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82-423: A simple litter consists of a sling attached along its length to poles or stretched inside a frame. The poles or frame are carried by porters in front and behind. Such simple litters are common on battlefields and emergency situations, where terrain prohibits wheeled vehicles from carrying away the dead and wounded. Litters can also be created quickly by the lashing of poles to a chair . Such litters, consisting of

164-685: A state coach in Europe or a horse used in Northern Ghana. The chiefs of the Ga ( mantsemei ) in the Greater Accra Region ( Ghana ) use also figurative palanquins which are built after a chief's family symbol or totem. But these day the figurative palanquins are very seldom used. They are related with the figurative coffins which have become very popular among the Ga in the last 50 years. Since these figurative coffins were shown 1989 in

246-443: A base that is usually wood. This dries to a very hard and smooth surface layer which is durable, waterproof, and attractive in feel and look. Asian lacquer is sometimes painted with pictures, inlaid with shell and other materials, or carved , as well as dusted with gold and given other further decorative treatments. In modern techniques, lacquer means a range of clear or pigmented coatings that dry by solvent evaporation to produce

328-487: A black coloured lacquer. Nashiji-urushi (梨子地漆) is the transparent lacquer but mixed with gamboge to create a yellow-tinged lacquer and is especially used for the sprinkled-gold technique. These lacquers are generally used for the middle layers. Japanese lacquers of this type are generally used for the top layers and are prefixed by the word jo- (上) which means 'top (layer)'. Processed lacquers can have oil added to them to make them glossy, for example, shuai-urushi (朱合漆)

410-576: A fare system was established for Scottish sedans, and the regulations covering chairmen in Bath are reminiscent of the modern Taxi Commission's rules. A trip within a city cost six pence and a day's rental was four shillings. A sedan was even used as an ambulance in Scotland's Royal Infirmary. Chairmen moved at a good clip. In Bath they had the right-of-way: pedestrians hearing "By your leave" behind them knew to flatten themselves against walls or railings as

492-422: A fixed elaborately carved roof and doors. While the cáng has become obsolete, the kiệu is retained in certain traditional rituals a part of a temple devotional procession. In Thailand, the royalty were also carried in wooden litters called wo ("พระวอ" Phra Wo, literally, "Royal Sedan") for large ceremonies. Wos were elaborately decorated litters that were delicately carved and colored by gold leaf. Stained glass

574-638: A hard, durable finish. The finish can be of any sheen level from ultra matte to high gloss , and it can be further polished as required. Lacquer finishes are usually harder and more brittle than oil-based or latex paints and are typically used on hard and smooth surfaces. In terms of modern finishing products, finishes based on shellac dissolved in alcohol are often called shellac or lac to distinguish them from synthetic lacquer, often called simply lacquer , which consists of synthetic polymers (such as nitrocellulose , cellulose acetate butyrate ("CAB"), or acrylic resin ) dissolved in lacquer thinner ,

656-555: A large military procession, with a yellow (the Javanese colour for royalty) square canopy. The ceremonial parasol ( payung ) was held above the palanquin, which was carried by a bearer behind and flanked by the most loyal bodyguards, usually about 12 men, with pikes , sabres , lances , muskets , keris and a variety of disguised blades. In contrast, the canopy of the Sumatran palanquin was oval-shaped and draped in white cloth; this

738-401: A long time to dry, with Japan black being the fastest drying and thus the most economical to use. The problem with using nitrocellulose in lacquers was its high viscosity, which necessitated dilution of the product with large amounts of thinner for application, leaving only a very thin film of finish not durable enough for outdoor use. This problem was overcome by decreasing the viscosity of

820-652: A mixture of various organic solvents . Although synthetic lacquer is more durable than shellac, traditional shellac finishes are nevertheless often preferred for their aesthetic characteristics, as with French polish , as well as their "all-natural" and generally food-safe ingredients. The English lacquer is from the archaic French word lacre , "a kind of sealing wax", from Portuguese lacre , itself an unexplained variant of Medieval Latin lacca "resinous substance," from Arabic lakk ( لك ), from Persian lāk ( لاک‎ ), from Hindi lākh ( लाख ); Prakrit lakkha , 𑀮𑀓𑁆𑀔 ), itself from

902-515: A nasal termination to these to make palanquim . English adopted it from Portuguese as "palanquin". Palanquins vary in size and grandeur. The smallest and simplest, a cot or frame suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole and borne by two bearers, is called a doli . Larger palanquins are rectangular wooden boxes eight feet long, four feet wide, and four feet high, with openings on either side screened by curtains or shutters. Interiors are furnished with bedding and pillows. Ornamentation reflects

