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41-512: Pacha Kamaq ('Earth-Maker') was considered the creator god by the people who lived in this part of Peru before the Inca conquest. The Inca received him into their pantheon , but he was never an equal of Viracocha , whom they viewed as more powerful. The myths that survive of Pacha Kamaq are sparse and confused: some accounts, for example, identify him as Manco Cápac 's cowardly brother Ayca, while others say that he, Manco Cápac and Viracocha were

82-528: A 1,000 year-old cemetery in this area. Director of the Ychsma Project Professor Peter Eeckhout reported that the human remains were massively buried with various items and ceramics. Physical anthropologists headed by Dr. Lawrence Owens specified the mummies. The Huari ( c.  600–800 CE) reconstructed the city, probably using it as an administrative center. A number of Huari-influenced designs appear on

123-490: A cemetery that was set apart for the mamacuna (Virgins for the Sun), women who had important status. These women wove textiles for priests, and brewed corn beer which was used in Inca festivals. The women were sacrificed in the highest ritual. They were strangled with cotton garrote – some women still had the cotton twisted around their neck when their bodies were discovered – then wrapped in fine cloth and buried in stone tombs. Each

164-453: A different conclusion after his work at the site. Eekhout and his team found that the structures lacked the features that characterized religious centers of the time. He concluded that the structures were used as palaces for the Ychsma (EESH-ma), the rulers of Pachacamac. In 1938, an archaeologist found a 7.6-foot-long (2.34 meters) idol, which has a diameter of 5.1 inches (13 centimeters), at

205-489: A number of the valley's existing villages to be abandoned, with one partially destroyed to make room for a Wari administrative center known as Jincamocco. The Wari introduced terracing agriculture to the area, shifting the staple crops of the valley from tubers to both tubers and maize . Wari storage structures have been found in the area, seemingly "paired" with some of remaining villages' agricultural sites; these were likely used to store both staple crops. Wari occupation of

246-472: A powerful driving force in the social life of the Wari. Multiple instances of camelid remains found in the province of Cotocotuyoc point toward the usage of such animals as symbols of social capital, especially because they were uncommon in the area. Some camelid remains were found devoid of cut marks and stacked on top of human bones, leading researchers to think they were intentionally not fully eaten to display

287-564: A separate fruit or vegetable plant . The woman's second son, Wichama , escaped, so Pacha Kamaq killed the woman. Wichama sought revenge and drove Pacha Kamaq into the ocean . Tahuantinsuyu adopted Pacha Kamaq when they incorporated the Ichma into their empire. In late Inca mythology he was the father of Inti and Mama Killa , and husband of Mama Pacha . The Wari , the Pachacamac empire , Chancay , Chimor and Ichma possessed

328-585: A young camelid and thirty-two guinea pigs were found buried in a "lineage house" in the city of Conchopata, ten kilometers from the capital city of Wari. The complete nature of the remains, as well as the age of the camelid, point toward the animals being sacrificed at the end of the Ayachuco valley's rainy season. The Wari are particularly known for their textiles, which were well-preserved in desert burials. The standardization of textile motifs serves as artistic evidence of state control over elite art production in

369-402: Is believed to have been driven by religious conversion, the spread of agricultural knowledge (specifically terrace agriculture ), or military conquest. Militarism and the associated threat/violence that comes with it has consistently played a part in the expansion and maintenance of ancient empires with Wari being of no exception. Evidence of the violence present in Wari culture is most visible at

410-453: Is in almost direct contrast with Tiwanaku where there was a more open architectural plan that could easily accommodate multiple people at once. A form of architecture distinctive to Wari was the use of D-shaped structures. These structures were commonly used for temples and were relatively small at only 10 meters. Using administrative centers like their temples, the Wari greatly influenced the surrounding countryside. Scholars were able to look at

451-418: Is in the city of Conchopata where the remains of more than 200 individuals have been found. This city is located about 10 km from the capital city. Prior to its excavation, the city was believed to be that of potters, but the burials studied instead showed that there were servants, middle-class, elite, and even perhaps low kings or governors occupying the city. Further investigations on a random selection of

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492-542: Is still a debate whether the Wari dominated the Central Coast or the polities on the Central Coast were commercial states capable of interacting with the Wari people without being politically dominated by them. Archaeological evidence points toward the Wari empire taking control of a number of small villages in Peru's Carahuarazo Valley in approximately 600 A.D., during the empire's initial expansion. The incursion caused

533-661: The Battle of Cajamarca , Francisco Pizarro sent his brother Hernando Pizarro , and fourteen horsemen, to Pachacamac to collect its gold riches. According to Cieza, the priests learned of the Spanish defilement of the Cuzco temple, and "ordered the virgin mamaconas to leave the Temple of the Sun", from where they say the priests also removed more than four hundred cargas of gold. They hid

574-622: The Late Intermediate Period is said to begin. Little is known about the details of the Wari administrative structure, as they did not appear to use a form of written record. Instead, they used a tool called khipu , or "knot record." Despite being most widely known for its use in Inca accounting, many scholars believe that the earliest use of it as a recording tool happened in Wari. Archaeologists, however, still rely on homogeneous administrative architecture and evidence of significant social stratification to help better understand

