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124-486: There is no agreed upon consensus regarding the origins of the word pachuca . It has been loosely traced to pachoa ('strait', 'opening'), pachoacan ('place of government', 'place of silver and gold') and patlachuican ('place of factories', 'place of tears'). The official name of Pachuca is Pachuca de Soto in honor of congressman Manuel Fernando Soto, who is credited with the founding of Hidalgo state. Its nickname of La Bella Airosa ("the airy, beautiful") comes from

248-487: A dialect continuum that is clearly demarcated from its closest relative, Mazahua . For this article, the latter approach will be followed. Dialectologists tend to group the languages into three main groups that reflect historical relationships among the dialects: Northwestern Otomi spoken in the Mezquital Valley and surrounding areas of Hidalgo, Queretaro and Northern Mexico State, Southwestern Otomi spoken in

372-658: A city, however, would lag behind other places in the region such as Tulancingo , Tula and Atotonilco El Grande , but the archeological sites here were on the trade routes among these larger cities. After the Teotihuacan era, the area was dominated by the Chichimecas with their capital in Xaltocan , who called the area around Pachuca Njunthé. Later, the Chichimecas would found the dominion of Cuauhtitlán pushing

496-541: A few in the world. The Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo was constructed over the old Hospital de San Juan de Dios. It is the oldest educational institution in Hidalgo, brought into being at the same time as the state. The school was originally established as the Instituto Literario y Escuela de Artes y Oficios (Literary Institute and School of Arts and Letters) in 1869. The school was initially in

620-402: A formative which is either a verbal prefix or a proclitic depending on analysis. These proclitics can also precede nonverbal predicates. The dialects of Toluca and Ixtenco distinguish the present , preterit , perfect , imperfect , future , pluperfect , continuative , imperative , and two subjunctives . Mezquital Otomi has additional moods. On transitive verbs, the person of the object

744-465: A grammar of Otomi, but no copies have survived. He is the author of an anonymous dictionary of Otomi (manuscript 1640). In the latter half of the eighteenth century, an anonymous Jesuit priest wrote the grammar Luces del Otomi (which is, strictly speaking, not a grammar but a report on research about Otomi ). Neve y Molina wrote a dictionary and a grammar. During the colonial period, many Otomis learned to read and write their language. Consequently,

868-477: A large football stadium called El Huracán (The Hurricane). The local team has won eight national and international titles here since it was built. The city proper has a population (2005) of 267,751 which is 97% of the population of the municipality. The Pachuca zona metropolitana (ZM) is one of the 56 officially defined areas for the 2005 Census (2010 not released) consisting of the municipalities of Pachuca de Soto, Real del Monte, and Mineral de la Reforma making

992-688: A largely forgotten immigrant story. In the early 19th century, miners in Cornwall were enduring economic hardships. Ships carrying 125 passengers and some 1,500 tons of equipment sailed out of Falmouth, Cornwall , landing in Veracruz three months later. The treacherous 500-kilometre (300 mi) trek inland killed about half of the miners and their family members, many succumbing to malaria and yellow fever . Those who made it settled in Pachuca and Real del Monte. The immigrants brought technology, notably

1116-487: A leading advocate for the marking of tone, arguing that because tone is an integrated element of the language's grammatical and lexical systems, the failure to indicate it would lead to ambiguity. Bernard (1980) on the other hand, has argued that native speakers prefer a toneless orthography because they can almost always disambiguate using context, and because they are often unaware of the significance of tone in their language, and consequently have difficulty learning to apply

1240-616: A number of subsequent uses. It had greatly deteriorated, until recently restored to house the Centro Cultural Hidalgo. Behind the church is the Chapel of Nuestra Señora de la Luz. Built between the 17th and 18th century, it contains the only Churrigueresque altar in the city. This altar also contains the remains of the Count of Regla, Pedro Romero de Terreros. The Museum of Photography and Photographic Library of INAH , and

1364-741: A period of geographical expansion as the Spaniards employed Otomi warriors in their expeditions of conquest into northern Mexico. During and after the Mixtón rebellion , in which Otomi warriors fought for the Spanish, Otomis settled areas in Querétaro (where they founded the city of Querétaro ) and Guanajuato which previously had been inhabited by nomadic Chichimecs . Because Spanish colonial historians such as Bernardino de Sahagún used primarily Nahua speakers primarily as sources for their histories of

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1488-458: A population of 900 Spanish, mestizo , and mulatto households, plus 120 Indian ones. During the Mexican War of Independence , the city was taken by Miguel Serrano and Vicente Beristain de Souza in 1812, which caused the mines here to be abandoned by owners loyal to Spain. The war left the Pachuca area in a state of chaos, both politically and economically. The third Count of Regla brought

1612-508: A proclitic: Bi=hon-ga-wi-tho-wa Bi=hon-ga-wi-tho-wa "He/she looks for us only (around) here" The initial proclitic bi marks the present tense and the third person singular, the verb root hon means "to look for", the - ga - suffix marks a first person object, the - wi - suffix marks dual number, and tho marks the sense of "only" or "just" whereas the - wa - suffix marks the locative sense of "here". Originally, all dialects distinguished singular, dual and plural numbers, but some of

1736-661: A rented house but was moved to the former Hospital of San Juan de Dios in 1875. This building is now the Central Building. The school was based on positivist philosophy and the University motto of "Amor, orden y progreso" ("love, order and progress") remains to this day. The school was renamed the Universidad de Hidalgo in 1925 and again to the Universidad Autónoma de Hidalgo in 1948. The university

1860-555: A significant number of Otomi documents exist from the period, both secular and religious, the most well-known of which are the Codices of Huichapan and Jilotepec. In the late colonial period and after independence, indigenous groups no longer had separate status. At that time, Otomi lost its status as a language of education, ending Classical Otomi period as a literary language. This led to a declining numbers of speakers of indigenous languages, as Indigenous groups throughout Mexico adopted

1984-414: A six-year patent . This patent covered the key ingredients of magistral, salt and mercury. Then on 10 July 1556, Velasco issued a joint patent to Medina and Gaspar Lohmann (Loman), for mechanizing the process using Lohmann's ingenio . Lohmann's ingenio , and one described by Miguel Perez, were influenced by Georgius Agricola 's De Re Metallica . One quarter of his royalties were commissioned towards

