Political
146-418: The Pakistan Movement emerged in the early 20th century as part of a campaign that advocated the creation of an Islamic state in parts of what was then British India . It was rooted in the two-nation theory , which asserted that Indian Muslims were fundamentally and irreconcilably distinct from Indian Hindus (who formed the demographic majority) and would therefore require separate self-determination upon
292-467: A four-volume biography of the Duke of Marlborough to rebutting Macaulay's slights on his ancestor, expressing hope "to fasten the label 'Liar' to his genteel coat-tails". The Liberal historian Lord Acton read Macaulay's History of England four times and later described himself as "a raw English schoolboy, primed to the brim with Whig politics" but "not Whiggism only, but Macaulay in particular that I
438-414: A 'sovereign caste', wielding absolute power over its 'serfs'." Losurdo noted that this did not prompt any doubts from Macaulay over the right of Britain to administer its colonies in an autocratic fashion; for example, while Macaulay described the administration of governor-general of India Warren Hastings as being so despotic that "all the injustice of former oppressors, Asiatic and European, appeared as
584-576: A Muslim delegation led by Aga Khan III , a deal to which Minto agreed. The delegation consisted of 35 members, who each represented their respective region proportionately, mentioned hereunder. Until 1937 the Muslim League had remained an organisation of elite Indian Muslims. The Muslim League leadership then began mass mobilisation and the League then became a popular party with the Muslim masses in
730-819: A Western cloak of nationalism over the Islamic concept of culture. The distinct sense of value, culture and tradition among Indian Muslims originated from the nature of Islamization of the Indian populace during the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent . The success of the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference as a part of the Aligarh Movement, the All-India Muslim League, was established with
876-599: A balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history . This philosophy appears most clearly in the essays Macaulay wrote for the Edinburgh Review and other publications, which were collected in book form and a steady best-seller throughout the 19th century. But it is also reflected in History ;
1022-580: A blessing", he (Hastings) deserved "high admiration" and a rank among "the most remarkable men in our history" for "having saved England and civilisation". Returning to Britain in 1838, he became MP again in Edinburgh in the following year. He was made Secretary at War in 1839 by Lord Melbourne and was sworn of the Privy Council the same year. In 1841 Macaulay addressed the issue of copyright law. Macaulay's position, slightly modified, became
1168-479: A class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to
1314-526: A glorious precolonial state-empire when the Muslims of South Asia were politically united and culturally, civilizationally, and strategically dominant. In that era, ethnolinguistic differences were subsumed under a common vision of an Islamic-inspired social and political order. However, the divisions among Muslims that did exist were exploited by the British, who practiced 'divide-and-rule' politics, displacing
1460-476: A good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia'. His tendency to see history as a drama led him to treat figures whose views he opposed as if they were villains, while characters he approved of were presented as heroes. Macaulay goes to considerable length, for example, to absolve his main hero William III of any responsibility for the Glencoe massacre . Winston Churchill devoted
1606-540: A jihad against non-Muslims, also known as Moplah riots, with thousands being killed in the Malabar region of Kerala. The Arabic word dawla comes from the root d-w-l , meaning "to turn, come around in a cyclical fashion". In the Quran , it is used to refer to the nature of human fortunes, alternating between victory and defeat (3:140). This use led Arab writers to apply the word to succession of dynasties, particularly to
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#17327647104021752-451: A key to half the prejudices of our age. It is the History (with one or two speeches) that is wonderful. He knew nothing respectably before the seventeenth century, he knew nothing of foreign history, of religion, philosophy, science, or art. His account of debates has been thrown into the shade by Ranke, his account of diplomatic affairs, by Klopp . He is, I am persuaded, grossly, basely unfair. Read him therefore to find out how it comes that
1898-655: A lone battle without support from the rest of Baluchistan. Dhaka was the birthplace of the All India Muslim League in 1906. The Pakistan Movement was highly popular in the Muslim population of Bengal. Many of the Muslim League's notable statesmen and activists hailed from East Bengal , including Khabeeruddin Ahmed , Sir Abdul Halim Ghuznavi , Anwar-ul Azim, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy , Jogendra Nath Mandal , Khawaja Nazimuddin , and Nurul Amin , many among whom later became Prime ministers of Pakistan. Following
2044-605: A more remunerative office, than that of the unremunerated office of an MP , from which he resigned after the passing of the Government of India Act 1833 to accept an appointment as first Law Member of the Governor-General's Council . In 1834 Macaulay went to India, where he served on the Supreme Council between 1834 and 1838. His Minute on Indian Education of February 1835 was primarily responsible for
2190-483: A nation of ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity; while the second group, denoted by the ideals of Ashraf Ali Thanwi , was a proponent of the perceived uniqueness of the Muslim way of life and accordingly played a significant role in the Pakistan Movement. Likewise, a number of Indian Muslim political parties were split over their support, or lack thereof, for an independent Muslim state. Among
2336-588: A phrase that to him was synonymous with Western culture. There was no tradition of secondary education in vernacular languages; the institutions supported by the East India Company taught either in Sanskrit or Persian . Hence, he argued, "We have to educate a people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother-tongue. We must teach them some foreign language." Macaulay argued that Sanskrit and Persian were no more accessible than English to
2482-489: A powerful tool for Muslim political awareness; Iqbal, in particular, is often called the spiritual father of Muslim nationalist thought in his era. The role of India's ulama , however, was divided into two groups: the first group, denoted by the ideals of Hussain Ahmed Madani , was convinced by the concept of composite nationalism , which argued against religious nationalism on the basis of India's historic identity as
2628-628: A prominent essay on Milton in the Edinburgh Review . Macaulay did not study classical literature while at Cambridge, though he subsequently did when he was in India. In his letters he describes his reading of the Aeneid whilst he was in Malvern in 1851, and says he was moved to tears by Virgil 's poetry. He taught himself German, Dutch and Spanish, and was fluent in French. He studied law and in 1826 he
2774-552: A reaction to the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate in 1924. It was also in this context that the famous dictum that Islam is both a religion and a state ( al-Islam din wa dawla ) was first popularized. The modern conception of Islamic state was first articulated by the Syrian-Egyptian Islamic theologian Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865–1935). Rashid Rida condemned the 1922 Turkish Abolition of Sultanate which reduced
