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52-717: The formation was named after Quebrada La Paja in Betulia, Santander, and stretches across 450 kilometres (280 mi) from northeast to southwest. The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is overlain by the San Gil Group and the Simití and Tablazo Formations and dates from the late Hauterivian to late Aptian . The Paja Formation comprises mudstones , shales and nodules of sandstones and limestones , deposited in an anoxic environment , in

104-550: A global increase in volcanic activity. The Paja Formation is one of the stratigraphic units cropping out in the Western emerald belt . Mineralization in the formation has been dated on the basis of Ar/Ar analysis of muscovite minerals. In western San Pablo de Borbur , Boyacá, the mineralization dates to the Late Eocene at 36.4 ± 0.1 and 37.3 ± 0.1 Ma. In the northwestern part of Muzo , Boyacá, mineralization happened during

156-587: A reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Ritoque Formation The Ritoque Formation ( Spanish : Formación Ritoque , Kiri, Kirt) is a geological formation of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense , Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes . The formation consists of grey siltstones , limestones and fine sandstones intercalated. The formation dates to

208-541: A result of it, the Department of Cúcuta existed for a short period. In April 1910, the political division of Colombia changed again. The 34 departments created in 1908 were suppressed and in 1905, Cúcuta disappeared as department and returns as part of Bucaramanga. Law 25 July 14, 1910, took effect 20 July of that year. It was signed by the then President of the National Assembly of Colombia, Emilio Ferrero;

260-426: A special demography due its borders. Cúcuta has the largest population. Other cities are Ocaña and Pamplona . A large part of the population lives in urban areas, 79.17%, while 20.87% of the departmental population lives in rural areas. In 2019, it was reported to be the department with the most Venezuelan migrants, with a total of 176,695. In Norte de Santander there are several minority groups, among them include

312-550: Is a department of Northeastern Colombia . It is in the north of the country, bordering Venezuela . Its capital is Cúcuta , one of the country's major cities. North Santander is bordered by Venezuela to the east and north, by Santander Department and Boyacá Department to the south, and by Santander Department and Cesar Department to the west. The official department name is " Departamento de Norte de Santander " (North Santander Department) in honor of Colombian military and political leader Francisco de Paula Santander , who

364-598: Is exposed on the northern banks of the quebrada at the confluence of the Sogamoso River in Betulia , Santander . The formation is divided into the Lutitas Negras Inferiores, Arcillolitas Abigarradas and Arcillolitas con Nódulos Huecos Members, and stretches across 450 kilometres (280 mi) from northeast to southwest. The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and

416-957: Is found in the hills bordering both sides of the Suárez River . In this area, the Paja Formation is offset by the Suárez Fault . Surrounding Jordán, Santander , the formation crops out on both sides of the Chicamocha River in the Chicamocha Canyon . The touristic town San Gil rests on the formation and the Fonce River cuts into it. East of the town center, the formation is offset by the Curití and Ocamonte Faults . The urban centers of Oiba , San Benito , Encino , Ocamonte and Charalá are built on top of

468-883: Is offset by the Simití Fault , to the Pauna Anticlinal in San Pablo de Borbur , where the formation is thrusted over the Ritoque Formation in the south. In the southern extension of the exposures, the formation crops out in the north of Tununguá , near the Ibacapí Fault . In the Middle Magdalena Valley , south of Barrancabermeja , the Paja Formation in the subsurface is offset by the Casabe , Infantas and Arruga Faults . In

520-464: Is overlain by the Simití and Tablazo Formations and dates from the Hauterivian to Late Aptian . The type section of the Paja Formation is found at the banks of Quebrada La Paja in Betulia, Santander, where the formation has a thickness of 625 metres (2,051 ft). Outcrops of the formation extend from Simití in the north, close to the border of Santander and Bolívar , where the formation