2108-707: A slower pace than the general population. While absolute numbers of Otomi speakers continue to rise, their numbers relative to the Mexican population are falling. Although Otomi is vigorous in some areas, with children acquiring the language through natural transmission (e.g. in the Mezquital valley and in the Highlands), it is an endangered language . Three dialects in particular have reached moribund status: those of Ixtenco ( Tlaxcala state), Santiago Tilapa ( Mexico state ), and Cruz del Palmar ( Guanajuato state). On

2232-511: A space of 950m2. It contains documents that trace the history of mining here from 1556 to 1967, and the more than a billion ounces of silver and the five million ounces of gold that have been extracted from the state of Hidalgo during that time. The museum has three exhibition halls, a covered courtyard and a garden which contains mining machinery. such as a steam shovel, a winch and a truck used for transport of ore. The exhibition halls contain displays relating to how minerals are found in nature and

2356-421: A tail and a hook and an u with a tail) to represent the central vowels. Orthographies used to write modern Otomi have been a focus of controversy among field linguists for many years. Particularly contentious is the issue of whether or not to mark tone, and how, in orthographies to be used by native speakers. Many practical orthographies used by Otomi speakers do not include tone marking. Bartholomew has been

2480-408: A thick braided edge. Originally, this was done to provide the miners a way to hold the turnover without getting the filled portion dirty, as there was no way to wash their hands before eating. The shape and pastry portion of the turnover have remained the same but today, the fillings are decidedly Mexican: mole verde, beans, mole rojo, chicken "tinga," pineapple, rice pudding and one seasonal specialty

2604-471: A total of 7 municipios , with a combined population of 438,692 inhabitants as of 2005, up from 375,022 in 2000, covering 1202 km. Pachuca was declared the capital of Hidalgo by Benito Juárez in 1869. Pachuca is center of one of the most important mining areas in Mexico, and for this reason, most of the city's attractions are based on the mining industry. Many of these are located near Hidalgo Street, which

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2728-604: A tower with four parts in Neoclassic style , constructed of white "cantera" stone with a height of 40 meters. In the middle there are four sculpted faces of women done in marble by Carrara, which symbolise the Reform, Liberty, Independence and Constitution. The Church and ex monastery of San Francisco were begun in 1596, and the church was completed c. 1660. The façade is in the colonial Spanish Baroque style . The interior conserves aspects of its 16th-century origins, including

2852-675: A verbal suffix, and some dialects keep dual number marking. There is no case marking. Verb morphology is either fusional or agglutinating depending on the analysis. In verb inflection, infixation, consonant mutation, and apocope are prominent processes. The number of irregular verbs is large. A class of morphemes cross-references the grammatical subject in a sentence. These morphemes can be analysed as either proclitics or prefixes and mark tense , aspect and mood . Verbs are inflected for either direct object or dative object (but not for both simultaneously) by suffixes. Grammar also distinguishes between inclusive 'we' and exclusive 'we' . After

2976-487: A year at the residence of Hernando de Ribadeneyra, before moving on to Pachuca . There, he built his Hacienda de Beneficio Nuestra Senora de la Purisima Concepcion , which included paved surface patios on which he could spread ground ore. Located on Magdalena Mountain, he had access to running water and lower grade ore in the Old Discovery Mine dump. However, it was several months before Medina discovered that

3100-562: Is Umberto Skewes, who speaks little English but whose grandfather came to Mexico from Cornwall. Skewes is custodian of the English Cemetery, which contains approximately 600 graves, predominantly of Cornish miners and their families. The Cornish-Mexican Cultural Society works to build educational links between Mexico and the United Kingdom. The group has marketed Pachuca and Real del Monte as "Mexico's Little Cornwall" through

3224-556: Is a lamb paste with poblano chili peppers. Pastes are a local delicacy strongly identified with both Pachuca and Real del Monte. The Feria de Pachuca is known colloquially by several names such as the Feria Tradicional/Internacional de San Francisco, the Feria de Hidalgo and the Feria de Caballo. It is the most important annual event in the state of Hidalgo, taking place every October in facilities located in

3348-570: Is a two-story building constructed at the end of the 19th century. The main entrance is flanked by two pilasters and topped with a pediment decorated with reliefs made of shells. It belonged to a rich Cornish miner by the name of Francis Rule , and later became the Municipal Palace. The macromural of Pachuta is located in the Palmitas suburb. It consists of an entire quarter on a hillside painted in colourful murals. Formerly there

3472-596: Is an interactive museum for children with exhibits on archeology, botany, other sciences and the arts. The Sede del Salón de la Fama del Fútbol —Hall of Fame of Football is in the shape of a football, and located in Parque David Ben Gurion of the Zona Plateada district. The Universidad de Fútbol —Football University is the only training facility of its kind in the Americas, and one of only

3596-764: Is dedicated to arts and crafts shops. The Monument of Christ the King is located on the Santa Apolonia Mountain and is one of the largest in Mexico. The Archivo del Estado de Hidalgo—Museum of the State of Hidalgo is located in the Civic Centre of the State Congress. Its collection focuses on the history of the state of Hidalgo, through archival photographs and documents. Its collection also includes national history items. The Museo El Rehilete

3720-530: Is found in the Valle de Mezquital region of Hidalgo and the southern portion of Querétaro . Some municipalities have concentrations of Otomi speakers as high as 60–70%. Because of recent migratory patterns, small populations of Otomi speakers can be found in new locations throughout Mexico and the United States. In the second half of the 20th century, speaker populations began to increase again, although at

3844-584: Is generally written ʉ or u̱, and front mid rounded vowel [ø] is written ø or o̱ . Letter a with trema , ä, is sometimes used for both the nasal vowel [ã] and the low back unrounded vowel [ʌ] . Glottalized consonants are written with apostrophe (e.g. tz' for [t͡sʔ] ) and palatal sibilant [ʃ] is written with x. This orthography has been adopted as official by the Otomi Language Academy centered in Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo and