2920-471: A right to attend, meet, and petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis . The Constitution of Yemen declares that Islam is the state religion , and that Shari'a (Islamic law) is the source of all legislation. The Islamic Republic of Mauritania is a country in the Maghreb region of western North Africa . Mauritania was declared an independent state as
3066-403: A shrine's size and relationship with the government dictated its allegiance. Despite the Muslim League's aim to foster a united Muslim loyalty, it also recognised the need to better exploit the biradari network and appeal to primordial tribal loyalties. In 1946 it held a special Gujjar conference intending to appeal to all Muslim Gujjars, and reversed its expulsion of Jahanara Shahnawaz with
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#17327647104023212-601: A single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state. At Lahore the Muslim League formally committed itself to create an independent Muslim state, including Sindh , Punjab , Baluchistan , the North West Frontier Province and Bengal, that would be "wholly autonomous and sovereign". The resolution guaranteed protection for non-Muslims. The Lahore Resolution, moved by
3358-675: A symbol of the Muslim League at rallies, and pledges to vote were made on it. Students, a key component of the Muslim League's activists, were trained to appeal to the electorate on communal lines, and at the peak of student activity during the Christmas holidays of 1945, 250 students from Aligarh were invited to campaign in the province along with 1550 members of the Punjab Muslim Student's Federation. A key achievement of these efforts came in enticing Muslim Jats and Gujjars from their intercommunal tribal loyalties. In response,
3504-450: A system of Western -style scientific education among the subcontinent's Muslims, seeking to enrich and vitalize their society, culture, and religious thought. Khan's efforts fostered Indian Muslim nationalism and went on to provide both the Pakistan Movement and the nascent country that it would yield with its ruling elite. Several prominent Urdu poets , such as Muhammad Iqbal and Faiz Ahmad Faiz used speech, literature, and poetry as
3650-521: A thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims. The separation of Sind from the Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah. Although
3796-513: A vote took place in the princely Kalat state, the consensus of which remains disputed. The pro-India Congress, which drew support from Hindus and some Muslims, sensing that geographic and demographic compulsions would not allow the province’s inclusion into the newly Independent India, began to encourage separatist elements in Balochistan, and other Muslim majority provinces such as NWFP. Kalat finally acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948 after
3942-561: Is a seminal example of Whig history commended for its prose style. Macaulay was born at Rothley Temple in Leicestershire on 25 October 1800, the son of Zachary Macaulay , a Scottish Highlander , who became a colonial governor and abolitionist , and Selina Mills of Bristol , a former pupil of Hannah More . They named their first child after his uncle Thomas Babington , a Leicestershire landowner and politician, who had married Zachary's sister Jean. The young Macaulay
4088-535: Is an Islamic absolute monarchy . The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia contains many characteristics of what might be called a constitution in other countries. However, the Qur'an and the Sunnah is declared to be the official constitution of the country which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a) . The Allegiance Council is responsible to determine the new King and the new Crown Prince. All citizens of full age have
4234-426: Is incomprehensible without Scotland. Potter noted that Macaulay has had many critics, some of whom put forward some salient points about the deficiency of Macaulay's History but added: "The severity and the minuteness of the criticism to which the History of England has been subjected is a measure of its permanent value. It is worth every ounce of powder and shot that is fired against it." Potter concluded that "in
4380-518: Is poetry. And I certainly never met with any orientalist who ventured to maintain that the Arabic and Sanskrit poetry could be compared to that of the great European nations. But when we pass from works of imagination to works in which facts are recorded and general principles investigated, the superiority of the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable. It is, I believe, no exaggeration to say that all
4526-477: The Anti-Slavery Reporter , Moody's contentions. Macaulay, who did not marry nor have children, was rumoured to have fallen in love with Maria Kinnaird , who was the wealthy ward of Richard 'Conversation' Sharp . Macaulay's strongest emotional relationships were with his youngest sisters: Margaret, who died while he was in India, and Hannah, to whose daughter Margaret, whom he called 'Baba', he
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4672-781: The Khilafa into a purely spiritual authority; soon after the First World War . In his book al-Khilafa aw al-Imama al-Uzma (The Caliphate or the Grand Imamate) published in 1922, Rida asserted that the Caliphate should have the combined powers of both spiritual and temporal authority. He called for the establishment of an Islamic state led by Arabs , functioning as a khilāfat ḍurūrah (caliphate of necessity) that upholds Sharia , and defend its Muslim and non-Muslim subjects. Another important modern conceptualization of
4818-477: The 1937 Indian provincial elections , had the mass support of the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs of the Punjab; its leaders included Muslim Punjabis, such as Fazl-i-Hussain and Hindu Punjabis, such as Chhotu Ram . The Punjab had a slight Muslim majority, and local politics had been dominated by the secular Unionist Party and its longtime leader Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan . The Unionists had built a formidable power base in
4964-513: The Constituent Assembly of British Indian Empire , the Muslim League secured and won 434 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (and about 87.5% of Muslim votes) on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with an implied threat of secession if this was not granted. The Congress which was led by Gandhi and Nehru remained adamantly opposed to dividing India. The partition seems to have been inevitable after all, one of
5110-768: The Indian Army recruits during the war, constituting 800,000 men, and representing a significant part of the electorate. By 1946, less than 20 per cent of those servicemen returning home had found employment. This in part was exacerbated by the speedy end to the war in Asia, which caught the Unionists by surprise, and meant their plans to deploy servicemen to work in canal colonies were not yet ready. The Muslim League took advantage of this weakness and followed Congress's example of providing work to servicemen within its organisation. The Muslim League's ability to offer an alternative to
5256-622: The Ottoman Empire was abolished under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924 as part of Atatürk's Reforms . This move was most vigorously protested in India, as Mahatma Gandhi and Indian Muslims united behind the symbolism of the Ottoman Caliph in the Khilafat Movement which sought to reinstate the caliph deposed by Atatürk. The movement leveraged the Ottoman resistance against political pressure from Britain to abolish
5402-670: The Punjab Assembly cast its vote in favour of Pakistan with supermajority rule , which made many minority Hindus and Sikhs migrate to India while Muslim refugees from India settled in the Western Punjab and across Pakistan. In the Sind province of British India, the Sind United Party promoted communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims, winning 22 out of 33 seats in the 1937 Indian provincial elections . Both