572-492: Is subdivided into three members, from oldest to youngest: In the northern part of the Middle Magdalena Valley, the Paja Formation comprises dark grey to blueish shales, intercalated with grey to yellowish fine-grained sandstones and fossiliferous limestones , locally with a sandy component. Bürgl in 1954 reported beds of tuff in the Paja Formation near Villa de Leyva. Thin section analysis of samples of

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624-512: The Early Cretaceous period; Early Hauterivian epoch and varies in thickness between 70 and 110 metres (230 and 360 ft). The formation was first defined and named by Etayo in 1968 after the vereda Ritoque of Villa de Leyva . The Ritoque Formation is characterised by a sequence of grey siltstones , limestones and sandstones with a thickness between 70 and 110 metres (230 and 360 ft). The Ritoque Formation overlies

676-585: The Early Oligocene , at 31.4 ± 0.3 Ma. Previous geologic researchers considered the Paja Formation hosted emeralds, and later definition of the stratigraphy of Colombia separated one of the main emerald formations of Colombia as the contemporaneous Barremian Muzo Formation , providing emeralds in the La Pita mine and important Coscuéz mine . The Paja Formation is known for its gypsum deposits, which are mined and restricted to Santander. Near Guavatá ,

728-739: The El Peñón Formation pertaining to the Villeta Group to the south in the Eastern Ranges. The formation is laterally equivalent with the black shales of the Fómeque Formation in the eastern part of the Eastern Ranges and the sandstones of Las Juntas Formation in the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy . In the Middle Magdalena Valley to the west, the formation partly overlies and partly is laterally equivalent to

780-672: The International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included the 'Marine Reptile Lagerstätte from the Lower Cretaceous of the Ricaurte Alto' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as

832-502: The Middle Magdalena Valley , with seal capacity for the underlying Rosablanca Formation reservoir in the latter basin. Vitrinite reflectance analysis on samples of the Paja Formation indicate an average value of 0.52 Ro, making the formation a marginal source rock. The Paja Formation is the richest Mesozoic fossiliferous formation of Colombia. Fauna of dinosaurs, Padillasaurus , and various marine reptiles, among which plesiosaurs , ichthyosaurs , pliosaurs and turtles make up

884-680: The Rosablanca and Arcabuco Formations and is overlain by the Paja Formation . The age has been estimated to be Early Hauterivian . Stratigraphically, the formation is time equivalent with the Macanal Formation . The Ritoque Formation is found, apart from its type locality near Villa de Leyva , Boyacá , found in the vicinity. Norte de Santander North Santander (Spanish: Norte de Santander ) ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈnoɾte ðe santanˈdeɾ] )

936-533: The Río Minero and Pedro Gómez Faults and occurs in the footwall of the La Venta Fault . North of Lake Fúquene , the town centers of Tinjacá and Sutamarchán are built on top of the Paja Formation. In this area, the formation extends into the northern part of Cundinamarca, where the urban centers of Yacopí and La Palma rest on the formation. Surrounding the touristic town of Villa de Leyva ,

988-502: The Selli event , dating to the early Aptian (approximately 120 Ma) was active during deposition of the black shales of the Paja Formation. The formation contains three spikes of δC, with values above 1.5‰, in the lower, middle to upper and upper Paja Formation. These spikes indicate a global change in the carbon cycle and the preservation of organic matter due to poor oxygenation of sea waters. The cause of these elevated δC levels may have been

1040-662: The Simití Formation and is offset in the subsurface by the Pozo Azul and Caña Braval Faults . South of there, the Paja Formation is offset by the La Corcovada and El Guineal Faults , and the regional La Salina Fault . Near the eponymous town , the formation is offset by the Landazurí Fault . West of Barichara , the formation underlies the corregimiento Guane, Barichara  [ es ] and

1092-531: The Zulía River . The Colombian Congress issued law 69 of 1923, which requested the construction of an aerial lift that would connect the Magdalena River with the city of Cucutá, the reason was that several road and rail transportation projects had failed, but for political and economic reasons, only the aerial lift between Ocaña and Gamarra could be completed. The Ministry of Public Works ordered

