138-462: Hinduism is the second largest religious affiliation in Pakistan after Islam . Though Hinduism was one of the dominant faiths in the region a few centuries ago, Hindus accounted for just 2.17% of Pakistan's population (approx 5.2 million people) according to the 2023 Pakistani census . With the largest population in eastern Sindh , Umerkot district has the highest percentage of Hindu residents in
276-470: A Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu )", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550–486 BCE). The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. The word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta – equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu , while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan )
414-482: A water buffalo ( bubalus arnee ) and an Indian rhinoceros on the other. Under the dais are two deer or ibexes looking backwards, so that their curved horns almost meet in the centre. At the top of the seal are seven Indus script symbols, with the last apparently displaced downwards for lack of horizontal space. The finds from Mohenjo-daro were initially deposited in the Lahore Museum , but later moved to
552-434: A "proto-Siva" with buffalo's horns would take too much explaining to retain credibility". The American archaeologist Walter Fairservis tried to translate what he considered to be a Dravidian inscription, and was of the view that the seal could be identified with Anil, the paramount chief of four clans represented by the animals. The Finnish Indologist, Asko Parpola has suggested that the yogic pose could be an imitation of
690-441: A "single world religious tradition" was also popularised by 19th-century proselytising missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism. These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that
828-562: A 2015 report by India TV , Hinduism is reported to be the fastest-growing religion in Pakistan. The report highlights that the total Hindu fertility rate in Pakistan stands at 3.2, which is equivalent to the Muslim fertility rate in India. Pakistan's population is projected to increase to 367.8 million by 2050. As of the 2023 Census , Pakistan currently hosts 5.2 million Hindus, making it
966-416: A Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth ( artha ), fulfilment of desires ( kama ), and attaining liberation ( moksha ), are viewed here as part of "dharma", which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfilment. The use of the term Sanātana Dharma for Hinduism is a modern usage, based on the belief that the origins of Hinduism lie beyond human history, as revealed in
1104-563: A Hindu population greater than 1%, according to the 2017 census. In other districts the population of Hindus is less than 1%. The official number of Hindus living in Pakistan is about 4.5 million or approx. 2.15% as per 2017 census conducted by Pakistan government authority. However, at different time some of the demographic experts of Pakistan Hindu council as well as various Hindu politicians have given numbers based on their estimation research which have led to various controversies. Pakistan has been accused on undercounting minority population over
1242-438: A Hindu". According to Wendy Doniger , "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste – are subjects of debate, not dogma ." Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it". Hinduism has been variously defined as
1380-492: A Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with svadharma , one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste ( varṇa ) and stage in life ( puruṣārtha ). In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian". Some have referred to Hinduism as
1518-421: A category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism. To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to
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#17327875390961656-409: A decline to around 2,766,581 persons or to 14.7 percent in 1911. The Hindu population would rise to approximately 2,957,680 persons in 1921 with the share of the total population rising to 15.3 percent, prior to declining back to 14.7 percent in 1931, despite the total Hindu population growing to roughly 3,298,570 persons. In the final census taken prior to partition in 1941, Hindus constituted 14.6% of
1794-547: A distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other", which started well before 1800. Michaels notes: As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as
1932-694: A great appeal in the West , most notably reflected in the popularisation of yoga and various sects such as Transcendental Meditation and the Hare Krishna movement . Hinduism is the world's third-largest religion, with approximately 1.20 billion followers, or around 15% of the global population, known as Hindus . It is the most widely professed faith in India , Nepal , Mauritius , and in Bali , Indonesia . Significant numbers of Hindu communities are found in
2070-570: A interpretation for the figure, where she postulated the lateral projections were cow-like ears rather than faces, which had already been suggested by Sullivan and others. In 1975–76, she published a journal article titled 'The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment' in the academic journal Archives of Asian Art . In 1997, she reiterated her views in a book titled Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art . According to her,
2208-400: A mention by D. D. Kosambi in 1962, Alf Hiltebeitel thought the horned figure could be a prototype of Mahishasura , the buffalo demon enemy of the Hindu goddess Durga . He has also argued that the tiger depicted in the seal could relate to the goddess Durga who is often depicted as riding a tiger (or a lion) in the Hindu pantheon. He also suggested that the surrounding animals could represent
2346-406: A paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature". Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention. He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times. All of religion is contained in
2484-417: A reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project. From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set
2622-455: A religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life". From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term (Hindu) dharma is used, which is broader than the Western term "religion," and refers to the religious attitudes and behaviours, the 'right way to live', as preserved and transmitted in