615-431: The oracle , whom the Inca presumably consulted. The Inca built five additional buildings, including a temple to the sun on the main square. Archaeologists believe pilgrims may have played a part in life at Pachacamac for a couple of thousand years before the Inca claimed the site as part of their empire. At sites like Pachacamac, the Spanish used local resentment of the Inca as a tactic for overthrowing Inca rule. After

656-511: The Carahuarazo Valley lasted until roughly 800 A.D., leading to the abandonment of most of the valley's sites after that time. Early on, the Wari expanded their territory to include the ancient oracle center of Pachacamac , though it seems to have remained largely autonomous. Later, the Wari became dominant in much of the territory of the earlier Moche and later Chimu cultures. The reason for this expansion has been debated; it

697-549: The Inca started their conquest, they had their own creation god, Viracocha . However, out of respect for the religion of their conquered people, the Inca entered Pacha Kamaq into their religion, but Pacha Kamaq and Viracocha were not equals, Viracocha was believed to be more powerful. Still, Pachacamac was allowed an unusual amount of independence from the Inca Empire. By the time the Tawantinsuyu (Inca Empire) invaded

738-409: The Inca to reconstruct some of the architecture of the Wari. Along the Inca highway system, several Wari provincial sites were found, suggesting that the Wari used a similar road network. They also created new fields with terraced field technology, which the Inca also drew inspiration from. Based on remains from multiple Wari sites, archaeologists have determined that feasts and offerings of food were

779-608: The Lima culture (3rd to 7th centuries AD). Most of the common buildings and temples were built c. 800-1450 CE, shortly before the arrival and conquest by the Inca Empire . Archaeologists have uncovered multiple grave sites. These sites may date to different periods of Pachacamac's history are located in different parts of the city. In the Southeastern part area, in the Temple of Inti (The Inca Sun God), archeologists have found

820-527: The Painted Temple, an object that was allegedly destroyed by Hernando Pizarro. Carbon-14 dating found that the idol dated to about A.D. 760 to 876, the time of the Wari Empire and that it had once been painted with cinnabar. The Temple of the Sun (seen below) is 30,000m squared in size and is in the shape of a trapezoid. It has the common step pyramid architecture which forms terraces around

861-581: The Temple of the Sun and many other pyramids at Pachacamac have been irreversibly damaged by looting and the El Niño weather phenomenon. The Old Temple, also called the Temple of Pachacamac, is the oldest building in Pachacamac. It is built on a rocky promontory and is characterized by the massive use of small bricks of raw adobe dated to the Early Intermediate period, under the influence of

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902-459: The Wari state. Surviving textiles include tapestries, hats and tunics for high-ranking officials. There are between six and nine miles of thread in each tunic, and they often feature highly abstracted versions of typical Andean artistic motifs, such as the Staff God . It is possible that these abstract designs served "a mysterious or esoteric code to keep out uninitiated foreign subjects" and that

943-520: The World"; also Pacharurac ) was the deity worshipped in the city of Pachacamac (modern-day Peru ) by the Ichma . Pacha Kamaq was believed to have created the first man and woman , but forgot to give them food and the man died. The woman cursed Pacha Kamaq, accusing him of neglect, and Pacha Kamaq made her fertile. Later Pacha Kamaq killed her son and cut the corpse into pieces, each of which became

984-411: The architecture of Tiwanaku , which is believed to have been a more federalized state by some scholars (such as John W. Janusek). Wari architecture was most often made of rough fieldstones that had been coated in white plaster. The compounds were usually large, rectangular enclosures with no windows, just a few entries, and the sites had no central place for people to gather for rituals or ceremonies. This

1025-539: The area, the valleys of the Rímac and Lurín had a small state which the people called Ichma . They used Pachacamac primarily as a religious site for the veneration of Pacha Kamaq , the creator god. The Ichma joined the Incan Empire along with Pachacamac. The Inca maintained the site as a religious shrine and allowed the Pachacamac priests to continue functioning independently of the Inca priesthood. This included

1066-537: The burials from the site have shown that 26 percent of both male and female adult crania studied had at least one posterior wound, while only females had been subject to anterior wounds. The different levels of violence based on sex is evidence of some type of systematic hierarchy. During its expansion period, the Wari state established architecturally distinctive administrative centers in many of its provinces, but they often did not have formal planning as many other Andean cities did. These centers are clearly different from

1107-432: The city of Conchopata. As a result of centuries of drought, the Wari culture began to deteriorate around 800 AD. Archeologists have determined that the city of Wari was dramatically depopulated by 1000 AD, although it continued to be occupied by a small number of descendant groups. Buildings in Wari and in other government centers had doorways that were deliberately blocked up, as if the Wari intended to return, someday when

1148-498: The city of Pachacamac at some point but it is unknown if any other peoples, apart from the Ichma, worshipped the Pacha Kamaq deity. Wari culture The Wari ( Spanish : Huari ) were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru , from about 500 to 1000 AD. Wari , as the former capital city was called, is located 11 km (6.8 mi) north-east of