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1144-661: The limestones of the Rosablanca Formation. The Paja Formation is diachronous with the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations. To the northeast of the extent of the formation, it correlates with the upper part of the Río Negro Formation , and the lowermost Tibú-Mercedes Formation of the Catatumbo Basin . During deposition of the Paja Formation, the paleo coastline was oriented west–east. From

1196-492: The Arcillolitas Abigarradas Member of the Paja Formation, some horizons preserve abundant wood, which is frequently bored by pseudoplanktonic pholadoid bivalves, commonly referred to as " shipworms " or "piddocks". The presence of wood boring bivalves in Paja Formation seas indicates the continued presence of xylic substrates, and long residence time of floating wood. The paleontological richness of

1248-545: The Catatumbo has temperatures averaging 24 °C (75 °F) with warm climates and humid. In the zone of Cúcuta, climate varies from dry to very dry. In the mountainous area, climates go from the temperate to cold. The northeast of the department is generally of a warm humid climate, including Tibú. In municipalities such as Ocaña and Ábrego, temperate climates predominate. In the limits between Santander and Norte de Santander there are cold climates. North Santander has

1300-482: The GDP of Norte de Santander, specifically agricultural activities contribute 23.2% while mining activities contribute 6.1%, much of the mining carried out in the department is coal extraction. In other aspects of the departmental economy, commerce contributes 10.4% of the departmental GDP, and manufacturing industry contributes 12.9%. The department has several tourist sites around several municipalities such as Ocaña, among

1352-694: The Mountainous area of the Motilones. On the other hand, the plains of the Catatumbo and Zulia Rivers are located to the Northwest. To the south is the valley of the Magdalena River . A rich hydrographic system crosses the department with three river basins of great importance: to the north is Catatumbo river, to the west Magdalena river and to the southwest, the Orinoco river . The sector around

1404-575: The Paja Formation has provided insight in the micritic components of the sediments, where three microfacies were recognized; biomicritic wackestones , foraminiferous packstones and sandy biomicritic floatstones containing fragments of echinoderms , bivalves , crinoids and gastropods cemented by hematite . The Paja Formation correlates with the Tibasosa Formation to the east on the northern Altiplano Cundiboyacense in Boyacá and with

1456-614: The Paja Formation. In this area, the formation is offset by the Confines and Encino Faults . Further to the south, the towns of Vélez , Guavatá and Jesús María rest on the formation. West of the latter, the Paja Formation is put in a reverse faulted contact with the Cumbre Formation . The El Carmen Fault puts the Paja Formation in contact with the Jurassic Girón Formation . In northeastern Boyacá,

1508-496: The Secretary, Marcelino Uribe exequible Arango and declared by President Ramon González Valencia . North Santander has a varied geography and is composed by mountainous areas, deserts, plateaus, plains and hills. The landscapes and climates are fertile. The territory is crossed by rivers and lagoons. The department comprises three natural regions. The Eastern Mountain range, begins in the site known as Naked Santurbán and becomes

1560-532: The black and mulatto population comprising 1.8%, the indigenous population with 0.60%, the Raizal population 0.01%, and the Romani population with 0.02%. The economy of the department of Norte de Santander contributes 1.8% of Colombia's GDP. As a border department, part of Norte de Santander's economy depends on the service sector, including finance and commerce. The primary sector of the economy contributes 29.3% to

1612-568: The city of Ocaña, founded in 1570, was used as a connection point between the Colombian Caribbean area and the capital of the province of Pamplona. Pamplona was the site of several independence movements, which is why one of the names the city has been given is "Ciudad Patriota" (Patriot City). Ocaña served as a strategic point for the liberating troops. In Cucutá, it was the place where the Admirable Campaign began, it