2760-488: A shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon". Brahmins played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture. In the post- Gupta period Vedanta developed in southern India, where orthodox Brahmanic culture and the Hindu culture were preserved, building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda[ting]
2898-469: A single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' ( saddarsana ) of mainstream Hindu philosophy." The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Mikel Burley . Hacker called this "inclusivism" and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit". Lorenzen locates the origins of
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#17327875390963036-468: A theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists . Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity. Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature , the Vedas, although there are exceptions. These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, though Louis Renou stated that "even in the most orthodox domains,
3174-540: A waistband or girdle, a feature found on many undoubtedly female terracotta figurines, and ambiguous on some other seals, including DK 12050 (mentioned above). Marshall himself had admitted this was possible. In the terracottas, males are always nude; in addition, the jewellery worn on the Pashupati seal is characteristic of female rather than male terracottas. Doris Srinivasan , a professor of Indian studies, raised objections to Marshall's identification, and provided
3312-443: A worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism", both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions. It emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity". It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation", or
3450-466: A yogic position, wearing bangles on its arms. In this case no animals are depicted, and there is some dispute as to the gender of the figure, despite it seeming to have a beard. The Pashupati seal is in the National Museum, New Delhi , having been moved there with the other Mohenjo-daro finds before independence. These were reserved for the future national museum, finally founded in 1949, and
3588-517: Is a private affair of the individual nor do I agree that in an Islamic state every citizen has identical rights, no matter what his caste, creed or faith be". After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, over 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs from West Pakistan left for India, and 6.5 million Muslims chose to migrate to Pakistan. The reasons for this exodus were the heavily charged communal atmosphere in British Raj , deep distrust of each other,
3726-639: Is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga , are currently the most prominent. The six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas are: Sānkhya , Yoga , Nyāya , Vaisheshika , Mimāmsā , and Vedānta . Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as equals). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering
3864-464: Is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. In Arabic texts, al-Hind referred to the land beyond the Indus and therefore, all the people in that land were Hindus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū . By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India , meaning
4002-553: Is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term. To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their [Hindus] whole life's orientation cannot be traced to
4140-515: Is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. After the conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim and the loss of Raja Dahir , Islamization in Pakistan started and the population of Hindus started declining. After that many other Islamic conquests in Indian subcontinent entered through the Pakistan's region, including that of Ghaznavids , Ghurids and Delhi Sultanate , due to which
4278-514: Is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India. According to the Supreme Court of India , Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy
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4416-403: Is still the legal definition of a Hindu today. Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion. Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed ", but
4554-611: Is taken regarding the seal's iconography, it is always prefaced by Marshall's interpretation. On balance the proto- Śiva character of the seal has been accepted." Thomas McEvilley noted, in line with Marshall, that the central figure was in the yoga pose Mulabandhasana , quoting the Kalpa Sutra ' s description "a squatting position with joined heels" used with meditation and fasting to attain infinite knowledge ( kevala ). Alf Hiltebeitel noted in 2011 that, following Marshall's analysis, "nearly all efforts at interpreting
4692-566: Is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism. According to Arvind Sharma , the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term vaidika dharma or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE. According to Brian K. Smith, "[i]t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term Vaidika Dharma cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'." Whatever
4830-693: Is the largest tradition of Hinduism. Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" Krishna and other Vishnu avatars. These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans , with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers. Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and
4968-724: The Agamas such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma. The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas. However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to
5106-601: The British Raj , 4.7 million of West Pakistan's Hindus and Sikhs moved to India as refugees. And in the first census afterward (1951), Hindus made up 1.6% of the total population of West Pakistan, and 22% of East Pakistan. Hindus in Pakistan are primarily concentrated in Sindh , where the majority of Hindu enclaves are found. They speak a variety of languages such as Sindhi , Seraiki , Aer , Dhatki , Gera , Goaria , Gurgula , Jandavra , Kabutra , Koli , Loarki , Marwari , Vaghri , and Gujarati . Many Hindus, especially in