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3968-478: Is indicated by the use of articles ; the nouns themselves are unmarked for number. In most dialects, the pronominal system distinguishes four persons (first person inclusive and exclusive , second person and third person) and three numbers (singular, dual and plural). The system below is from the Toluca dialect. The following atypical pronominal system from Tilapa Otomi lacks the inclusive/exclusive distinction in

4092-568: Is marked by a suffix. If either subject or object is dual or plural, it is shown with a plural suffix following the object suffix. So the structure of the Otomi verb is as follows: The present tense prefixes are di - (1st person), gi - (2nd person), i - (3rd person). The Preterite is marked by the prefixes do-, ɡo-, and bi- , the Perfect by to-, ko-, ʃi- , the Imperfect by dimá, ɡimá, mi ,

4216-475: Is noted by Cárceres, but he does not transcribe it. Cárceres used the letter æ for the low central unrounded vowel [ʌ] and æ with cedille for the high central unrounded vowel ɨ . He also transcribed glottalized consonants as geminates e.g. ttz for [t͡sʔ] . Cárceres used grave-accented vowels è and ò for [ɛ] and [ɔ] . In the 18th century Neve y Molina used vowels with macron ē and ō for these two vowels and invented extra letters (an e with

4340-523: Is one of the oldest in Pachuca and runs alongside the arcade of the main plaza (Plaza de la Constitución) to Hidalgo Park. The oldest markets and houses are also located on this street, many of which are well-preserved. The Monumental Clock of Pachuca is the icon of the city. Donated by Cornishman , Francis Rule , it was built to commemorate the Centennial of Mexico's Independence , and was inaugurated on 15 September 1910 (Noche de Grito). The base of

4464-479: Is subsumed under Anaya/Mezquital. The following phonological description is that of the dialect of San Ildefonso Tultepec, Querétaro, similar to the system found in the Valle del Mezquital variety, which is the most widely spoken Otomian variety. The phoneme inventory of the Proto-Otomi language from which all modern varieties have descended has been reconstructed as /p t k (kʷ) ʔ b d ɡ t͡s ʃ h z m n w j/ ,

4588-433: Is synthetic and has elements of both fusion and agglutination. Verb stems are inflected through a number of different processes: the initial consonant of the verb root changes according to a morphophonemic pattern of consonant mutations to mark present vs. non-present, and active vs. passive. Verbal roots may take a formative syllable or not depending on syntactic and prosodic factors. A nasal prefix may be added to

4712-685: Is synthetic, and the sentence level is analytic. Simultaneously, the language is head-marking in terms of its verbal morphology, and its nominal morphology is more analytic. According to the most common analysis, Otomi has two kinds of bound morphemes, pro clitics and affixes . Proclitics differ from affixes mainly in their phonological characteristics; they are marked for tone and block nasal harmony . Some authors consider proclitics to be better analyzed as prefixes. The standard orthography writes proclitics as separate words, whereas affixes are written joined to their host root. Most affixes are suffixes and with few exceptions occur only on verbs, whereas

4836-563: Is the term used to define the Otomi spoken in the early centuries of colonial rule. This historical stage of the language was given Latin orthography and documented by Spanish friars who learned it in order to proselytize among the Otomi. Text in Classical Otomi is not readily comprehensible since the Spanish-speaking friars failed to differentiate the varied vowel and consonant phonemes used in Otomi. Friars and monks from

4960-556: Is used for issuing direct orders. Verbs expressing movement towards the speaker such as ʔįhį 'come' use a different set of prefixes for marking person/ TAM . These prefixes can also be used with other verbs to express 'to do something while coming this way'. In Toluca Otomi mba - is the third person singular Imperfect prefix for movement verbs. mba-tųhų 3 / MVMT / IMPERF -sing Bartolome de Medina (mining specialist) Bartolomé de Medina (born around 1504 in Seville )

5084-527: Is used on road signs in the Mezquital region and in publications in the Mezquital variety, such as the large 2004 SIL dictionary published by Hernández Cruz, Victoria Torquemada & Sinclair Crawford (2004) . A slightly modified version is used by Enrique Palancar in his grammar of the San Ildefonso Tultepec variety. The morphosyntactic typology of Otomi displays a mixture of synthetic and analytic structures. The phrase level morphology

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5208-679: The EZLN and indigenous social movements. Decentralized government agencies were created and charged with promoting and protecting indigenous communities and languages; these include the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (CDI) and the National Institute of Indigenous Languages (INALI) . In particular, the federal Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ("General Law on

5332-712: The Regional Museum , occupy much of the complex now. The photography museum contains antique photography equipment as well as works by known photographers such as Guillermo Kahlo and Tina Modotti . To the east of the monastery complex is the Bartolomé de Medina Park. The City Theater and the School of Arts face the park. The Asunción Church is the oldest in the city, constructed in 1553, and remodeled several times, with major reconstruction in 1719. The Asunción Chapel has an entrance with two levels. The lower one contains

5456-471: The Spanish Crown . It not only collected the taxes, it was the only place that sold the mercury needed to extract silver from ore as a monopoly of the state. It was constructed in the 17th century by viceroy Sebastián de Toledo Márquez Mancera . It is a two-story building with a central patio. The façade contains two towers that flank the main entrance and the north side to serve as guard stations for

5580-472: The caron ( ǎ ). Nasal vowels are marked with a rightward curving hook ( ogonek ) at the bottom of the vowel letter: į, ę, ą, ų. The letter c denotes [t͡s] , y denotes [j] , the palatal sibilant [ʃ] is written with the letter š , and the palatal nasal [ɲ] is written ñ . The remaining symbols are from the IPA with their standard values. Colonial documents in Classical Otomi do not generally capture all

5704-521: The central altiplano region of Mexico. Otomi consists of several closely related languages, many of which are not mutually intelligible . The word Hñähñu [hɲɑ̃hɲṹ] has been proposed as an endonym , but since it represents the usage of a single dialect, it has not gained wide currency. Linguists have classified the modern dialects into three dialect areas: the Northwestern dialects are spoken in Querétaro , Hidalgo and Guanajuato ;