5548-605: The Radcliffe Line officially demarcated the Dominion of Pakistan over two non-contiguous swaths of territory, which would later be organized as West Pakistan and East Pakistan , with the latter comprising East Bengal and the former comprising West Punjab and Sind and inheriting British India's borders with Afghanistan and Iran . In 1971, however, the Bangladesh Liberation War resulted in
5694-563: The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and consequently the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258). The essence or guiding principles of an Islamic government or Islamic state is the concept of al- Shura . Several scholars have different understandings or thoughts, with regard to the concept al-Shura. However, most Muslim scholars are of the opinion that Islamic al-Shura should consist of the following: Muhammad himself respected
5840-602: The civilising mission has been used by Dalitists, in particular by neo-liberalist Chandra Bhan Prasad , as a "creative appropriation for self-empowerment", based on the view that the Dalit community was empowered by Macaulay's deprecation of Hindu culture and support for Western-style education in India. Domenico Losurdo states that "Macaulay acknowledged that the English colonists in India behaved like Spartans confronting helots : we are dealing with 'a race of sovereign' or
5986-714: The decolonization of India . The idea was largely realized when the All-India Muslim League ratified the Lahore Resolution on 23 March 1940, calling for the Muslim-majority regions of the Indian subcontinent to be "grouped to constitute independent states" that would be "autonomous and sovereign" with the aim of securing Muslim socio-political interests vis-à-vis the Hindu majority. It was in
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6132-492: The freedom of the city . In 1852, the voters of Edinburgh offered to re-elect him to Parliament. He accepted on the express condition that he need not campaign and would not pledge himself to a position on any political issue. Remarkably, he was elected on those terms. He seldom attended the House due to ill health. His weakness after suffering a heart attack caused him to postpone for several months making his speech of thanks to
6278-399: The partition of Bengal , violence erupted in the region, which was mainly contained to Kolkata and Noakhali . Islamic state Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal An Islamic state has a form of government based on sharia . As a term, it has been used to describe various historical polities and theories of governance in the Islamic world. As a translation of
6424-528: The 1833 enactment of the Reform Act 1832 , by which Calne's representation was reduced from two MPs to one, and by which Leeds, which had not been represented before, had two MPs. Macaulay remained grateful to his former patron, Lansdowne, who remained his friend. Macaulay was Secretary to the Board of Control under Lord Grey from 1832 until he in 1833 required, as a consequence of the penury of his father,
6570-573: The 1937 elections, and the Muslim League now attempted to replicate their method of doing so. To do so, the Muslim League created the Masheikh Committee, used Urs ceremonies and shrines for meetings and rallies and encouraged fatwas urging support for the Muslim League. Reasons for the pirs switching allegiance varied. For the Gilani Pirs of Multan the overriding factor was local longstanding factional rivalries, whilst for many others
6716-544: The 1940s, especially after the Lahore Resolution. Under Jinnah's leadership its membership grew to over two million and became more religious and even separatist in its outlook. The Muslim League's earliest base was the United Provinces . From 1937 onwards, the Muslim League and Jinnah attracted large crowds throughout India in its processions and strikes. The Lahore Resolution marked the beginning of
6862-467: The 1946 election was effectively a plebiscite where the Indian Muslims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan; a plebiscite which the Muslim League won. This victory was assisted by the support given to the Muslim League by the rural agriculturalists of Bengal as well as the support of the landowners of Sindh and Punjab . The Congress, which initially denied the Muslim League's claim of being
7008-567: The Accession of James the Second , publishing the first two volumes in 1848. At first, he had planned to bring his history down to the reign of George III . After publication of his first two volumes, his hope was to complete his work with the death of Queen Anne in 1714. The third and fourth volumes, bringing the history to the Peace of Ryswick , were published in 1855. At his death in 1859 he
7154-578: The Accession of James the Second incomplete. On 9 January 1860 he was buried in Westminster Abbey , in Poets' Corner , near a statue of Addison . As he had no children, his peerage became extinct on his death. Macaulay's nephew, Sir George Trevelyan, Bt , wrote the "Life and Letters" of his uncle. His great-nephew was the Cambridge historian G. M. Trevelyan . As a young man he composed
7300-768: The Arabic term dawlah islāmiyyah ( Arabic : دولة إسلامية ) it refers to a modern notion associated with political Islam ( Islamism ). Notable examples of historical Islamic states include the state of Medina , established by the Islamic prophet Muhammad , and the Arab caliphate which continued under his successors and the Umayyads . The concept of the modern Islamic state has been articulated and promoted by ideologues such as Sayyid Rashid Rida , Mohammed Omar , Abul A'la Maududi , Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , Israr Ahmed , Sayyid Qutb and Hassan al-Banna . Implementation of Islamic law plays an important role in modern theories of
7446-889: The British in World War II when the Congress failed to collaborate. The British government made a pledge to the Muslims in 1940 that it would not transfer power to an Independent India unless its constitution was first approved by the Indian Muslims, a promise it did not subsequently keep. In 1942, Gandhi called for the Quit India Movement against the United Kingdom. On the other hand, the Muslim League advised Prime Minister Winston Churchill that Great Britain should "divide and then Quit". Negotiations between Gandhi and Viceroy Wavell failed, as did talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944. When World War II ended,
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#17327647104027592-555: The British recognise it as the only organisation that spoke for Indian Muslims. Following the Congress's effective protest against the United Kingdom unilaterally involving India in the war without consulting with them, the Muslim League went on to support the British war efforts , which allowed them to actively go against the Congress with the argument of "Islam in Danger". The Indian Congress and Muslim League responded differently over
7738-714: The Cabinet Mission Plan recommended a decentralised but united India, this was accepted by the Muslim League but rejected by the Congress, thus, leading the way for the Partition of India. In the British Indian province of Punjab , Muslims placed more emphasis on the Punjabi identity they shared with Hindus and Sikhs, rather than on their religion. The Unionist Party , which prevailed in the 1923 Indian general election , 1934 Indian general election and
7884-411: The Congress and Pashtun nationalist leader Abdul Ghaffar Khan had considerable support for the cause of a united India. During the Independence period there was a Congress -led ministry in the province, which was led by secular Pashtun leaders, including Abdul Ghaffar Khan , who preferred joining India instead of Pakistan. The secular Pashtun leadership was also of the view that if joining India
8030-421: The Department of History at the University of Sheffield from 1931 to 1965, stated "In an age of long letters ... Macaulay's hold their own with the best". However Potter also stated: For all his linguistic abilities he seems never to have tried to enter into sympathetic mental contact with the classical world or with the Europe of his day. It was an insularity that was impregnable ... If his outlook