5244-462: The Buddhists and Hindus were converted to Islam . In the era of Mughal Empire , the land of Pakistan became a Muslim-majority area. At the time of Pakistan's creation the 'two nation theory' had been espoused. According to this theory the Hindu minority in Pakistan was to be given a fair deal in Pakistan in order to ensure the protection of the Muslim minority in India. Muhammad Ali Jinnah ,
5382-504: The Hindu texts . Sanātana Dharma refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and traditions with origins beyond human history– truths divinely revealed ( Shruti ) in the Vedas , the most ancient of the world's scriptures. To many Hindus, Hinduism is a tradition that can be traced at least to
5520-439: The Hindu texts . Another endonym for Hinduism is Vaidika Dharma ( lit. ' Vedic dharma ' ). Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared concepts that discuss theology , mythology , among other topics in textual sources. Hindu texts have been classified into Śruti ( lit. ' heard ' ) and Smṛti ( lit. ' remembered ' ). The major Hindu scriptures are
5658-689: The Nanakpanth , follows the teachings of the Guru Granth Sahib, also known as the holy book of the Sikhs. This diversity, especially in rural Sindh, often thwarts classical definitions between Hinduism, Sikhism and Islam . Despite being a predominantly Muslim nation, Pakistan's Sindh province boasts a remarkable Hindu heritage and cultural legacy. However, discrimination is increasingly prevalent throughout Pakistan, including in Sindh. Nevertheless,
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5796-509: The Proto-Elamite way of representing seated bulls. He attempted to translate the inscription which he considers to be an early form of Dravidian, and found that the figure represents a servant of an aquatic deity. He finds that the animals depicted on the seal best resemble those associated with the Hindu god Varuna who could be associated with the aquatic themes which are prominent in the Indus religion. M.V.N. Krishna Rao identified
5934-685: The Punjab region of modern-day Pakistan (and India) on the banks of the Indus River around 1500 BCE. The Sindh kingdom and its rulers play an important role in the Indian epic story of the Mahabharata . In addition, a Hindu legend states that the Pakistani city of Lahore was first founded by Lava , while Kasur was founded by his twin Kusha , both of whom were the sons of Lord Rama of
6072-600: The Ramayana . The Gandhara kingdom of the northwest, and the legendary Gandhara people, are also a major part of Hindu literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . Many Pakistani city names (such as Peshawar and Multan ) have Sanskrit roots. The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) was characterised by an Indo-Aryan culture; during this period the Vedas , the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism , were composed, and this culture later became well established in
6210-481: The Scheduled Caste from other Hindus) in the provinces in Pakistan, according to the 2017 census: Umerkot district (52.15%) is the only Hindu majority district in Pakistan. Tharparkar district has the highest population of Hindus in terms of absolute terms. The four districts- Umerkot , Tharparkar , Mirpurkhas and Sanghar hosts more than half of the Hindu population in Pakistan. All districts with
6348-672: The Swastika symbol and Yogic postures from Indus Valley Civilization also point to early influences that may have shaped Hinduism. The religious beliefs and folklore of the Indus valley people have become a major part of the Hindu faith that evolved in this part of the South Asia . Later, during the Vedic period , the Rig Veda , the oldest Hindu text, is believed to have been composed in
6486-528: The Thar region . The Christian and Ahmadi missionaries offer impoverished Hindus schools, health clinics etc. as an inducement for those who convert. Korean Christian missionaries are also very active in Sindh, who have built schools from Badin to Tharparkar. Hinduism Traditional Hinduism ( / ˈ h ɪ n d u ˌ ɪ z əm / ) is an umbrella term for a range of Indian religious and spiritual traditions ( sampradaya s ) that are unified by
6624-476: The Theosophical Society , as well as various " Guru -isms" and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , BAPS and ISKCON . Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests. Hinduism was construed as emanating not from
6762-574: The Vaidika dharma . The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'. Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma
6900-1286: The Vedas , the Upanishads , the Puranas , the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita ), the Ramayana , and the Agamas . Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include karma (action, intent and consequences), saṃsāra (the cycle of death and rebirth) and the four Puruṣārthas , proper goals or aims of human life, namely: dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/freedom from passions and ultimately saṃsāra ). Hindu religious practices include devotion ( bhakti ), worship ( puja ), sacrificial rites ( yajna ), and meditation ( dhyana ) and yoga . Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many Hindus do not claim to belong to any denomination. However, scholarly studies notify four major denominations: Shaivism , Shaktism , Smartism , and Vaishnavism . The six Āstika schools of Hindu philosophy that recognise
7038-457: The pizza effect , in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India. This globalisation of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin". The Hindutva movement has extensively argued for
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#17327875390967176-659: The so-called Priest-King figure , while India retained the much smaller Dancing Girl , and also the Pashupati seal . The first description and analysis of the seal's iconography was that of the archaeologist John Marshall who had served as the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India and led the excavations of the Indus Valley sites. In addition to the general features of
7314-478: The vahanas (vehicles, mounts) of deities for the four cardinal directions. Where Marshall's description had "the head is crowned with the horns of a bull", Hiltebeitel is emphatic that the figure has the very different horns of a buffalo, and that IVC people familiar with both species would not have confused the two species: "One might imagine a "proto-Siva" with bull's horns as a prefiguration of Siva's connection with his vahana or riding vehicle Nandin . But