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984-453: A part of the year in Edo (Tokyo) with their families, resulting in yearly migrations of the rich and powerful ( Sankin-kōtai ) to and from the capital along the central backbone road of Japan. Somewhat similar in appearance to kago are the portable shrines that are used to carry the "god-body" ( goshintai ), the central totemic core normally found in the most sacred area of Shinto Shrines , on

1066-646: A pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period. Also, at Kakinoshima "A" Excavation Site, earthenware with a spout painted with vermilion lacquer, which was made 3200 years ago, was found almost completely intact. During the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC), the sophisticated techniques used in the lacquer process were first developed and it became a highly artistic craft, although various prehistoric lacquerwares have been unearthed in China dating back to

1148-456: A primer, colour coat and clear topcoat, commonly known as clear coat finishes. Due to health risks and environmental considerations involved in the use of solvent-based lacquers, much work has gone into the development of water-based lacquers. Such lacquers are considerably less toxic, more environmentally friendly, and, in many cases, produce acceptable results. While water-based lacquer's fumes are considerably less hazardous, and it does not have

1230-668: A simple cane chair with maybe an umbrella to ward off the elements and two stout bamboo poles, may still be found in Chinese mountain resorts such as the Huangshan Mountains to carry tourists along scenic paths and to viewing positions inaccessible by other means of transport. A more luxurious version consists of a bed or couch, sometimes enclosed by curtains , for the passenger or passengers to lie on. These are carried by at least two porters in equal numbers in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on

1312-446: A simple wooden chair with an attached tumpline . The occupant sat in the chair, which was then affixed to the back of a single porter, with the tumpline supported by his head. The occupant thus faced backwards during travel. This style of palanquin was probably due to the steep terrain and rough or narrow roads unsuitable to European-style sedan chairs. Travellers by silla usually employed a number of porters, who would alternate carrying

1394-520: A status symbol. During the 17–18th centuries, palanquins (see above) were very popular among European traders in Bengal , so much so that in 1758 an order was issued prohibiting their purchase by certain lower-ranking employees. A similar but simpler palanquin was used by the elite in parts of 18th- and 19th-century Latin America . Often simply called a silla (Spanish for seat or chair), it consisted of

1476-424: A tour to and from a shrine during some religious festivals . Traditional Vietnam employed two distinct types of litters, the cáng and the kiệu . The cáng is a basic bamboo pole with the rider reclining in a hammock . More elaborate cáng had an adjustable woven bamboo shade to shelter the occupant. Dignitaries would have an entourage to carry parasols. The kiệu resemble more of the sedan chair, enclosed with

1558-481: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Lacquer Lacquer is a type of hard and usually shiny coating or finish applied to materials such as wood or metal. It is most often made from resin extracted from trees and waxes and has been in use since antiquity. Asian lacquerware , which may be called "true lacquer", are objects coated with the treated, dyed and dried sap of Toxicodendron vernicifluum or related trees, applied in several coats to

1640-418: Is also used in enamel paints , which have the advantage of not needing to be buffed to obtain a shine. Enamels, however, are slow drying. The advantage of acrylic lacquer is its exceptionally fast drying time. The use of lacquers in automobile finishes was discontinued when tougher, more durable, weather- and chemical-resistant two-component polyurethane coatings were developed. The system usually consists of

1722-642: Is also used to decorate the litters. Presently, Royal Wos and carriages are only used for royal ceremonies in Thailand. They are exhibited in the Bangkok National Museum. In traditional Javanese society, the generic palanquin or joli was a wicker chair with a canopy, attached to two poles, and borne on men's shoulders, and was available for hire to any paying customer. As a status marker, gilded throne-like palanquins, or jempana , were originally reserved solely for royalty, and later co-opted by

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1804-425: Is by spraying, and the development of nitrocellulose lacquers led to the first extensive use of spray guns. Nitrocellulose lacquers produce a hard yet flexible, durable finish that can be polished to a high sheen. Drawbacks of these lacquers include the hazardous nature of the solvent, which is flammable and toxic, and the hazards of nitrocellulose in the manufacturing process. The lacquer grade of soluble nitrocellulose