8176-411: The Eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the Oriental learning at the valuation of the Orientalists themselves. I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia. He further argued : It will hardly be disputed, I suppose, that the department of literature in which the Eastern writers stand highest
8322-422: The Edinburgh voters. He resigned his seat in January 1856. In 1857 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Macaulay , of Rothley in the County of Leicester , but seldom attended the House of Lords . Macaulay sat on the committee to decide on the historical subjects to be painted in the new Palace of Westminster . The need to collect reliable portraits of notable figures from history for this project led to
8468-409: The Gate: "To every man upon this earth Death cometh soon or late. And how can man die better Than facing fearful odds, For the ashes of his fathers, And the temples of his gods?" His essays, originally published in the Edinburgh Review , were collected as Critical and Historical Essays in 1843. During the 1840s, Macaulay undertook his most famous work, The History of England from
8614-471: The General elections in 1946. Jinnah decided to agree to the plan. The British still invited the Congress to form a government with the Muslim League and the Viceroy of India assigned the Office of Prime minister to Nehru of the Indian National Congress. On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain declared the commencement of war with Germany . Shortly thereafter, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow followed suit and announced that India too
8760-499: The Indian Penal Code, which remains the basis for laws which criminalize homosexuality in several Commonwealth nations . In Indian culture, the term "Macaulay's Children" is sometimes used to refer to people born of Indian ancestry who adopt Western culture as a lifestyle, or display attitudes influenced by colonialism (" Macaulayism ") – expressions used disparagingly, and with the implication of disloyalty to one's country and one's heritage. In independent India, Macaulay's idea of
8906-433: The Iranian Revolution also became disenchanted and critical of the unity of religion and state in the Islamic Republic of Iran, are advocating secularization of the state to preserve the purity of the Islamic faith (see Abdolkarim Soroush and Mohsen Kadivar ). Per Supreme leader, Islamic state is the 3rd phase of Iranian Islamic Republic program and is in and of itself part of New Islamic Civilization . Saudi Arabia
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#17327647104029052-441: The Islamic Republic of Mauritania, on November 28, 1960. The Constitutional Charter of 1985 declares Islam as the state religion and sharia the law of the land. Pakistan was created as a separate state for Indian Muslims in British India in 1947, and followed the parliamentary form of democracy. In 1949, the first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan passed the Objectives Resolution which envisaged an official role for Islam as
9198-462: The Islamic state is attributed to Abul A'la Maududi (1903–1979), a Pakistani Muslim theologian who founded the political party Jamaat-e-Islami and inspired other Islamic revolutionaries such as Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini . Abul A'la Maududi's early political career was influenced greatly by anti-colonial agitation in India, especially after the tumultuous abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 stoked anti-British sentiment. The Islamic state
9344-562: The Islamic state, as it did in classical Islamic political theories. However, most of the modern theories also make use of notions that did not exist before the modern era. Today, many Muslim countries have incorporated Islamic law , wholly or in part, into their legal systems . Certain Muslim states have declared Islam to be their state religion in their constitutions , but do not apply Islamic law in their courts. Islamic states that are not Islamic monarchies are mostly Islamic republics . Majid Khadduri gives six stages of history for
9490-420: The Islamic state: The first Islamic State was the political entity established by Muhammad in Medina in 622 CE under the Constitution of Medina . It represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah (nation). It was subsequently transformed into the caliphate by Muhammad's disciples, who were known as the Rightly Guided ( Rashidun ) Caliphs (632–661 CE). The Islamic State significantly expanded under
9636-407: The Mughals and circumscribing other Islamic rulers. Moreover, the Hindus were the allies of the British, who used them to strike a balance with the Muslims; many Hindus, a fundamentally insecure people, hated Muslims and would have oppressed them in a one-man, one-vote democratic India. The Pakistan freedom movement united these disparate pieces of the national puzzle, and Pakistan was the expression of
9782-405: The Muslim League intensified campaigning throughout rural and urban Punjab. A major thrust of the Muslim's League's campaign was the promotion of communalism and spreading fear of a supposed "Hindu threat" in a future united India. Muslim League activists were advised to join in communal prayers when visiting villages, and gain permission to hold meetings after the Friday prayers. The Quran became
9928-477: The Muslim League's push for the Pakistan Movement and Gandhi's efforts for Indian independence intensified the pressure on Prime Minister Churchill. Given the rise of American and Russian dominance in world politics and the general unrest in India, Wavell called for general elections to be held in 1945. In the 1940s, Jinnah emerged as a leader of the Indian Muslims and was popularly known as Quaid-e-Azam (‘Great Leader’). The general elections held in 1945 for
10074-403: The Muslim landed elite, waderas , and the Hindu commercial elements, banias , collaborated in exploiting the predominantly Muslim peasantry of the British Indian province of Sind. In Sind’s first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics, informed by religious and cultural issues. Due to British policies, much land in Sind
10220-405: The Muslims. The same year the British sent a delegation to India to determine its constitutional status and to address the Hindu-Muslim differences. The delegation proposed a plan that three groups in India be formed. One would consist of the Muslim majority Northwest zone, another would consist of the Hindu majority center and the third the Eastern zone of India. The proposal further contemplated
10366-404: The Pakistan Movement was also reported. During British rule in India, Baluchistan was under the rule of a Chief Commissioner and did not have the same status as other provinces of British India. The Muslim League in the period 1927-1947 strived under Jinnah to introduce reforms in Baluchistan to bring it on par with other provinces of British India. Apart from the pro-partition Muslim League that
10512-527: The Pakistan movement. At the 27th annual Muslim League session in 1940 at Lahore's Iqbal Park where about 100,000 people gathered to hear Jinnah speak: Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs, and literature... It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes... To yoke together two such nations under
10658-530: The Persian davlat can mean either state or government. According to Pakistani scholar of Islamic history Qamaruddin Khan, the term Islamic state "was never used in the theory or practice of Muslim political science, before the twentieth century". Sohail H. Hashmi characterizes dawla Islamiyya as a neologism found in contemporary Islamist writings. Islamic theories of the modern notion of state first emerged as
10804-532: The Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill , recorded in his diary: Randolph , who is writing a life of the late Lord Derby for Longman 's, brought to luncheon a young man of that name. His talk interested the P.M. ... Macaulay, Longman went on, was not read now; there was no demand for his books. The P.M. grunted that he was very sorry to hear this. Macaulay had been a great influence in his young days. George Richard Potter , Professor and Head of