5828-413: The groin vault . The church contains oil paintings by regionally well-known artists of the 18th century. The sacristy has a beautiful ritual sinks in sculpted stone, one of which is decorated with Talavera tile from Puebla . It also has paintings depicting the genealogy and life of Francis of Assisi . The adjoining cloister was completed in 1604. It has not been a monastery for many years, and had

5952-459: The "Cradle of Mexican Football." The Mexican Spanish word " paste " (pronounced PAH-steh) come from the Cornish word pasties, which is basically a semi-circular turnover made with a pastry crust with sweet or savory fillings. Cornish miners brought the recipe with them as they made a good way to bring their midday meal with them to the mines. One feature of both pasties and pastes is that they have

6076-461: The 20th century, mining still continues to be an important element of Pachuca's economy. Pachuca still produces more than 60% of the state's gold and more than 50% of its silver. The Mexican Geological Survey is headquartered in the city. Otomi language Otomi ( / ˌ oʊ t ə ˈ m iː / OH -tə- MEE ; Spanish : Otomí [otoˈmi] ) is an Oto-Pamean language spoken by approximately 240,000 indigenous Otomi people in

6200-563: The Cornish populace helped to shape two local traditions that define the city— fútbol and a dish called "pastes." Evidence of early human habitation in this area is found in Cerro de las Navajas and Zacualtipán, in the Sierra de Pachuca. Here primitive mines to extract green obsidian, arrow heads, scraping tools, and mammoth remains can be traced back as far as 12,000 BCE. An ancient pre-Hispanic obsidian tool-making center has also been found in

6324-736: The Future by ɡo-, ɡi-, and da- , and the Pluperfect by tamą-, kimą-, kamą-. All tenses use the same suffixes as the Present tense for dual and plural numbers and clusivity. The difference between Preterite and Imperfect is similar to the distinction between the Spanish Preterite habló 'he spoke (punctual)' and the Spanish Imperfect hablaba 'he spoke/he used to speak/he was speaking (non-punctual)'. In Toluca Otomi,

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6448-551: The Hidalgo Bank and then was converted into the Niágara Hotel. Today it has returned to being a bank. It has a notable façade of brown cantera stone, lightly sculpted, with a keystone in the form of a parchment, cornice , Ionic columns and geometric designed in the upper parts. It is topped by a pediment which contains the figure of a lion. The Cajas Reales was where miners paid a 20% share of their extractions to

6572-567: The Julián Villagrán School. The Casa Colorado , part of the hacienda of the Conde de Regla, was built in the 18th century. It has an austere façade of a reddish colour, which gives the house its name. The building formerly had an interior courtyard with a Gothic style cloister arcade, but was demolished when enclosed. In 1886 Governor Francisco Cravioto acquired this building to house state judicial offices. The building served

6696-592: The Language Rights of the Indigenous Peoples"), promulgated on 13 March 2003, recognizes all of Mexico's indigenous languages, including Otomi, as " national languages ", and gave indigenous people the right to speak them in every sphere of public and private life. Currently, Otomi dialects are spoken by circa 239,000 speakers—some 5 to 6 percent of whom are monolingual —in widely scattered districts (see map). The highest concentration of speakers

6820-523: The Mexican embassy in London . Cornish and English miners introduced to Mexico such things as tennis, golf, rugby , cricket , and chess. However the two introductions which have had the greatest influence on Pachuca's identity are football and pastes . In 1900 Cornish miners established the Pachuca Athletic Club , which was primarily dedicated to football. Their first game was played in

6944-468: The Mines of Pachuca) written between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th. This work claims that the first mineral deposits were found by Alonso Rodríguez de Salgado on his ranch on the outskirts of Pachuca in two large hills called Magdalena and Cristóbal. This discovery would quickly change the area's economy from agriculture to one dependent almost completely on mining. As early as 1560

7068-469: The Nahuatl names. For example, the Nahuatl place name Tenochtitlān , "place of Opuntia cactus", was rendered as *ʔmpôndo in proto-Otomi, with the same meaning. At the time of the Spanish conquest of central Mexico, Otomi had a much wider distribution than now, with sizeable Otomi speaking areas existing in the modern states of Jalisco and Michoacán . After the conquest, the Otomi people experienced

7192-756: The Proto-Otomi clusters *ʔm and *ʔn before oral vowels have become /ʔb/ and /ʔd/ , respectively. In most dialects *n has become /ɾ/ , as in the singular determiner and the second person possessive marker. The only dialects to preserve /n/ in these words are the Eastern dialects, and in Tilapa these instances of *n have become /d/ . Many dialects have merged the vowels *ɔ and *a into /a/ as in Mezquital Otomi, whereas others such as Ixtenco Otomi have merged *ɔ with *o . The different dialects have between three and five nasal vowels. In addition to

7316-452: The Reloj was made originally for a kiosk but it was decided to put the clock here instead. A group from the city had the idea for the clock, and they, along with Mexican ambassador Jesús Zenil arranged to have the same company that built Big Ben , construct the inner workings. The outer monument portion is Mexican-made and was supervised by engineers Francisco Hernández and Luis Carreón. It is

7440-537: The Rosario mine. Mining operations were disrupted again by the Mexican Revolution in the early 20th century. The city was first taken by forces loyal to Francisco I. Madero in 1911. Roberto Martinez y Martinez, a general under Pancho Villa , entered the city in 1915. Both incursions were due to the economic importance of the mines here. During this time American investors came to Pachuca, again updating

7564-582: The Southwestern dialects are spoken in the State of Mexico ; and the Eastern dialects are spoken in the highlands of Veracruz , Puebla , and eastern Hidalgo and villages in Tlaxcala and Mexico states. Like all other Oto-Manguean languages , Otomi is a tonal language , and most varieties distinguish three tones. Nouns are marked only for possessor; the plural number is marked with a definite article and

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7688-506: The Spanish mendicant orders such as the Franciscans wrote Otomi grammars, the earliest of which is Friar Pedro de Cárceres's Arte de la lengua othomí [ sic ], written perhaps as early as 1580, but not published until 1907. In 1605, Alonso de Urbano wrote a trilingual Spanish- Nahuatl -Otomi dictionary, which included a small set of grammatical notes about Otomi. The grammarian of Nahuatl, Horacio Carochi , has written