7452-494: The "land of Hindus". Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang , and 14th-century Persian text Futuhu's-salatin by 'Abd al-Malik Isami . Some 16–18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts mention Hindu and Hindu dharma to distinguish from Muslims without positively defining these terms. In
7590-486: The "orthodox" form of Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma , "the eternal law" or the "eternal way". Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The Puranic chronology , as narrated in the Mahabharata , Ramayana , and the Puranas , envisions a timeline of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000 BCE. The word dharma is used here to mean religion similar to modern Indo-Aryan languages , rather than with its original Sanskrit meaning. All aspects of
7728-614: The 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The use of the English term "Hinduism" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a fairly recent construction. The term Hinduism was first used by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1816–17. By the 1840s, the term "Hinduism" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians. Before
7866-537: The 1901 census, the Hindu population in Pakistan comprised roughly 3.01 million persons or 17.1 percent of the total population. With the exception of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas , all administrative divisions in the region that composes contemporary Pakistan collected religious data, with a combined population of 17,633,258, for an overall response rate of 99.6 percent out of the total population of 17,708,014, as detailed in
8004-570: The 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta, and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism. Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation, meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasising the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems. This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in
8142-592: The ASI headquarters at New Delhi, where a new "Central Imperial Museum" was being planned for the new capital of the British Raj , in which at least a selection would be displayed. It became apparent that Indian independence was approaching, but the Partition of India was not anticipated until late in the process. The new Pakistani authorities requested the return of the Harappan pieces excavated on their territory, but
8280-603: The Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practising or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasise Brahman (Brahmin) priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism. He includes among "founded religions" Buddhism , Jainism , Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and
8418-471: The British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, varna , jāti , occupation, and sect. "Hinduism" is an umbrella-term, referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions. The term "Hinduism"
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#17327875390968556-618: The Great , until 185 BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BCE), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in 6th century BCE. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where
8694-472: The IVC specialist Jonathan Mark Kenoyer in a publication of 2003. The man has a horned headdress and is surrounded by animals. He may represent a horned deity . It has one of the more complicated designs in the thousands of seals found from the Indus Valley civilization, and is unusual in having a human figure as the main and largest element; in most seals this is an animal. It had been claimed to be one of
8832-402: The Indian authorities refused. Eventually an agreement was reached, whereby the finds, totalling some 12,000 objects (most sherds of pottery), were split equally between the countries; in some cases this was taken very literally, with some necklaces and girdles having their beads separated into two piles. In the case of the "two most celebrated sculpted figures", Pakistan asked for and received
8970-463: The Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects. The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as
9108-636: The National Commission of Justice and Peace and the Pakistan Hindu Council (PHC) around 1000 non-Muslim minority women are converted to Islam and then forcibly married off. This practice is being reported increasingly in the districts of Tharparkar , Umerkot and Mirpur Khas in Sindh. In November 2016, a bill against forced conversion was passed unanimously by the Sindh Provisional Assembly. However,
9246-548: The Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations. Pashupati seal The Pashupati seal (also Mahayogi seal , Proto-Śiva seal the adjective "so-called" sometimes applied to " Pashupati "), is a steatite seal which was uncovered in Mohenjo-daro , now in modern day Pakistan , a major urban site of the Indus Valley civilisation ("IVC"), during excavations in 1928–29, when
9384-516: The Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism. — Swami Vivekananda This inclusivism was further developed in
9522-458: The Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it". Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu," and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text." Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to
9660-446: The Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism". According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as
9798-403: The Vedic period, between c. 500 to 200 BCE , and c. 300 CE , in the period of the second urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism when the epics and the first Purānas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period , with the decline of Buddhism in India . Since the 19th century, modern Hinduism , influenced by western culture , has acquired
9936-467: The Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, [...] and that as such they [Vedas] are man's sole means of valid knowledge [...]". The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner. The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism
10074-721: The West's view of Hinduism". Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity", and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony. According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms. According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today". Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience". This "Global Hinduism" has
10212-407: The [Indus Valley] religion have centered discussion around [the Pashupati seal] figure". A lot of discussion has taken place about this seal. While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Herbert Sullivan interpreted the figure as a female goddess on the grounds that the so-called erect phallus actually represents the dangling end of
10350-552: The ancient Vedic era. The Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher. Sanātana Dharma historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings ( ahiṃsā ), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of
10488-670: The authorities often look the other way. In one case, a landlord abducted a Hindu daughter from a farm worker and falsely claimed the teen was compensation for a $ 1,000 debt that the family owed him. Religious institutions and persons like Abdul Haq (Mitthu Mian) politician and caretaker of Bharachundi Sharif Dargah in Ghotki district and Pir Ayub Jan Sirhindi, the caretaker of Dargah pir sarhandi in Umerkot District support forced conversions and are known to have support and protection of ruling political parties of Sindh. According to
10626-447: The authority of the Vedas are: Samkhya , Yoga , Nyaya , Vaisheshika , Mīmāṃsā , and Vedanta . While the traditional Itihasa-Purana and its derived Epic-Puranic chronology present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of Brahmanical orthopraxy with various Indian cultures, having diverse roots and no specific founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after
10764-413: The biggest issues the Hindu community faces in Pakistan is the forced conversion of minor Hindu girls to Islam; the number of such conversions, according to one highest estimate, is up to 1,000 per year. Girls are often kidnapped by complicit acquaintances and relatives or men looking for brides. Sometimes they are taken by powerful landlords as payment for outstanding debts by their farmhand parents, and
10902-553: The bill failed to make it into law as the Governor returned the bill. The Bill was effectively blocked by political parties like the Council of Islamic Ideology and Jamaat-e-Islami . In 2019, a bill against forced conversion was proposed by Hindu politicians in the Sindh assembly, but was turned down by the ruling Pakistan Peoples Party lawmakers. There are also Irish Christian missionaries and Ahmadiyya missionaries operating in
11040-593: The brutality of violent mobs and the antagonism between the religious communities. That over 1 million people lost their lives in the bloody violence of 1947 should attest to the fear and hate that filled the hearts of millions of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs who left ancestral homes hastily after independence. Hinduism (%) in Pakistan by decades −2.36% +0.54% −0.60% −0.05% −13.02% -0.13% -0.01% +0.07% +0.34% +0.29% +0.03% Decadal censuses taken in British India revealed
11178-508: The case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic varṇāśrama – 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa). For example, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa considers Buddhists, Jains as well as some Shaiva groups like the Paśupatas and Kāpālins to be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics). According to Alexis Sanderson ,
11316-435: The central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook. The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism". There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism. Estimates vary on
11454-424: The classical "karma-marga", jnana-marga , bhakti-marga , and "heroism", which is rooted in militaristic traditions . These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, Rama , believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu) and parts of political Hinduism . "Heroism" is also called virya-marga . According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of
11592-435: The colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas , Bhagavad Gita , Manusmriti and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as
11730-442: The concept of dharma , a cosmic order maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living, as first expounded in the Vedas . The word Hindu is an exonym , and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, it has also been described by the modern term Sanātana Dharma ( lit. ' eternal dharma ' ), based on the belief that its origins lie beyond human history , as revealed in
11868-782: The countries of South Asia , in Southeast Asia , in the Caribbean , Middle East , North America , Europe , Oceania , Africa , and other regions . The word Hindū is an exonym , and is derived from the Sanskrit root Sindhu , believed to be the name of the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent . The Proto-Iranian sound change *s > h occurred between 850 and 600 BCE. According to Gavin Flood , "The actual term Hindu first occurs as
12006-582: The country at 54.6%, while Tharparkar district has the most Hindus in absolute numbers at 811,507. Hindus are also found in southern Punjab and in areas of Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . Prior to the partition of India , according to the 1941 census, Hindus constituted 14.6% of the population in West Pakistan (which is now Pakistan) and 28% of the population in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). After Pakistan gained independence from
12144-609: The cultural influences such as Yoga and Hare Krishna movement by many missionaries organisations, especially by ISKCON and this is also due to the migration of Indian Hindus to the other nations of the world. Hinduism is growing fast in many western nations and in some African nations . Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: Shaivism , Shaktism , Smartism , and Vaishnavism . These denominations differ primarily in
12282-715: The data from the Election Commission of Pakistan, as of 2018 there were a total of 1.77 million Hindu voters. Hindu voters were 49% of the total in Umerkot and 46% in Tharparkar. According to estimates in religious minorities in Pakistan's elections, Hindus have a population of 50,000 or more in 11 districts. All of these are in Sindh except the Rahim Yar Khan District in Punjab. According to