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1664-552: The colonization process began with the Spaniard Pedro de Ursúa in 1549. The discovered gold mines attracted a series of conquerors as well as adventurers. Founded in 1549 as a captaincy, the city of Pamplona served as a strategic expeditionary center where the founding of cities in Colombia and Venezuela was declared, in this city was established the first Catholic archdiocese of Northeastern Colombia. During colonial times,

1716-547: The construction of the aerial lift immediately in 1925, the English engineer James F. Lindsay was in charge of the direction of the construction. The aerial lift was inaugurated on 7 August 1929. The aerial lift lasted 20 years in use, and then fell into disuse when several new roads were opened. In October 1971, the Camilo Daza International Airport was inaugurated. The airport was recognized as

1768-545: The design of the temple is of Gothic architecture, also it was one of the first churches built after the 1875 Cúcuta earthquake . In the southwestern part of Norte de Santander is the city of Pamplona, which has the Museo Casa Colonial , one of the oldest museums in the department. In the 1870s, the Cucutá Railroad was built, which helped connect the area where coffee was grown in the department with

1820-559: The dinosaur Padillasaurus . The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is concordantly overlain by the San Gil Group and Tablazo Formations in the eastern extent, and the Simití Formation in the northwestern Middle Magdalena Valley. In the Western emerald belt, the contact with the Rosablanca Formation is concordant and abrupt. The total thickness of the formation varies across its extent, but can reach up to 940 metres (3,080 ft). The Paja Formation

1872-472: The formation and it hosts the only dinosaur fossils described in the country to date; Padillasaurus . The formation also has provided many ammonites , fossil flora , decapods and the fossil shark Protolamna ricaurtei . The Paja Formation was first described by O.C. Wheeler, according to Morales (1958), and named after Quebrada La Paja , a tributary of the Sogamoso River . The type section

1924-523: The formation crops out in the hills in a microclimatic location, known as the La Candelaria Desert ( Spanish : Desierto de La Candelaria ), stretching across Villa de Leyva, Santa Sofía and Sáchica . Along the highway Tunja -Villa de Leyva, the formation is heavily folded and faulted along a stretch of 500 metres (1,600 ft). In the vicinity of Villa de Leyva, the formation has provided many fossils of marine reptiles, as well as

1976-480: The formation hosts sphalerite and malachite and near Otanche , pyrite and galena are found in the formation. In Gámbita , the Paja Formation contains pyrite, galena and chalcopyrite . Other minerals occurring in the Paja Formation, are lead and zinc , around Paime and Yacopí , Cundinamarca. The Paja Formation is considered a minor source rock in the Eastern Cordillera Basin and

2028-404: The formation led to the establishment of a center of investigation; Centro de Investigaciones Paleontológicas  [ es ] (CIP), two museums; Paleontological Museum of Villa de Leyva  [ es ] , and Museo El Fósil , and a dinosaur park; Gondava, near Villa de Leyva. In respect of the 'world's most complete record of Lower Cretaceous marine reptiles and associated fauna',

2080-585: The formation underlies the urban center of Moniquirá (not to be confused with Monquirá, a vereda of nearby Villa de Leyva ) and is crossed by the Moniquirá River . West of Arcabuco in the Villa de Leyva Synclinal, the formation is cut by the Arcabuco River . In the vicinity of Pauna and San Pablo de Borbur, the formation crops out in an extensive area. Here, the Paja Formation is offset by

2132-755: The gastronomy and traditional medicine used in the municipality. In the eastern part of the department is the Historical Complex of Villa del Rosario, this includes Casa Natal del General Santander (lit., "Birth house of General Santander") and the Bagatela (known as the Government House). In the San Luis neighborhood, one of the oldest neighborhoods of Cúcuta, is the San Luís Gonzaga Basilica,  [ es ] ,

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2184-402: The late Aptian to early Albian , the area was covered by an extensive carbonate platform , in the extent of the Paja Formation represented by the San Gil Group , Tablazo Formation and Villeta Group . The thin section analysis led to the interpretation of a shoreface to lower shoreface environment, in the internal parts of a carbonate platform, where transgressions and regressions caused