7812-576: The Spanish conquest, Otomi became a written language when friars taught the Otomi to write the language using the Latin script ; colonial period's written language is often called Classical Otomi . Several codices and grammars were composed in Classical Otomi. A negative stereotype of the Otomi promoted by the Nahuas and perpetuated by the Spanish resulted in a loss of status for the Otomi, who began to abandon their language in favor of Spanish. The attitude of

7936-595: The Spanish language and Mestizo cultural identities. Coupled with a policy of castellanización this led to a rapid decline of speakers of all indigenous languages including Otomi, during the early 20th century. During the 1990s, however, the Mexican government made a reversal in policies towards indigenous and linguistic rights, prompted by the 1996 adoption of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights and domestic social and political agitation by various groups such as social and political agitation by

8060-517: The Spanish trilled [r] , and /s/ , which is not present in native Otomi vocabulary either. All Otomi languages are tonal , and most varieties have three tones, high, low and rising. One variety of the Sierra dialect, that of San Gregorio, has been analyzed as having a fourth, falling tone. In Mezquital Otomi, suffixes are never specified for tone, while in Tenango Otomi, the only syllables not specified for tone are prepause syllables and

8184-444: The Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo. The mineralogy museum is housed in the old Hospital de San Juan de Dios. It was built and operated by monks until 1869, when the state converted the building into the Instituto Literario y Escuela de Artes y Oficios. The museum exhibits a large collection of mineral specimens from the region. The Municipal Palace or Conde Rule House is located on Leandro Valle and Morelos streets. It

8308-539: The Wesleyan Chapel in Redruth in the 1820s. Today the Pachuca – Real del Monte District retains much from its period of association with Cornwall and home of one of Mexico's most enduring cross cultural pollinations. The miners' influence is obvious in architecture. Up in the hills around Pachuca, many houses feature distinctly British characteristics: thicker walls, square windows and pitched roofs. Some of Pachuca's landmarks have English/Cornish influences. The Spanish Baroque style Reloj Monumental (Monumental Clock) chimes to

8432-429: The academic designation from Otomi to Hñähñú , the endonym used by the Otomi of the Mezquital Valley ; however, no common endonym exists for all dialects of the language. The Oto-Pamean languages are thought to have split from the other Oto-Manguean languages around 3500 BC. Within the Otomian branch, Proto-Otomi seems to have split from Proto-Mazahua ca. 500 AD. Around 1000 AD, Proto-Otomi began diversifying into

8556-402: The basic word order is Verb Subject Object , but some dialects tend towards Subject Verb Object word order, probably under the influence of Spanish. Possessive constructions use the order possessed-possessor , but modificational constructions use modifier -head order. From the variety of Santiago Mexquititlan, Queretaro, here is an example of a complex verb phrase with four suffixes and

8680-489: The brine and mercury method Lorenzo showed him in Spain also required iron or copper sulfate . The gossans in Spain contained this naturally as pyrite and chalcopyrite , but needed to be added to the ores in Mexico. This added ingredient, called magistral , promoted the chemical reaction inherent to the amalgamation. For this process for extracting silver from ore, now known as the patio process or silver ore amalgamation, Viceroy Don Luís de Velasco awarded Medina

8804-421: The building. It has housed the offices of the Compañía Real del Monte y Pachuca since 1850. Emperor Maximillian I stayed here when he visited the city in 1865. The Methodist Church building was built in the early 20th century, and is distinguished by its locally rare Romanesque Revival style . It is considered an important building of the Cornish period in the state. It remains a Protestant church and contains

8928-739: The city include the Ramón Noble Guitar Festival and the Feria Hidaltur. The first presents concerts by guitarists of various genres from countries such as Brazil, Spain, the U.S., Israel, England and Mexico. There are classes and workshops by renowned artists as well as a national level competition for classical guitar. The Feria Hidaltur is held in March and April with the purpose of promoting the arts and crafts of Hidalgo state. The festival also has equestrian events, hot-air balloons and other attractions. Despite its decline in

9052-453: The colony, the Nahuas' negative image of the Otomi people was perpetuated throughout the colonial period. This tendency towards devaluing and stigmatizing the Otomi cultural identity relative to other Indigenous groups gave impetus to the process of language loss and mestizaje , as many Otomies opted to adopt the Spanish language and customs in search of social mobility. " Classical Otomi "

9176-544: The degree of mutual intelligibility between varieties. It assigns an ISO code to each of these nine. INALI , the Mexican National Institute of Indigenous Languages, avoids the problem of assigning dialect or language status to Otomian varieties by defining "Otomi" as a "linguistic group" with nine different "linguistic varieties". Still, for official purposes, each variety is considered a separate language. Other linguists, however, consider Otomi to be

9300-411: The dialect. Most of those forms are composed of two morphemes , meaning "speak" and "well" respectively. The word Otomi entered the Spanish language through Nahuatl and describes the larger Otomi macroethnic group and the dialect continuum. From Spanish, the word Otomi has become entrenched in the linguistic and anthropological literature. Among linguists, the suggestion has been made to change

9424-538: The door and has a round arch, flanked by two pilasters and a Baroque architrave . The upper level has a choir window, with a niche above and topped by a pediment . The bell tower also has two levels, both with round arches. The Bancomer Building is located at the front of the main plaza. It was designed in the Neoclassical style , and built in 1902. It was first occupied by the Mercantil Bank, then by

9548-491: The eastern dialect of San Pablito Pahuatlan in the Sierra Norte de Puebla, and Otomi of Santa Ana Hueytlalpan. A voiceless aspirate stop series /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ , derived from earlier clusters of stop + [h] , occurs in most dialects, but it has turned into the fricatives /ɸ θ x/ in most Western dialects. Some dialects have innovated a palatal nasal /ɲ/ from earlier sequences of *j and a nasal vowel. In several dialects,

9672-430: The famous high-pressure steam pumping engines designed by Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick , which turned many of the area's water-logged mines into huge silver producers. The majority of the immigrants to this region came from Cornish mining areas of Camborne , Redruth and Gwennap . Cornish/English workers and their technology revitalized the silver industry here and miners' remittances sent back home helped to build