10950-481: The Punjab Premier, Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana , and Jinnah in late 1944 had meant many Muslims were now forced to choose between the two parties at the forthcoming election. A further blow for the Unionists came with death of its leading statesman Sir Chhotu Ram in early 1945. The Western Punjab was home to a minority population of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus up to 1947 apart from the Muslim majority. In 1947,
11096-408: The Punjabi countryside through policies of patronage allowing them to retain the loyalty of landlords and pirs who exerted significant local influence. For the Muslim League to claim to represent the Muslim vote, they would need to win over the majority of the seats held by the Unionists. Following the death of Sir Sikander in 1942, and bidding to overcome their dismal showing in the elections of 1937,
11242-605: The Unionist government, namely the promise of Pakistan as an answer to the economic dislocation suffered by Punjabi villagers, was identified as a key issue for the election. On the eve of the elections, the political landscape in the Punjab was finely poised, and the Muslim League offered a credible alternative to the Unionist Party. The transformation itself had been rapid, as most landlords and pirs had not switched allegiance until after 1944. The breakdown of talks between
11388-402: The Unionists attempted to counter the growing religious appeal of the Muslim League by introducing religious symbolism into their own campaign, but with no student activists to rely upon and dwindling support amongst the landlords, their attempts met with little success. To further their religious appeal, the Muslim League also launched efforts to entice Pirs towards their cause. Pirs dominated
11534-424: The World War II issue. The Indian Congress refused to support the British unless the whole Indian subcontinent was granted independence. The Muslim League, on the other hand, supported Britain both politically and via human contributions. The Muslim League leaders' British education, training, and philosophical ideas helped bring the British government and the Muslim League closer to each other. Jinnah himself supported
11680-478: The aftermath of the Lahore Resolution that, under the aegis of Muhammad Ali Jinnah , the cause of "Pakistan" (though the name was not used in the text itself) became widely popular among the Muslims of the Indian independence movement . Instrumental in establishing a base for the Pakistan Movement was the Aligarh Movement , which consisted of several reforms by Syed Ahmad Khan that ultimately promoted
11826-524: The ballads Ivry and The Armada , which he later included as part of Lays of Ancient Rome , a series of very popular poems about heroic episodes in Roman history which he began composing in India and continued in Rome, finally publishing in 1842. The most famous of them, Horatius , concerns the heroism of Horatius Cocles . It contains the oft-quoted lines: Then out spake brave Horatius, The Captain of
11972-630: The basis of copyright law in the English-speaking world for many decades. Macaulay argued that copyright is a monopoly and as such has generally negative effects on society. After the fall of Melbourne's government in 1841 Macaulay devoted more time to literary work, and returned to office as Paymaster General in 1846 in Lord John Russell 's administration. In the election of 1847 he lost his seat in Edinburgh. He attributed
12118-599: The caliphate, connecting it with Indian nationalism and the movement for independence from British rule . However, the Khilafat found little support from the Muslims of the Middle East themselves who preferred to be independent nation states rather than being under the Ottoman Turkish rule. In the Indian sub-continent, although Gandhi tried to co-opt the Khilafat as a national movement, it soon degenerated into
12264-923: The creation of a Penal Code, as the leading member of the Law Commission. In the aftermath of the Indian Mutiny of 1857 , Macaulay's criminal law proposal was enacted. The Indian Penal Code in 1860 was followed by the Criminal Procedure Code in 1872 and the Civil Procedure Code in 1908. The Indian Penal Code inspired counterparts in most other British colonies , and to date many of these laws are still in effect in places as far apart as Pakistan , Malaysia , Myanmar , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Nigeria and Zimbabwe , as well as in India itself. This includes Section 377 of
12410-513: The decision of the shura members. He is the champion of the notion of al-Shura, and this was illustrated in one of the many historical events, such as in the Battle of Khandaq ( Battle of the Trench ), where Muhammad was faced with two decisions, i.e. to fight the invading non-Muslim Arab armies outside of Medina or wait until they enter the city. After consultation with the sahabah (companions), it
12556-440: The democratic principles of electoral politics with the socialist principles of concern for the poor. Today, many Muslim countries have incorporated Islamic law in part into their legal systems. Certain Muslim states have declared Islam to be their state religion in their constitutions, but do not apply Islamic law in their courts. Islamic states which are not Islamic monarchies are usually referred to as Islamic republics, such as
12702-579: The directives of the JUS in the province began to take on communal tones. The JUS ulama saw the Hindus in the province as a 'threat' to Muslims. Accusations of molesting Muslim women were leveled at Hindu shopkeepers in Nowshera , a town where anti-Hindu sermons were delivered by mullas. Tensions also rose in 1936 over the abduction of a Hindu girl in Bannu . Such controversies stirred up anti-Hindu sentiments amongst
12848-485: The dissolution of East Pakistan, which seceded from West Pakistan to become present-day Bangladesh . During the early 19th century, Lord Macaulay 's radical and influential educational reforms led to numerous changes to the introduction and teaching of Western languages (e.g. English and Latin ), history , and philosophy . Religious studies and the Arabic , Turkish , and Persian languages were completely barred from
12994-460: The examples being Lord Mountbatten 's statement on Jinnah: "There was no argument that could move him from his consuming determination to realize the impossible dream of Pakistan." American historian Stephen P. Cohen writes in The Idea of Pakistan with regards to the influence of South Asian Muslim nationalism on the Pakistan movement: [The ethnolinguistic-nationalist narrative] begins with
13140-424: The formula in favor of the immediate creation of Pakistan . In 1945 and 1946 general and provincial elections were held in India respectively. The Muslim League of Jinnah secured most of the Muslim vote in both elections. Jinnah interpreted the results as the entire Muslim nation's demand for partition and a separate state of Pakistan. Congress was forced to recognise the Muslim League as the sole representative of
13286-480: The foundation of the National Portrait Gallery , which was formally established on 2 December 1856. Macaulay was amongst its founding trustees and is honoured with one of only three busts above the main entrance. During his later years his health made work increasingly difficult for him. He died of a heart attack on 28 December 1859, aged 59, leaving his major work, The History of England from
13432-433: The great mass of the population. Macaulay's largely coincided with Bentinck's views and Bentinck's English Education Act 1835 closely matched Macaulay's recommendations (in 1836, a school named La Martinière , founded by Major General Claude Martin, had one of its houses named after him), but subsequent Governors-General took a more conciliatory approach to existing Indian education. His final years in India were devoted to