1189-513: The complex sociopolitical hierarchy of Wari. The discovery in early 2013 of an undisturbed royal tomb, El Castillo de Huarmey , offers new insight into the social and political influence of the Wari during this period. The variety and extent of the burial items accompanying the three royal women indicate a culture with significant material wealth and the power to dominate a significant part of northern coastal Peru for many decades. Another example of burials helping to establish social stratification

1230-640: The feast's host's wealth, in a process known as ritual wasteful consumption. The Wari worshipped the Staff god , a chief deity in many Andean cultures. Some of the oldest depictions of the Staff god appear on Wari textiles and pottery urns, estimated to be over 3,000 years old. Some scholars believe that the Wari Staff god was a predecessor of the three Incan principle gods, Sun, Moon, and Thunder. The Wari practiced animal sacrifice. Complete skeletal remains of

1271-425: The geometric distortions made the wearer's chest appear larger to reflect their high rank. The Wari also produced highly sophisticated metalwork and ceramics, with similar designs to the textiles. The most common metals used were silver and copper, though gold Wari artifacts also survive. The most common metal objects were qiru , bowls, jewelry, mummy bundle masks, mantle pins, and sheet figures who demonstrate how

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1312-610: The late 1300s and the mid-1400s. The three most famous pyramids are all found in the sacred sector (the first sector). These are the Painted Temple, the Temple of the Sun, and the Old Temple of Pachacamac. According to Peter Eekhout, an archaeologist who studied and excavated the site of Pachacamac, "For decades most scholars thought the pyramids (from the second section) were religious "embassies" that housed delegations from far-off communities who came to worship, bring tribute, and make offerings to Pachacamac". However, Eekhout came to

1353-573: The modern city of Ayacucho , Peru. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands and coast of modern Peru . The best-preserved remnants, beside the Wari Ruins , are the recently discovered Northern Wari ruins near the city of Chiclayo , and Cerro Baúl in Moquegua . Also well-known are the Wari ruins of Pikillaqta ("Flea Town"), a short distance south-east of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca . However, there

1394-403: The rains returned. By the time this happened, though, the Wari had faded from history. In the meantime, the dwindling residents of the Wari cities ceased all major construction. Archaeological evidence shows significant levels of interpersonal violence, suggesting that warfare and raiding increased amongst rival groups upon the collapse of the Wari state structure. With the collapse of the Wari,

1435-597: The sea by her hero-son Wichama , after which Pachacamac gave up the struggle and contented himself by becoming the supreme god of fish. In the 1890s archaeologists first began exploring Pachacamac. They found many enormous buildings and burial sites that had been previously looted. The first (sacred) section of the site includes temples of religious significance and a large cemetery. The second section includes several buildings which are mainly secular pyramids. In this complex of buildings there were mud-brick stepped pyramids with ramps and plazas. These buildings are dated between

1476-411: The sole three sons of Inti , the sun god . Another story says that he made the first man and the first woman, but forgot to give them food – and when the man died and the woman prayed over Pachacamac's head, to his father Inti to make her the mother of all the peoples of earth, Pachacamac was furious. One by one, as the children were born, he tried to kill them – only to be beaten and to be thrown into

1517-451: The structure. This temple has been dated to the time of Inca control over Pachacamac. Some archaeologists believe human sacrifices may have taken place at this the Temple. Sacrifices of women and children were found in an Inca cemetery within a portion of the structure. Burial goods found with the sacrifices point to the sacrifices originating from coastal societies. Unfortunately archaeologists are limited in their knowledge of this site because

1558-536: The structures and on the ceramics and textiles found in the cemeteries of this period. After the collapse of the Huari empire, Pachacamac continued to grow as a religious center. The majority of the common architecture and temples were built during this later stage ( c.  800–1450 CE). The Inca Empire invaded Pachacamac and took over the site around 1470. For the Inca, Pachacamac was extremely important to religion as well as an important administration center. When

1599-531: The treasures and it has not appeared to this day. Hernando departed Cajamarca on 5 January 1533, and returned on 14 April 1533, after defiling the temple. On the return trip through the Jauja Valley , he accepted the surrender of Chalcuchimac . "In a few years the walls of the temple were pulled down by the Spanish settlers, who found there a convenient quarry for their own edifices." Pacha Kamaq Pachacamac or Pacha Kamaq ( Quechua , "Creator of

1640-465: The tunics were worn. Ceramics were typically polychrome and frequently depicted food and animals. Conchopata appears to have been the ceramic center of Wari culture given the high quantities of pottery tools, firing rooms, pit kilns , potsherds , and ceramic molds. In one of the D-shaped temples at Conchopata, there were large smashed chicha vessels on the floor and human heads placed as offerings as

1681-422: Was surrounded by offerings from the highlands of Peru, such as coca, quinoa, and cayenne peppers. In 2012, Belgian archeologists found a 1,000 year-old tomb in front of Pachacamac containing over 80 skeletons and mummies, many of which were infants. The tomb contained offerings such as ceramic vessels, copper and gold alloy objects, wooden masks, and dogs and guinea pigs. In 2019, archaeologists have found

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