9796-485: The first Cornish miners and technology around 1824. The Cornish took over mines abandoned by the Spanish, bringing 1,500 tonnes of more modern equipment from Cornwall . Cornish companies eventually dominated mining here until 1848, when the Mexican–American War forced them to sell out to a Mexican company by the name of Mackintosh, Escondón, Beistegui and John Rule. Mining operations resumed in 1850, especially in

9920-537: The first Spaniards here, constructing two feudal estates, and calling the area Real de Minas de Pachuca. Téllez was also given credit for laying out the colonial city of Pachuca on the European model but this story has been proven false, with no alternative version. Mining resources were not discovered here until 1552, and there are several versions of this story. The most probable comes from a work called "Descripción Anónima de la Minas de Pachuca" (Anonymous Description of

10044-482: The first person plural and the dual/plural distinction in the second person. Otomi nouns are marked only for their possessor; plurality is expressed via pronouns and articles . There is no case marking. The particular pattern of possessive inflection is a widespread trait in the Mesoamerican linguistic area : there is a prefix agreeing in person with the possessor, and if the possessor is plural or dual, then

10168-425: The four nasal vowels of proto-Otomi, some dialects have /õ/ . Ixtenco Otomi has only /ẽ ũ ɑ̃/ , whereas Toluca Otomi has /ĩ ũ ɑ̃/ . In the Otomi of Cruz del Palmar, Guanjuato, the nasal vowels are /ĩ ũ õ/ , the former *ɑ̃ having changed to /õ/ . Modern Otomi has borrowed many words from Spanish, in addition to new phonemes that occur only in loan words, such as /l/ that appears in some Otomi dialects instead of

10292-603: The growth of non-mining industries as well as a development of a large student population for the state university as well as other educational institutions. Another impetus was the movement of many government offices to Pachuca with new government facilities such as the State Government Palace and the State Supreme Court built in the 1970s. Much of the city's growth during this time was due to new housing projects, but infrastructure projects such as

10416-635: The health of the mining sector. In the mid-20th century, a major downturn in mining pushed the city to shift focus from mining to industry, resulting in the revamping of the Universidad Autónoma de Hidalgo . Today, mining forms only a fraction of the municipality's economy. One cultural aspect that makes Pachuca unique is the influence of the Cornish miners who immigrated in the 19th century from Great Britain , as many of their descendants remain in Pachuca, and nearby Real del Monte . Furthermore,

10540-411: The impetuses to the growth of the city in the following years, turning out as it did a better-educated and more technical workforce in areas such as law, engineering, business and medicine. In the late 1950s and through the 1960s, some growth was seen in the way of suburban developments for workers in newly built factories. Population growth returned in the 1970s and continued through the 1990s because of

10664-457: The judiciary through the mid-20th century. Many of the streets connecting from here to nearby Hidalgo Street are named after former notable lawyers and judges. The Archivo Historico y Museo de Minería —Historic Archive and Museum of Mining is located on Mina Street in a manor that dates from the 19th century, called the Cajas de San Rafael. The mansion is constructed of cantera stone and occupies

10788-543: The king. In 1554, on the Purísima Concepción Hacienda , now the site of a tennis club, Bartolomé de Medina found the largest mineral deposits here as well as developed new ways of extracting minerals from ore using the patio process . This caused Pachuca to grow even more with the discovery of new deposits and accelerated extraction processes. Mining operations spread to nearby areas such as Atotonilco , Actopan , and Tizayuca . The population of

10912-518: The languages spoken in Teotihuacan , the greatest Mesoamerican ceremonial center of the Classic period, the demise of which occurred ca. 600 AD. The Precolumbian Otomi people did not have a fully developed writing system . However, Aztec writing , largely ideographic, could be read in Otomi as well as Nahuatl. The Otomi often translated names of places or rulers into Otomi rather than using

11036-526: The larger world toward the Otomi language started to change in 2003 when Otomi was granted recognition as a national language under Mexican law together with 61 other indigenous languages. Otomi comes from the Nahuatl word otomitl , which in turn possibly derived from an older word, totomitl "shooter of birds." It is an exonym ; the Otomi refer to their language as Hñähñú, Hñähño, Hñotho, Hñähü, Hñätho, Hyųhų, Yųhmų, Ñųhų, Ñǫthǫ, or Ñañhų , depending on

11160-418: The last syllable of polysyllabic words. Stress in Otomi is not phonemic but rather falls predictably on every other syllable, with the first syllable of a root always being stressed. In this article, the orthography of Lastra (various, including 1996, 2006) is employed which marks syllabic tone. The low tone is unmarked ( a ), the high level tone is marked with the acute accent ( á ), and the rising tone with

11284-432: The mid-20th century had disastrous effects on the city. Many of the abandoned houses and other buildings were in danger of collapse. Under ownership of the Mexican government, mining came to a near standstill. During this time Pachuca's economy began to shift from mining to industry. The old Instituto Científico Literario Autónomo de Hidalgo was converted to the Universidad Autónoma del Estado in 1961, which would become one of

11408-503: The mining technology used here. From 1906 to 1947 the United States Smelting, Refining and Mining Company was the primary producer here, with output reaching its peak in the 1930s. However, by 1947, mining here had become too costly, because of political instability, labor disputes and low prices for silver on the world market. The company sold its interests to the Mexican government in 1965. The decline in mining here in

11532-458: The modern Otomi varieties. Much of central Mexico was inhabited by speakers of the Oto-Pamean languages before the arrival of Nahuatl speakers; beyond this, the geographical distribution of the ancestral stages of most modern indigenous languages of Mexico, and their associations with various civilizations remain undetermined. It has been proposed that Proto-Otomi-Mazahua most likely was one of

11656-432: The more innovative dialects, such as those of Querétaro and of the Mezquital area, distinguish only singular and plural numbers, sometimes using the previous dual forms as a paucal number. The Ixtenco dialect distinguishes singular, plural, and mass plural numbers. The personal prefixes distinguish four persons, making for a total of eleven categories of grammatical person in most dialects. The grammatical number of nouns