13578-545: The greatest of all writers and masters, although I think him utterly base, contemptible and odious for certain reasons which you know. In 1888, Acton wrote that Macaulay "had done more than any writer in the literature of the world for the propagation of the Liberal faith, and he was not only the greatest, but the most representative, Englishman then living". W. S. Gilbert described Macaulay's wit, "who wrote of Queen Anne " as part of Colonel Calverley's Act I patter song in
13724-641: The help of All India Radio and a period of negotiations and bureaucracy. The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision in July 1948. Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim refused to lay down arms, leading the Dosht-e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950. Though the Princes fought
13870-602: The historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanskrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used at preparatory schools in England. In every branch of physical or moral philosophy, the relative position of the two nations is nearly the same. Hence, from the sixth year of schooling onwards, instruction should be in European learning, with English as
14016-522: The hope of appealing to Arain constituencies. Appealing to biradari ties enabled the Muslim League to accelerate support amongst landlords, and in turn use the landlords's client-patron economic relationship with their tenants to guarantee votes for the forthcoming election. A separate strategy of the Muslim League was to exploit the economic slump suffered in the Punjab as a result of the Second World War . The Punjab had supplied 27 per cent of
14162-415: The independence of Muslim majority provinces after ten years of Indian Independence. An interim government was to be set up until independence. The Congress Party rejected the separation of the provinces but agreed to the formation of an interim government. The plan stated that whichever party will agree to the whole of the plan will be allowed to form the interim government which would be established after
14308-456: The introduction of Western institutional education to India . Macaulay recommended the introduction of the English language as the official language of secondary education instruction in all schools where there had been none before, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. In his minute, he urged Lord William Bentinck , the then- Governor-General to reform secondary education on utilitarian lines to deliver "useful learning",
14454-594: The islamic republics of Iran, Pakistan and Mauritania . Pakistan adopted the title under the constitution of 1956 ; Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958; and Iran adopted it after the 1979 Revolution that overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty . In Iran, the form of government is known as the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists . Afghanistan was run as an Islamic state ( Islamic State of Afghanistan ) in
14600-637: The libretto of the 1881 operetta Patience . (This line may well have been a joke about the Colonel's pseudo-intellectual bragging, as most educated Victorians knew that Macaulay did not write of Queen Anne; the History encompasses only as far as the death of William III in 1702, who was succeeded by Anne.) Herbert Butterfield 's The Whig Interpretation of History (1931) attacked Whig history. The Dutch historian Pieter Geyl , writing in 1955, considered Macaulay's Essays as "exclusively and intolerantly English". On 7 February 1954, Lord Moran , doctor to
14746-403: The long roll of English historical writing from Clarendon to Trevelyan only Gibbon has surpassed him in security of reputation and certainty of immortality". Piers Brendon wrote that Macaulay is "the only British rival to Gibbon." In 1972, J. R. Western wrote that: "Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay's History of England has still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of
14892-628: The loss to the anger of religious zealots over his speech in favour of expanding the annual government grant to Maynooth College in Ireland, which trained young men for the Catholic priesthood; some observers also attributed his loss to his neglect of local issues. In 1849 he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow , a position with no administrative duties, often awarded by the students to men of political or literary fame. He also received
15038-637: The majority opinion (by the sahabah ) is better than a decision made by one individual. The Ottoman Sultan , Selim I (1512–1520) reclaimed the title of caliph which had been in dispute and asserted by a diversity of rulers and shadow caliphs in the centuries of the Abbasid- Mamluk Caliphate since the Mongols' sacking of Baghdad and the killing of the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, Iraq 1258. The Ottoman Caliphate as an office of
15184-466: The medium of instruction. This would create a class of anglicised Indians who would serve as cultural intermediaries between the British and the Indians; the creation of such a class was necessary before any reform of vernacular education. He stated : I feel with them that it is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form
15330-427: The most prominent of these parties was Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind , which was opposed to Muslim separatism , and from which a pro-separatist group of Islamic scholars, led by Shabbir Ahmad Usmani , founded the breakaway Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam to support the Pakistan Movement. The ultimate objective of the Pakistan Movement, led by the All-India Muslim League, was achieved with the partition of India on 14 August 1947, when
15476-442: The most stirring passages in the work are those that describe the " Glorious Revolution " of 1688. Macaulay's approach has been criticised by later historians for its one-sidedness and its complacency. Karl Marx referred to him as a 'systematic falsifier of history'. Later historians have also highlighted his views on non-European cultures and philosophies as explicitly racist, citing, for example, his remark that 'a single shelf of
15622-454: The most unsympathetic of critics can think him very nearly the greatest of English writers… In 1885, Acton asserted that: We must never judge the quality of a teaching by the quality of the Teacher, or allow the spots to shut out the sun. It would be unjust, and it would deprive us of nearly all that is great and good in this world. Let me remind you of Macaulay. He remains to me one of
15768-482: The national will of India's liberated Muslims. The 1946 elections resulted in the Muslim League winning the majority of Muslim votes and reserved Muslim seats in the Central and provincial assemblies, performing exceptionally well in Muslim minority provinces such as UP and Bihar, relative to the Muslim majority provinces of Punjab and NWFP. The Muslim league captured 429 of the total 492 seats reserved for Muslims. Thus,
15914-819: The official religion of Libya. Brunei is an absolute Islamic monarchy . With the constitution in 1959, Islam became the official religion of the country. Leading up to the Iranian Revolution of 1979 , many of the highest-ranking clergy in Shia Islam held to the standard doctrine of the Imamate , which allows political rule only by Muhammad or one of his true successors. They were opposed to creating an Islamic state (see Ayatollah Ha'eri Yazdi (Khomeini's own teacher), Ayatollah Borujerdi , Grand Ayatollah Shariatmadari , and Grand Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei ). Contemporary theologians who were once part of
16060-457: The official results, there were 572,798 registered voters out of which 289,244 (99.02%) votes were cast in favor of Pakistan while only 2874 (0.98%) were cast in favor of India. According to an estimate the total turnout for the referendum was only 15% less than the total turnout in the 1946 elections. At the same time a large number of Khudai Khidmatgar supporters boycotted the referendum and intimidation against Hindu and Sikh voters by supporters of