12420-444: The decades. Karachi Supreme Court attorney Neel Keshav claimed that the Hindu population in Pakistan is likely to be much higher, as reported by Pakistan Today newspaper. Neel Keshav further claimed that the 1998 census data showed a Hindu population of nearly 2 million. While the new census showed that it had only risen to 3.5 million in 20 years," which throws a light possibility of undercounting Hindu population. According to
12558-648: The deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or Supreme God , while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of ātman (self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs. June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand
12696-458: The earliest depictions of the Hindu god Shiva —"Pashupati" (Lord of animals) being one of his epithets, or a "proto-Shiva" deity. Though the combination of elements in the Pashupati seal is unique, there are a group of other Indus seals that have some of them. One, also from Mohenjo-daro (find number DK 12050) and now in Islamabad , has a nude three-faced horned deity seated on a throne in
12834-474: The early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of antinomian Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold. Some in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy considered
12972-643: The establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other". According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other" is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools. According to the Indologist Alexis Sanderson , before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes
13110-449: The expression of emotions among the Hindus. The major kinds, according to McDaniel are Folk Hinduism , based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads , including Advaita Vedanta , emphasising knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following
13248-586: The figure with the Hindu god Indra. He argued that the tiger could be ignored since it is much larger than the other animals, and the two deer could also be ignored since they were seated under the table. Then he combined the first phoneme of each of the animals, and the word 'nara' meaning man, and arrived at the term 'makhanasana' which is an epithet of Indra. Some 21st-century scholars have urged caution in interpretation. The American Indologist Wendy Doniger wrote in 2011 that while "several generations of scholars" had taken up Marshall's suggestion, and while there
13386-640: The first Puranas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period , with the decline of Buddhism in India . Hinduism's variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions. Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions; Hindus can be polytheistic , pantheistic , panentheistic , pandeistic , henotheistic , monotheistic , monistic , agnostic , atheistic or humanist . According to Mahatma Gandhi , "a man may not believe in God and still call himself
13524-650: The first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged. This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain antinomian tantric movements. Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with
13662-495: The founder of Pakistan, stated in an address to the constituent assembly of Pakistan, "You will find that in course of time Hindus will cease to be Hindus and Muslims will cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as the citizens of the State." However, Khawaja Nazimuddin , the 2nd Prime Minister of Pakistan stated: "I do not agree that religion
13800-404: The head is crowned with the horns of a bull and the trisula are characteristic emblems of Siva. Thirdly, the figure is in a typical yoga attitude, and Siva [sic] was and still is, regarded as a mahayogi —the prince of Yogis . Fourthly, he is surrounded by animals, and Siva is par excellence the "Lord of Animals" ( Pasupati )—of the wild animals of the jungle, according to the Vedic meaning of
13938-573: The history of Hinduism, states Lipner. Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave the following definition in Gita Rahasya (1915): "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large". It was quoted by the Indian Supreme Court in 1966, and again in 1995, "as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition," and
14076-589: The most important places of worship for Hindus in Pakistan is the shrine of Shri Hinglaj Mata temple in Balochistan . The annual Hinglaj Yatra is the largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan. Pakistan was the fulcrum of Indus Valley Civilization , one of the oldest civilizations in the world. It is assumed that the Pashupati image of Mohenjo-daro evolved to be worshipped as Shiva and the Mother Goddess as Shakti . Various archaeological finds such as
14214-432: The multiple demands of Hinduism." The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE. Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion. Lorenzen states that
14352-416: The next two generations. Herbert Sullivan, who had significant disagreements with it, recognised in 1964 that Marshall's analysis "has been accepted almost universally and has greatly influenced scholarly understanding of the historical development of Hinduism". Writing in 1976, Doris Srinivasan introduced an article otherwise critical of Marshall's interpretation by observing that "no matter what position
14490-553: The population in West Pakistan (currently Pakistan) and 28% of the population in East Pakistan (currently Bangladesh). After Pakistan gained independence from Britain on 14 August 1947, 4.7 million of the country's Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India. In the 1951 census, West Pakistan (contemporary Pakistan ) had 1.3% Hindu population, while East Pakistan (contemporary Bangladesh ) had 22.05%. During
14628-489: The population of Hindus and other Non-Muslims declined in Pakistan as Bangladesh population was no longer part of the census conducted in Pakistan. The 1998 census of Pakistan recorded 2,443,614 Hindus, which (includes 332,343 Scheduled Caste Hindus), which constitutes to 1.85 percentage of the total population of Pakistan. and about 7.5% in the Sindh province. The 2017 census recorded 4,444,870 Hindus (includes 849,614 Scheduled Caste Hindus) which constituting 2.14% of