11780-603: The national average. The Otomi languages belongs to the Oto-Pamean branch of the Oto-Manguean languages . Within Oto-Pamean, it is part of the Otomian subgroup, which also includes Mazahua . Otomi has traditionally been described as a single language, although its many dialects are not all mutually intelligible. SIL International's Ethnologue considers nine separate Otomi languages based on literature needs and

11904-553: The native Otomis to the Mezquital Valley . These conquests coalesced into a zone called Cuautlalpan, of which Pachuca was a part. Fortifications in the area of Pachuca city and other areas were built between 1174 and 1181. This dominion would eventually be overrun by the Aztec Triple Alliance between 1427 and 1430, with rule in Pachuca then coming from the city of Tenochtitlan . According to tradition, it

12028-532: The new Municipal Market, the remodeling of the Plaza Benito Juárez and the main bus station also took place. Pachuca has a semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ). The climate is cool with high rainfall and occasional hail during the summer months and dry conditions during the winter. The coldest month is January, with an average high of 20 °C (68 °F) and an average low of 3 °C (37 °F). Winter nights are cold and

12152-551: The new facility. New programs of study in Physical Therapy, Software engineering, Optomechatronics, Information security, Information technologies and communications. Beginning in 1824, Cornish miners and English investors came to Pachuca and the neighboring town of Real del Monte to invest and work in the mines here. Some founded the Compañía Real de Monte y Pachuca. Mexico's remaining Cornish community represents

12276-703: The noun is also marked with a suffix that agrees in number with the possessor. Demonstrated below is the inflectional paradigm for the word ngų ́ "house" in the dialect of Toluca. Definite articles preceding the noun are used to express plurality in nominal elements, since the nouns themselves are invariant for grammatical number. Most dialects have rʌ 'the (singular)' and yʌ 'the (dual/plural)'. Example noun phrases: Classical Otomi, as described by Cárceres, distinguished neutral, honorific, and pejorative definite articles: ąn , neutral singular; o , honorific singular; nø̌ , pejorative singular; e , neutral and honorific plural; and yo , pejorative plural. Verb morphology

12400-416: The oral vowels /i ɨ u e ø o ɛ a ɔ/ , and the nasal vowels /ĩ ũ ẽ ɑ̃/ . Modern dialects have undergone various changes from the common historic phonemic inventory. Most have voiced the reconstructed Proto-Otomian voiceless nonaspirate stops /p t k/ and now have only the voiced series /b d ɡ/ . The only dialects to retain all the original voiceless nonaspirate stops are Otomi of Tilapa and Acazulco and

12524-610: The other hand, the level of monolingualism in Otomi is as high as 22.3% in Huehuetla , Hidalgo, and 13.1% in Texcatepec , Veracruz). Monolingualism is usually significantly higher among women than among men. Due to the politics from the 1920s to the 1980s that encouraged the "Hispanification" of indigenous communities and made Spanish the only language used in schools, no group of Otomi speakers today has general literacy in Otomi, while their literacy rate in Spanish remains far below

12648-579: The phonological contrasts of the Otomi language. Since the friars who alphabetized the Otomi populations were Spanish speakers, it was difficult for them to perceive contrasts that were present in Otomi but absent in Spanish, such as nasalisation, tone, the large vowel inventory as well as aspirated and glottal consonants. Even when they recognized that there were additional phonemic contrasts in Otomi they often had difficulties choosing how to transcribe them and with doing so consistently. No colonial documents include information on tone. The existence of nasalization

12772-655: The population of the city had tripled to 2,200, with most people employed in mining in some way. Because of this rapid growth and the ruggedness of the terrain, it was impossible to lay out an orderly set of streets. The first main plaza was placed next to the Asunción Parish, which is now the Garden of the Constitution. Next to the Cajas Reales (Royal Safe) was constructed to guard the fifth that belonged to

12896-405: The proclitics occur both in nominal and verbal paradigms. Proclitics mark the categories of definiteness and number, person, negation, tense and aspect – often fused in a single proclitic. Suffixes mark direct and indirect objects as well as clusivity (the distinction between inclusive and exclusive "we"), number, location and affective emphasis. Historically, as in other Oto-Manguean languages,

13020-604: The root to express reciprocality or middle voice . Some dialects, notably the eastern ones, have a system of verb classes that take different series of prefixes. These conjugational categories have been lost in the Western dialects, although they existed in the Western areas in the colonial period as can be seen from Cárceres's grammar. Verbs are inflected for either direct object or indirect object (but not for both simultaneously) by suffixes. The categories of person of subject, tense, aspect, and mood are marked simultaneously with

13144-446: The same language. They concluded that Texcatepec, Eastern Highland Otomi , and Tenango may be considered the same language at a lower threshold of 70% intelligibility. Ethnologue finds a similar lower level of 70% intelligibility between Querétaro, Mezquital, and Mexico State Otomi. The Ethnologue Temaoya Otomi is split off from Mexico State Otomi, and introduce Tilapa Otomi as a separate language; while Egland's poorly tested Zozea Otomi

13268-483: The same year, a fact that is celebrated annually. The first team from Pachuca consisted of Charles Dawe, John Dawe, James Bennetts, John Bennetts, William Blamey, Richard Sobey, William Bragg, William Thomas, Percy Bunt, Lionel Bunt, Albert Pengelly and William Pengelly. The Pachuca club encouraged the formation of teams in Mexico City and Orizaba , the first championship of the new Liga Mexicana de Fútbol Asociación

13392-524: The semantic difference between the two subjunctive forms (A and B) has not yet been clearly understood in the linguistic literature. Sometimes subjunctive B implicates that is more recent in time than subjunctive A. Both indicate something counterfactual. In other Otomi dialects, such as Otomi of Ixtenco Tlaxcala, the distinction between the two forms is one of subjunctive as opposed to irrealis . The Past and Present Progressive are similar in meaning to English 'was' and 'is X-ing', respectively. The Imperative

13516-533: The small town of San Bartolo near the city. Around 2,000 BCE nomadic groups here began to be replaced by sedentary peoples who formed farming villages in an area then known as Itzcuincuitlapilco, of which the municipality of Pachuca is a part. Later artifacts from between 200 CE and 850 CE show Teotihuacan influence with platforms and figurines found in San Bartolo and in Tlapacoya. Development of this area as