16206-703: The other hand, the effects of the Bengali Renaissance made the Hindu population more educated and enabled them to gain lucrative positions at the Indian Civil Service ; many ascended to the influential posts in the British government. In 1930, Muhammad Iqbal delivered his famous speech in the Allahabad annual session which is commonly regarded as sowing the seeds for the creation of a separate state, later known as Pakistan. Class conflict
16352-540: The overthrow of the Umayyads of Damascus by the Abbasids . The first Abbasid caliphs themselves spoke of "our dawla " in the sense of "our turn/time of success". As Abbasids maintained their power, the dynastic sense of dawla became conflated with their dynastic rule, and in later times al-Dawla was used across the Islamic world as a honorific title for rulers and high officials. Like their Christian contemporaries, pre-modern Muslims did not generally conceive of
16498-653: The party with the strongest support in Sind was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families. Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sind, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats, the Muslim League’s cultivation of support from the pirs and saiyids of Sind in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province. The Muslim League had little support in North-West Frontier Province . Here
16644-561: The period." In 1974 J. P. Kenyon stated that: "As is often the case, Macaulay had it exactly right." W. A. Speck wrote in 1980, that a reason Macaulay's History of England "still commands respect is that it was based upon a prodigious amount of research". Speck stated: Macaulay's reputation as an historian has never fully recovered from the condemnation it implicitly received in Herbert Butterfield's devastating attack on The Whig Interpretation of History . Though he
16790-606: The post-communist era since 1992, but then de facto by the Taliban ( Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan ) in areas controlled by them since 1996 and after the 2001 overthrow of the Taliban the country was still known as the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan until 15 August 2021, when the Taliban captured the country . Pan-Islamism is a form of Internationalism and anti-nationalism within political Islam which advocates
16936-579: The prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G.M. Syed (who admired both Hindu and Muslim rulers of Sindh) left the All India Muslim League in the mid-1940s, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance. Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors. The Muslim League’s rise to becoming
17082-515: The province's Muslim population. By 1947 the majority of the JUS ulama in the province began supporting the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan. Immediately prior to Pakistani independence from Britain in 1947, the British held a referendum in the NWFP to allow voters to choose between joining Pakistan or India. The referendum was held on 2 July 1947 while polling began on 6 July 1947 and the referendum results were made public on 20 July 1947. According to
17228-605: The referendum, the Khan of Kalat, on 22 June 1947, received a letter from members of the Shahi Jirga, as well as sardars from the leased areas of Baluchistan, stating that they, "as a part of the Baloch nation, were a part of the Kalat state too" and that if the question of Baluchistan's accession to Pakistan arise, "they should be deemed part of the Kalat state rather than (British) Balochistan". This has brought into question whether
17374-409: The religious landscape, and were individuals who claimed to inherit religious authority from Sufi Saints who had proselytised in the region since the eleventh century. By the twentieth century, most Punjabi Muslims offered allegiance to a Pir as their religious guide, thus providing them considerable political influence. The Unionists had successfully cultivated the support of Pirs to achieve success in
17520-528: The representative of the Muslims. Gandhi rejected and insisted that the Indian National Congress alone represented all of India, including Muslims. Gandhi proposed the C.R Formula , which sought to first achieve independence from the British and then settle the issue of Pakistan through a plebiscite in Muslim majority districts in which the non-Muslims would also vote. Jinnah rejected both postponing decision on partition of British India and
17666-715: The sitting Chief Minister of Bengal A. K. Fazlul Huq , was adopted on 23 March 1940, and its principles formed the foundation for Pakistan's first constitution. In opposition to the Lahore Resolution, the All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for a united India. Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates. Talks were held between Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Mahatma Gandhi in 1944. Jinnah negotiated as
17812-468: The sole representative of Indian Muslims, was now forced to recognise that the Muslim League represented Indian Muslims. The British had no alternative except to take Jinnah's views into account as he had emerged as the sole spokesperson for India's Muslims. However, the British did not desire India to be partitioned and in one last effort to avoid it they arranged the Cabinet Mission plan. In 1946,
17958-530: The speakers of the Indian vernacular languages and existing Sanskrit and Persian texts were of little use for "useful learning". In one of the less scathing passages of the Minute he wrote : I have no knowledge of either Sanskrit or Arabic. But I have done what I could to form a correct estimate of their value. I have read translations of the most celebrated Arabic and Sanskrit works. I have conversed both here and at home with men distinguished by their proficiency in
18104-425: The spot. As a result it is a superb, living picture of Great Britain in the latter half of the seventeenth century ... No description of the relief of Londonderry in a major history of England existed before 1850; after his visit there and the narrative written round it no other account has been needed ... Scotland came fully into its own and from then until now it has been a commonplace that English history
18250-425: The state as an abstract entity distinct from the individual or group who held political power. The word dawla and its derivatives began to acquire modern connotations in the Ottoman Empire and Iran in the 16th and 17th centuries in the course of diplomatic and commercial exchanges with Europe. During the 19th century, the Arabic dawla and Turkish devlet took on all the aspects of the modern notion of state while
18396-839: The state religion to make sure any future law should not violate its basic teachings. On the whole, the state retained most of the laws that were inherited from the British legal code that had been enforced by the British Raj since the 19th century. In 1956, the elected parliament formally adopted the name Islamic Republic of Pakistan, declaring Islam as the official religion. After the fall of Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (Soviet occupation), Afghanistan has gone through several attempts to set up an Islamic state: Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay , PC , FRS , FRSE ( / ˈ b æ b ɪ ŋ t ən m ə ˈ k ɔː l i / ; 25 October 1800 – 28 December 1859)
18542-570: The state universities. In a short span of time, the English language had become not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835 in place of Persian, disadvantaging those who had built their careers around the latter language. Traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer supported by the British Crown , and nearly all of the madrasah s lost their waqf (lit. financial endowment ). Very few Muslim families had their children sent to English universities. On
