 75% of Israelis were Jewish by religion (adherents of Judaism ), 17.5% were Muslims , 2% Christian , 1.6% Druze and the remaining 3.9% (including immigrants) were not classified by religion. Roughly 12% of Israeli Jews defined as haredim (ultra-orthodox religious); an additional 9% are "religious"; 35% consider themselves "traditionalists" (not strictly adhering to Jewish religious law ); and 43% are "secular" (termed " hiloni "). Among

3082-613: The early 1960s, moved to Liberia for a few years, and then immigrated to Israel. There are about 4,000–10,000 Armenian citizens of Israel (not including Armenian Jews). They live mostly in Jerusalem, including the Armenian Quarter , but also in Tel Aviv, Haifa and Jaffa. Their religious activities center around the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem as well as churches in Jerusalem, Haifa and Jaffa. Although Armenians of Old Jerusalem have Israeli identity cards, they are officially holders of Jordanian passports. A number of immigrants also belong to various non-Slavic ethnic groups from

3149-445: The first being Claude Nicollier . Those skeptical of the payload specialist program were less critical of scientists and experts like Walker than non-expert passengers ("part-timers", according to Mike Mullane , who called the program public relations-driven and immoral in Riding Rockets ) like Garn, US Representative Bill Nelson , and other civilians such as Teacher in Space Christa McAuliffe . They saw Senator John Glenn as

3216-421: The first century CE. Two Jewish revolts, the second one ending in 135 CE, led to the large-scale decimation of the Jewish population in Judea and the end of any type of Jewish territorial self-rule in the southern Levant for many centuries to come. Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1516 until it was taken by British forces in 1918. The British establishment of colonial political boundaries allowed

3283-555: The former Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s. The total number of those primarily of Slavic ancestry among Israeli citizens is around 300,000. Although most Finns in Israel are either Finnish Jews or their descendants, a small number of Finnish Christians moved to Israel in the 1940s before the independence of the state and have since gained citizenship. For the most part the original Finnish settlers intermarried with other Israeli communities, and therefore remain very small in number. A moshav near Jerusalem named " Yad HaShmona ", meaning

3350-478: The historically large Mizrahi population and decades of ethnic intermixing, over 50% of Israel's current Jewish population is of at least partial Mizrahi descent. The CBS traces the paternal country of origin of Israeli Jews as of 2010 is as follows. A large part of Mandate -period Arab Palestinians remained within Israel's borders following the 1948 exodus and are the largest group of Arabic-speaking and culturally Arab citizens of Israel. The vast majority of

3417-467: The language of government and is spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority and by some members of the Mizrahi Jewish community. English is studied in school and is spoken by the majority of the population as a second language. Other languages spoken in Israel include Russian, Yiddish , Spanish, Ladino , Amharic , Armenian, Romanian, and French. In recent decades, between 650,000 and 1,300,000 Israelis have emigrated,

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3484-475: The late-19th and early-20th centuries. Later Jewish immigration from Ethiopia , the states of the former Soviet Union , and the Americas introduced new cultural elements to Israeli society and have had a profound impact on modern Israeli culture. Since Israel's independence in 1948, Israelis and people of Israeli descent have had a considerable diaspora , which largely overlaps with the Jewish diaspora but also with that of other ethnic and religious groups; it

3551-427: The level of danger. Many astronauts worried that without years of training together they would not be able to trust payload specialists in an emergency; Henry Hartsfield described their concern as "If you had a problem on orbit, am I going to have to babysit this person?" NASA's preference for its own training caused the agency to offer some international payload specialists the opportunity to become mission specialists,

3618-496: The major cultural centers, known for art museums, and many towns and kibbutzim have smaller high-quality museums. Israeli music is very versatile and combines elements of both western and eastern, religious and secular music. It tends to be very eclectic and contains a wide variety of influences from the Diaspora and more modern cultural importation: Hassidic songs, Asian and Arab pop, especially by Yemenite singers, and Israeli hip hop or heavy metal . Folk dancing, which draws upon

3685-493: The mission. Payload specialists were flown from 1983 ( STS-9 ) to 2003 ( STS-107 ). The last flown payload specialist was the first Israeli astronaut, Ilan Ramon , who was killed in the Columbia disaster on mission STS-107 with the rest of the crew. Within NASA, Johnson Space Center (JSC) controlled crewed spaceflight by selecting professional, full-time astronauts. The payload specialist program gave Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)—which supervised Spacelab, including