13640-481: The south of Pachuca. The festival began as a liturgical event sponsored by monks at the monastery of San Francisco in the 16th century, which eventually drew dignitaries from surrounding communities. The festival sponsors a number of events such as bullfights , cockfights , charreadas , horse shows, rodeos, crafts and folk dance shows, livestock exhibitions and features regional cuisine. It also host concerts by well-known Mexican musical artists. Other notable events in

13764-428: The strong winds that blow through the canyons to the north of the city. In the indigenous Otomi language , Pachuca is known as Nju̱nthe . The area had been long-inhabited; apart from some green obsidian , the mining that Pachuca is most famous for began in the mid-16th century, during Spanish colonial rule. Pachuca remained a major mining center until the mid-20th century, with the city's fortunes fluctuating with

13888-410: The temperature can drop below 0 °C (32 °F). The warmest month is May, with an average high of 24 °C (75 °F) and a low of 9 °C (48 °F). Due to its high altitude, nighttime temperatures remain cool throughout the year. The average annual precipitation is 412 millimetres (16.2 in), mostly concentrated in the months May through September. In terms of extremes, the record high

14012-436: The tone diacritics correctly. For Mezquital Otomi, Bernard accordingly created an orthography in which tone was indicated only when necessary to disambiguate between two words and in which the only symbols used were those available on a standard Spanish language typewriter (employing for example the letter c for [ɔ] , v for [ʌ] , and the symbol + for [ɨ] ). Bernard's orthography has not been influential and in used only in

14136-418: The tools and processes used to extract them. It also houses a large collection of documents, a library and a photography laboratory. The documentation contained here was rescued starting in 1987. In 1993 the current site was renovated to house the collection. The collection also includes miners' personal effects, as well as artworks relating to mining. The Museo de Mineralogía —Museum of Mineralogy belongs to

14260-400: The town continued to grow, leading Pachuca to be declared a city in 1813. Mining output had waned by the 18th century due to flooding, but was revived in 1741 by the first Count of Regla, Pedro Romero de Terreros , and his business partner Jose Alejandro Bustamante, who invested in new drainage works. He also discovered new veins of ore, mostly in nearby Real del Monte . By 1746, Pachuca had

14384-788: The tune of Big Ben, and was financed by Francis Rule. The city's main Methodist church was built by Cornish miners. The English mining company's main office as well as the residence of Francis Rule of Camborne, the last Cornish manager of the Real del Monte mine, still bears his initials. The archives of the company are part of the "Historic Archive and Museum of Mining in Pachuca" ( Museo de Minería ) collections, and contain detailed records of Cornish employees, especially between 1824 and 1849. The Cornish immigrants married into Mexican families, and even today Cornish surnames are not uncommon in this area with hundreds of Cornish descendants present. One example

14508-879: The valley of Toluca, and Eastern Otomi spoken in the Highlands of Northern Puebla, Veracruz and Hidalgo, in Tlaxcala and two towns in the Toluca Valley, San Jerónimo Acazulco and Santiago Tilapa . The Northwestern varieties are characterized by an innovative phonology and grammar, whereas the Eastern varieties are more conservative. The assignment of dialects to the three groups is as follows: Egland, Bartholomew & Cruz Ramos (1983) conducted mutual intelligibility tests in which they concluded that eight varieties of Otomi could be considered separate languages in regards to mutual intelligibility, with 80% intelligibility being needed for varieties to be considered part of

14632-504: The works published by himself and the Otomi author Jesus Salinas Pedraza. Practical orthographies used to promote Otomi literacy have been designed and published by the Instituto Lingüístico de Verano and later by the national institute for indigenous languages ( INALI ). Generally they use diareses ë and ö to distinguish the low mid vowels [ɛ] and [ɔ] from the high mid vowels e and o. High central vowel [ɨ]

14756-400: Was 34.5 °C (94 °F) and the record low was −9 °C (16 °F). The city occupies a small valley and is almost completely surrounded by large hills, which are also covered in colorful housing. The city centre has maintained most of its colonial-era structures, with narrow winding streets. Away from this centre is the more modern Pachuca, with warehouses, factories, supermarkets and

14880-493: Was a Spanish merchant known for his invention of the patio process . In Europe, he learned the economics of litharge smelting, and, from a German man known only as "Maestro Lorenzo" or "Leonard", he learned how to efficiently use mercury, and a "strong brine ", to extract silver from its ore. Around the age of 50, Medina moved to New Spain , leaving behind his wife Leonor de Morales and their five children. First settling in Mexico City, Medina worked on silver amalgamation for

15004-471: Was after this conquest that mineral exploitation began here and in neighboring Real del Monte, at a site known as Jacal or San Nicolás. The Aztec governing center was where Plaza Juárez in Pachuca city is now. The Spanish arrived here in 1528, killing the local Aztec governor, Ixcóatl. Credit for the Spanish conquest of the Pachuca area has been given Francisco Téllez , an artilleryman who came to Mexico with Hernán Cortés in 1519. He and Gonzalo Rodriguez were

15128-470: Was an English/Cornish neighborhood in the central part of Pachuca. The British Consulate is all that remains there, located in an "English style" residence built at the beginning of the 20th century. The Mercado de Barreteros is on the Central Plaza, and considered one of the most valuable architectural elements in the city. The lower level is dedicated to services such as cafés, and the upper floor

15252-565: Was played in 1902. Other clubs, such as the Reform Athletic Club, El British Club, F. C. and El México Cricket Club were also formed by miners. The first Mexican player appears in the ranks of the Pachuca club in 1908 and by 1915, most of the team was Mexican. Pachuca won the Copa Tower in 1908 and 1912, the precedent of the modern Mexican Cup . The team disbanded in the 1920s but was re-instituted in 1951. Pachuca calls itself

15376-611: Was reorganized and expanded in 1961. A more recently established school opened in 2003 is the Universidad Politécnica de Pachuca (Polytechnic University of Pachuca), which is mostly an engineering school. It was temporarily housed in the old Universidad Pedagógica Nacional buildings, but in 2004 the state of Hidalgo ceded the university the old Santa Barbara Hacienda, with 231 students studying classes in Mechatronics , Information technology and Biotechnology at

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