18688-510: The support provided by Syed Ahmad Khan in 1906. It was founded in Dhaka in a response to the reintegration of Bengal after a mass Hindu protest took place in the subcontinent. Earlier in 1905, viceroy Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal, which was favoured by the Muslims, since it gave them a Muslim majority in the eastern half. In 1909 Lord Minto promulgated the Council Act and met with
18834-540: The then president of the Baluchistan Muslim League, Qazi Muhammad Isa, informed Jinnah that "Shahi Jirga in no way represents the popular wishes of the masses" and that members of the Kalat State were "excluded from voting; only representatives from the British part of the province voted and the British part included the leased areas of Quetta, Nasirabad Tehsil, Nushki and Bolan Agency." Following
18980-555: The unification of the Muslim world under a single Islamic state, often described as a caliphate or ummah. The most famous, powerful and aggressive modern pan-Islamic group that pursues the objective of unifying the Muslim world and establishing a worldwide caliphate is the Wahhabi/Salafi jihadist movement Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant . The Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration as of 3 August 2011 declared Islam to be
19126-588: Was called to the bar , before he took more interest in a political career. Macaulay in the Edinburgh Review in 1827, and in a series of anonymous letters to The Morning Chronicle , censured the analysis of indentured labour by the British Colonial Office expert Colonel Thomas Moody, Kt. Macaulay's evangelical Whig father Zachary Macaulay , who desired a 'free black peasantry' rather than equality for Africans, also censured, in
19272-617: Was a British historian, poet, and Whig politician , who served as the Secretary at War between 1839 and 1841, and as the Paymaster General between 1846 and 1848. He also played a substantial role in determining India's education policy . Macaulay's The History of England , which expressed his contention of the superiority of the Western European culture and of the inevitability of its sociopolitical progress ,
19418-778: Was also attached. Macaulay in 1830 accepted the invitation of the Marquess of Lansdowne that he become Member of Parliament for the pocket borough of Calne . Macaulay's maiden speech in Parliament advocated abolition of the civil disabilities of the Jews in the UK . He extensively wrote that Islam and Hinduism had little to offer to the world, and that Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit literature had little contribution to humanity. Macaulay's subsequent speeches in favour of parliamentary reform were commended. He became MP for Leeds subsequent to
19564-525: Was applied in Chaghi to Zhob (in northern Balochistan), to determine the will of the people which resulted in a victory for the Muslim League.The province's Shahi Jirga and the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality, agreed to join Pakistan unanimously on 29 June 1947; however, the Shahi Jirga was stripped of its members from the Kalat State prior to the vote. According to Rafi Sheikh,
19710-592: Was at war with Germany. In 1939, the Congress leaders resigned from all British India government positions to which they had elected. The Muslim League celebrated the end of the Congress-led British Indian government, with Jinnah famously declaring it "a day of deliverance and thanksgiving". In a secret memorandum to the British Prime Minister , the Muslim League agreed to support the United Kingdom's war efforts—provided that
19856-412: Was coloured in a religious shade, as the Muslims were generally agriculturists and soldiers, while Hindus were increasingly seen as successful financiers and businessmen. Therefore, according to the historian Spear, "an industrialised India meant a Hindu India" to the Muslims. Syed Ahmed Khan converted the existing cultural and religious entity among Indian Muslims into a separatist political force, throwing
20002-407: Was insular, however, it was surely British rather than English. With regards to Macaulay's determination to inspect physically the places mentioned in his History , Potter said: Much of the success of the famous third chapter of the History which may be said to have introduced the study of social history , and even ... local history , was due to the intense local knowledge acquired on
20148-479: Was led by Qazi Muhammad Isa , "three pro-Congress parties were still active in Balochistan's politics", such as the Anjuman-i-Watan Baluchistan , which favoured a united India. In British-ruled Colonial India, Baluchistan contained a Chief Commissioner's province and princely states (including Makran , Las Bela and Kharan ) that became a part of Pakistan. The instrument of referendum
20294-413: Was never cited by name, there can be no doubt that Macaulay answers to the charges brought against Whig historians, particularly that they study the past with reference to the present, class people in the past as those who furthered progress and those who hindered it, and judge them accordingly. According to Speck: [Macaulay too often] denies the past has its own validity, treating it as being merely
20440-406: Was not an option then they should espouse the cause of an independent ethnic Pashtun state rather than Pakistan. The secular stance of Abdul Ghaffar Khan had driven a wedge between the Jamiyatul Ulama Sarhad (JUS) and the otherwise pro-Congress (and pro-Indian unity) Jamiat Ulema Hind , as well as Abdul Ghaffar Khan's Khudai Khidmatgars , who also espoused Hindu-Muslim unity . Unlike the centre JUH,
20586-430: Was noted as a child prodigy; as a toddler, gazing out of the window from his cot at the chimneys of a local factory, he is reputed to have asked his father whether the smoke came from the fires of hell. He was educated at a private school in Hertfordshire , and, subsequently, at Trinity College, Cambridge , where he won several prizes, including the Chancellor's Gold Medal in June 1821, and where he in 1825 published
20732-407: Was perceived as a third way between the rival political systems of democracy and socialism (see also Islamic modernism ). Maududi's seminal writings on Islamic economics argued as early as 1941 against free-market capitalism and state intervention in the economy, similar to Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr 's later Our Economics written in 1961. Maududi envisioned the ideal Islamic state as combining
20878-503: Was so full of." However, after coming under German influence Acton would later find fault in Macaulay. In 1880 Acton classed Macaulay (with Burke and Gladstone ) as one "of the three greatest Liberals". In 1883, he advised Mary Gladstone : [T]he Essays are really flashy and superficial. He was not above par in literary criticism; his Indian articles will not hold water; and his two most famous reviews, on Bacon and Ranke , show his incompetence. The essays are only pleasant reading, and
21024-410: Was suggested by Salman al-Farsi that it would be better if the Muslims fought the non-Muslim Arabs within Medina by building a big ditch on the northern periphery of Medina to prevent the enemies from entering Medina. This idea was later supported by the majority of the sahabah, and thereafter Muhammad also approved it. Muhammad placed great emphasis on agreement about the decision of the shura because
21170-427: Was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades. In Sind, "the dispute over the Sukkur Manzilgah had been fabricated by provincial Leaguers to unsettle Allah Bakhsh Soomro's ministry which was dependent on support from the Congress and the Hindu Independent Party." The Sind Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for what they said was an abandoned mosque to be given to the Muslim League. Consequentially,
21316-428: Was working on the fifth volume. This, bringing the History down to the death of William III , was prepared for publication by his sister, Lady Trevelyan, after his death. Macaulay's political writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create
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