2236-735: The main sites of the municipality is the Historical Complex of the Great Convention and the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Graces of Torcoroma  [ es ] . Other tourist sites located in the western part of the department include Los Estoraques Unique Natural Area near La Playa de Belén. In the southwestern part of the department is the Casa de la Cultura Manuel Briceño Jáuregui in Chinácota, which has photographs about

2288-527: The northeastern extent, in Río Negro , near the border with Norte de Santander , the formation is found in the subsurface, offset by the Lebríja Fault . The town center of Zapatoca rests on the formation in the synclinal named after the village. The Paja Formation also crops out in the northwestern part of the Middle Magdalena Valley, east of San Pablo , Bolívar , where in the formation underlies

2340-443: The settlement of several indigenous groups, among them the Barí and Chitatero people. These indigenous groups inhabited the region between the Sardinata, Tarra and Zulia rivers. The U'wa people also inhabited part of the department, the political organization of this indigenous group was through clans. The first European to set foot on the land where the department is located was the German Ambrosio Alfinger in 1530. Although

2392-480: The time known as "Regeneration", changed the name of the country and again it was known as the Republic of Colombia. The area was still known as Santander and was part of the provinces of Cúcuta, Ocaña, Pamplona, Charalá, García Rovira, Guanentá, Soto, Socorro and Vélez. In 1905, the department was divided into two and for a time, Santander had Cúcuta, Ocaña, River of Gold, Pamplona, García Rovira, Santos and Fortúl provinces. A new political division came in 1908 and as

2444-451: The variations in grain sizes and lithologies. The Barremian to Aptian sequence shows evidence of an overall relative sea level fall with open marine sedimentation in the lowest member and tidal deposits in the upper part of the formation. One of the longest anoxic intervals of geologic history occurred during the Cretaceous, from about 125 to 80 Ma (early Aptian to early Campanian ). During this Oceanic Anoxic Event , there were two spikes,

2496-447: The vertebrate assemblage. Furthermore, many ammonites , the foraminifer Epistomina , decapods , flora and fossil fish have been recovered from the formation. Paja ammonites have been used in the walls and floor of the Convento del Santo Ecce Homo  [ es ] near Villa de Leyva. In 2019 , turtle expert Edwin Cadena described a fossil of Desmatochelys padillai who was found with her eggs still inside her. Within

2548-499: The warm and shallow sea that covered large parts of the present Colombian territory during the Cretaceous. Initially considered to host Colombian emeralds , the emerald-bearing part was redefined as a separate formation; the Muzo Formation . The Paja Formation Lagerstätte is famous for its vertebrate fossils and is the richest Mesozoic fossiliferous formation of Colombia. Several marine reptile fossils of plesiosaurs , pliosaurs , ichthyosaurs and turtles have been described from

2600-416: Was also the first city where Simón Bolívar defeated the royalist troops. In Villa del Rosario, the Congress of 1821 was established where the creation of the Republic of Colombia was established. In April 1850, when the Republic of New Granada was born with 5 departments and 19 provinces. Santander was formed as a province with San José de Cúcuta its capital. In 1857 the sovereign Department of Santander

2652-411: Was born and raised near Cúcuta. North Santander Department is located in the northwestern zone of the Colombian Andean Region . The area of present-day Norte de Santander played an important role in the history of Colombia , during the War of Independence from Spain when Congress gave origin to the Greater Colombia in Villa del Rosario . The jungle zone and the valleys of the department served as

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2704-429: Was created and its capital was Pamplona. As of December of that year, the capital was transferred to Bucaramanga. In May 1858, the Republic of Colombia was denominated Granadina Confederation, including eight Departments, including the one of Santander. In 1863 it was decided in the National Convention of Rio Negro, to change the name of the country to the United States of Colombia. The Political Constitution of 1886, at

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