14766-671: The profound Hindu influence continues to shape the landscape and identity of Sindh. Though the Constitution of Pakistan provides equal rights to all citizens and is not supposed to discriminate between anyone on the basis of caste, creed or religion, Islam remains the state religion , often meaning Muslims are afforded more privileges than Hindus or other religious minorities. There have been numerous cases of violence and discrimination against Hindus , along with other minorities. There have also been cases of violence and ill-treatment of Hindus , due to strict blasphemy laws . One of
14904-415: The region was under British rule . The excavations were carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India , the official body responsible for preservation and excavation. The seal depicts a seated figure that is possibly tricephalic (having three heads). The seated figure has been thought to be ithyphallic (having an erect penis), an interpretation that has been questioned by many, but was still held by
15042-578: The region. Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, now Taxila in the Punjab, which was founded around 1000 BCE. Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the region: the Persian Achaemenid Empire (around 519 BCE), Alexander's empire in 326 BCE and the Maurya Empire , founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka
15180-451: The relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%. In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism
15318-473: The religious composition of all administrative divisions that would ultimately compose regions situated in contemporary Pakistan. The 1901 Census in British India taken in administrative divisions that would ultimately compose regions situated in contemporary Pakistan indicated that Hindus numbered approximately 3,009,842 persons and comprised roughly 17.1 percent of the total population, followed by
15456-510: The religious instruction was provided on an individualistic basis. The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and was also recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE. At its zenith, the Rai dynasty (489–632 CE) of Sindh ruled this region and the surrounding territories. The Pala dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharmapala and Devapala , stretched across South Asia from what
15594-400: The reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat". Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations", there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives" of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in
15732-473: The rural areas, follow the teachings of local Sufi pīrs ( Urdu : spiritual guide ) or adhere to the 14th-century saint Ramdevji , whose main temple Shri Ramdev Pir temple is located in Tando Allahyar . A growing number of urban Hindu youth in Pakistan associate themselves with ISKCON society. Other communities worship manifold "Mother Goddesses" as their clan or family patrons. A different branch,
15870-432: The same census, Hindus constituted approximately 12.9% of the total population of Pakistan (composing contemporary Pakistan and Bangladesh ) which represented the second-largest Hindu-population country after India. In 1956, the government of Pakistan declared 32 castes and tribes, the majority of them Hindus, to be Scheduled Caste , including Kohlis, Meghawars, and Bheels.After 1971, Bangladesh separated from Pakistan and
16008-409: The seal described above, he also saw the central figure as a male deity as three-faced, with a possible fourth face towards the back and, as ithyphallic , while conceding that what appeared to be the exposed phallus could instead be a tassel hanging from the waistband. Most significantly he identified the seal as an early prototype of the Hindu god Shiva (or, his Vedic predecessor, Rudra ), who also
16146-408: The seal is numbered 420, giving it its alternate name. The seal is carved in steatite and measures 3.56 cm by 3.53 cm, with a thickness of 0.76 cm. It has a human figure at the centre seated on a platform and facing forward. The legs of the figure are bent at the knees with the heels touching and the toes pointing downwards. The arms extend outwards and rest lightly on the knees, with
16284-633: The seal was allocated to the Dominion of India at Partition in 1947. The seal was uncovered in 1928–29, in Block 1, Southern Portion of the DK-G Area of Mohenjo-daro, at a depth of 3.9 meters below the surface. Ernest J. H. Mackay , who directed the excavations at Mohenjo-daro, dated the seal to the Intermediate I Period (now considered to fall around 2350–2000 BCE) in his 1937–38 report in which
16422-427: The table below. According to the 1911 census, the Hindu population in Pakistan comprised roughly 2.77 million persons or 14.7 percent of the total population. With the exception of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas , all administrative divisions in the region that composes contemporary Pakistan collected religious data, with a combined population of 18,806,379, for an overall response rate of 92.1 percent out of
16560-617: The text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasising introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual. Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity. The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions". The four forms of Hindu religiosity are
16698-405: The thumbs facing away from the body. Eight small and three large bangles cover the arms. The chest is covered with what appear to be necklaces, and a double band wraps around the waist. The figure wears a tall and elaborate headdress with a central fan-shaped structure flanked by two large striated horns. The human figure is surrounded by four wild animals: an elephant and a tiger to its one side, and
16836-478: The total population of 20,428,473, as detailed in the table below. According to the 1921 census, the Hindu population in Pakistan comprised roughly 2.96 million persons or 15.3 percent of the total population. With the exception of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas , all administrative divisions in the region that composes contemporary Pakistan collected religious data, with a combined population of 19,389,016, for an overall response rate of 87.3 percent out of
16974-478: The total population of 22,214,152, as detailed in the table below. According to the 1931 census, the Hindu population in Pakistan comprised roughly 3.30 million persons or 14.7 percent of the total population. With the exception of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas , all administrative divisions in the region that composes contemporary Pakistan collected religious data, with a combined population of 22,514,768, for an overall response rate of 90.9 percent out of