3752-400: The new law made extensive modifications to the patent law and provided that both employee inventions as well as private contractor innovations brought about through space travel would be subject to government ownership. By making the government the exclusive provider of space transport, the act effectively discouraged the private development of space travel. This situation endured until the law

3819-415: The obvious subjects" for Rhea Seddon 's echocardiograph on STS-51-D . "We really didn't have much of a choice in whether we were going to be subjects or not. 'You're a payload specialist; you’re going to be a subject.'" Besides his own electrophoresis work, Walker operated an unrelated experiment for the University of Alabama Birmingham , and helped build homemade repair tools for a satellite launched on

3886-435: The over 5,000 members live in Dimona, Israel although there are additional, smaller, groups in Arad , Mitzpe Ramon , and the Tiberias area. At least some of them consider themselves to be Jewish, but Israeli authorities do not accept them as such, nor are their religious practices consistent with "mainstream Jewish tradition." The group, which consists of African Americans and their descendants, originated in Chicago in

3953-443: The period of the declaration of the state of Israel and until today. Today, the descendants of these people are known as Israeli-Canadians. According to the Canada 2006 Census as many as 21,320 Israelis lived in Canada in 2006. Many Israelis immigrated to the United Kingdom throughout and since the period of the declaration of the state of Israel . Today, the descendants of these people are known as Israeli-British. According to

4020-400: The professional astronauts, used the program for the "dismantling of Astropower," which Wolfe described as "the political grip the original breed of fighter-pilot test-pilot astronauts had on NASA." Payload specialists were aware of full-time astronauts' dislike of the program. Garn advised STS-51-D colleague Jeffrey A. Hoffman to not play poker because, the astronaut quoted, "'It took you

4087-403: The same training as the "prime" crew payload specialist, but did not fly on the mission. However, many would go on to fly on other missions as "prime" crew payload or mission specialists. All were international astronauts. National Aeronautics and Space Act The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 ( Pub. L.   85–568 ) is the United States federal statute that created

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4154-410: The world, with 80,000 Israeli citizens living in the city as of 2014, almost all of them native Russian-speakers. Many Israeli cultural events are hosted for the community, and many live part of the year in Israel. (To cater to the Israeli community, Israeli cultural centres are located in Moscow , Saint Petersburg , Novosibirsk and Yekaterinburg .) Many Israelis immigrated to Canada throughout

4221-415: Was conquered by the Neo-Babylonian Empire (586 BCE), inherited by the Achaemenid Empire , conquered by Alexander the Great (332 BCE), ruled by the resulting Hellenistic empires, from which it regained authonomy and eventually independence under the Hasmoneans , conquered by the Roman Republic in 63 BCE, ruled by the client kings of the Herodian dynasty , and finally transformed into a Roman province during

4288-539: Was general, including firefighter school, capsule communicator duty, and use of Personal Egress Air Packs and the space toilet . He described training for Spacelab 1 as "going back to graduate school but majoring in everything"; as the first mission it tested Spacelab's versatility in "medical, metallurgical, remote sensing , astronomy, microgravity, lots more". Payload specialists operated experiments, and participated in experiments needing human subjects. Charles D. Walker recalled that Senator Jake Garn "and I were

4355-594: Was modified by the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 , enacted to allow civilian use of NASA systems in launching space vehicles. The phrase "We came in peace for all mankind", inscribed on a plaque left on the Moon by the crew of Apollo 11 , is derived from the Act's declaration of NASA's policy and purpose: The Act was subsequently amended to remove gender bias , so that this policy statement now reads: Israelis Israelis ( Hebrew : יִשְׂרְאֵלִים‎ , romanized :  Yīśreʾēlīm ; Arabic : إسرائيليون , romanized :  Isrāʾīliyyūn ) are

4422-475: Was not within the court's purview to determine new categories of ethnicity or nationhood. The court's decision responded to a petition by Uzzi Ornan, who refused to be identified as Jewish in 1948 at the foundation of the state of Israel, claiming instead that he was "Hebrew." This was permitted by Israeli authorities at the time. However, by 2000, Ornan wanted to register his nationality as "Israeli". The Interior Ministry refused to allow this, prompting Ornan to file

4489-415: Was part of "the purpose of adding to the public's understanding of space flight". Payload specialists usually fly for a single specific mission. Chosen outside the standard NASA mission specialist selection process, they are exempt from certain NASA requirements such as colorblindness. Roger K. Crouch and Ulf Merbold are examples of those who flew in space despite not meeting NASA physical requirements;

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