17112-478: The total population of 24,774,056, as detailed in the table below. According to the 1941 census, the Hindu population in Pakistan comprised roughly 3.98 million persons or 14.6 percent of the total population. With the exception of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas , all administrative divisions in the region that composes contemporary Pakistan collected religious data, with a combined population of 27,266,001, for an overall response rate of 92.0 percent out of
17250-1277: The total population of 29,643,600, as detailed in the table below. At the administrative unit level in the region that composes contemporary Pakistan, as per the 1941 census, the largest Hindu concentrations existed in Tharparkar District (Hindus formed 42.60 percent of the total population and numbered 247,496 persons), Shakargarh Tehsil (39.98 percent or 116,553 persons), Hyderabad District (32.40 percent or 245,849 persons), Karachi District (31.18 percent or 222,597 persons), Sukkur District (28.22 percent or 195,458 persons), Nawabshah District (24.04 percent or 140,428 persons), Sialkot District (19.43 percent or 231,319 persons), Quetta – Pishin District (18.32 percent or 28,629 persons), Larkana District (17.81 percent or 91,062 persons), Multan District (16.83 percent or 249,872 persons), Lahore District (16.79 percent or 284,689 persons), Mirpur District (16.44 percent or 63,576 persons), Khairpur State (16.22 percent or 49,604 persons), Montgomery District (15.87 percent or 210,966 persons), and Bolan District (15.81 percent or 950 persons). The percent of population of Hindus (separating
17388-507: The total population of Pakistan. The Pakistan census separates the members of scheduled castes from Hindus and has assessed that they form 0.41% of the national population in 2017 census (up from 0.25% in 1998 census). However, the actual population of Scheduled Caste Hindus is expected to be much higher, as the Scheduled Caste Hindus categorise themselves as Hindus in the census rather than as Scheduled Caste . As per
17526-447: The tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of Indology . Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta. Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as
17664-461: The traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more". Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder. It is a synthesis of various traditions, the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions". Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate
17802-428: The two extra faces could be reinterpreted as possible ears, and the central face has predominant bovine features. She has drawn similarities between the central figure of seal 420, and other artefacts from the Indus Valley such as the horned mask from Mohenjo-Daro, the terracotta bull from Kalibangan , and the depiction of a horned deity on a water pitcher from the archaeological site of Kot Diji . She has also noted that
17940-462: The unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times. And there are assumptions of political dominance of Hindu nationalism in India , also known as ' Neo-Hindutva '. There have also been increase in pre-dominance of Hindutva in Nepal , similar to that of India . The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to
18078-440: The various traditions collectively referred to as "Hinduism." The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India. Hinduism as it
18216-468: The west. Major representatives of "Hindu modernism" are Ram Mohan Roy , Swami Vivekananda , Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi . Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance . He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating
18354-433: The word pashu , no less than that of domesticated cattle. Later, in 1931, he expanded his reasons to include the fact that Shiva is associated with the phallus in the form of linga , and that in medieval art he is shown with deer or ibexes, as are seen below the throne on the seal. Marshall's analysis of the Indus Valley religion, and the Pashupati seal in particular, was very influential and widely accepted for at least
18492-583: The world's fifth-largest Hindu population . By 2050, it is projected to climb to the fourth position with 11.55 million Hindus. This surpasses Indonesia, the current fourth-largest Hindu country, according to the Pew Research Center . However, according to Pakistani newspaper DAWN , 5,000 Hindus migrate to India every year seeking safety from religious persecution. The same newspaper have also reported that some 1,000 Hindu women are forced to convert and marry Muslim men in Pakistan annually. One of
18630-421: The yogic posture of the figure is repeated on a number of other seals and sealings, some of which indicate that the figure receives worship. On the basis of these observations, she suggests that the figure of seal 420 could be a divine buffalo-man. Scholars who consider the Indus Valley civilisation to be associated with a Dravidian rather than Vedic context have offered other interpretations. Expanding on
18768-476: Was "a general resemblance" between the figure on the seal and later Hindu images of Shiva, and while the people of the Indus could have had "a symbolism of the divine phallus", all the same "we cannot know it, [and] it does not mean that the Indus images are the source of the Hindu images, or that they had the same meaning." The scholar of religious studies Geoffrey Samuel wrote that the multiple interpretations "certainly cannot all be right". Since, further, there
18906-479: Was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century and refers to the fusion, or synthesis, of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500 –200 BCE and c. 300 CE , in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the epics and
19044-405: Was known by the title Pashupati (' lord or father of all the animals' ) in historic times. In a 1928–29 publication, Marshall summarized his reasons for the identification as follows: My reasons for the identification are four. In the first place the figure has three faces and that Siva was portrayed with three as well as with more usual five faces, there are abundant examples to prove. Secondly,
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