1886-556: Is called raw lacquer (生漆: ki-urushi in Japanese, shengqi in Chinese). This is directly from the tree itself with some impurities filtered out. Raw lacquer has a water content of around 25% and appears in a light brown colour. This comes in a standard grade made from Chinese lacquer, which is generally used for ground layers by mixing with a powder, and a high-quality grade made from Japanese lacquer called kijomi-urushi (生正味漆) which

1968-455: Is closely related to the more highly nitrated form which is used to make explosives. They become relatively non-toxic after approximately a month since, at this point, the lacquer has evaporated most of the solvents used in its production. Lacquers using acrylic resin , a synthetic polymer, were developed in the 1950s. Acrylic resin is colourless, transparent thermoplastic , obtained by the polymerization of derivatives of acrylic acid . Acrylic

2050-588: Is derived from trees indigenous to East Asia, like lacquer tree Toxicodendron vernicifluum , and wax tree Toxicodendron succedaneum . The fresh resin from the T. vernicifluum trees causes urushiol-induced contact dermatitis and great care is therefore required in its use. The Chinese treated the allergic reaction with crushed shellfish, which supposedly prevents lacquer from drying properly. Lacquer skills became very highly developed in Asia, and many highly decorated pieces were produced. It has been confirmed that

2132-629: Is illustrated by licensing records which show twenty-seven sedan chairs in 1800, eighteen in 1817, and ten in 1828. During that same period the number of registered hackney carriages in Glasgow rose to one hundred and fifty. The wealthy are recorded to have used sedan chairs in the cities of colonial America and the early period of the United States. In 1787, Benjamin Franklin , at the time 81 years old, gouty , and in generally declining health,

2214-528: Is mixed with linseed oil. Other specialist lacquers include ikkake-urushi (釦漆) which is thick and used mainly for applying gold or silver leaf. Solvent-based dipping lacquers that contain nitrocellulose , a resin obtained from the nitration of cotton and other cellulosic materials, debuted in the 19th century along with nitrocellulose's other commercial applications. They were used, for example, on brass items such as musical instruments. Faster-drying and more durable versions of these lacquers were developed in

2296-520: Is noted to have travelled to meetings of the United States Constitutional Convention in a sedan chair carried by four prisoners. In various colonies, litters of various types were maintained under native traditions, but often adopted by the colonials as a new ruling and/or socio-economic elite, either for practical reasons (often comfortable modern transport was unavailable, e.g. for lack of decent roads) and/or as

2378-447: Is used for the last finishing layers. The processed form (in which the lacquer is stirred continuously until much of the water content has evaporated) is called guangqi (光漆) in Chinese but comes under many different Japanese names depending on the variation, for example, kijiro-urushi (木地呂漆) is standard transparent lacquer sometimes used with pigments and kuroroiro-urushi (黒呂色漆) is the same but pre-mixed with iron hydroxide to produce

2460-464: Is used not only as a finish, because if mixed with ground fired and unfired clays applied to a mould with layers of hemp cloth, it can produce objects without need for another core like wood. The process is called "kanshitsu" in Japan. In the lacquering of the Chinese musical instrument, the guqin , the lacquer is mixed with deer horn powder (or ceramic powder) to give it more strength so it can stand up to

2542-659: The Hebrew Bible refer to a wooden palanquin which King Solomon is said to have made for himself. Being transported by palanquin was pleasant. Owning one and keeping the staff to power it was a luxury affordable even to low-paid clerks of the East India Company . Concerned that this indulgence led to neglect of business in favor of "rambling", in 1758 the Court of Directors of the company prohibited its junior clerks from purchasing and maintaining palanquins. Also in

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2624-600: The Neolithic period. The earliest extant Chinese lacquer object, a red wooden bowl, was unearthed at a Hemudu culture (5000–4500 BC) site in China. By the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), many centres of lacquer production became firmly established. The knowledge of the Chinese methods of the lacquer process spread from China during the Han , Tang and Song dynasties. Eventually it was introduced to Korea and Japan. Trade of lacquer objects travelled through various routes to

2706-542: The Sanskrit word lākshā ( लाक्षा ) for lac bug , representing the number one hundred thousand (100,000), used as wood finish in ancient India and neighbouring areas. Lacquer sheen is a measurement of the shine for a given lacquer. Different manufacturers have their own names and standards for their sheen. The most common names from least shiny to most shiny are: flat, matte, eggshell, satin, semi-gloss, and gloss (high). In India shellac derived from insect lac

2788-403: The seggioli of Naples and Genoa , which were chairs for public hire slung from poles and carried on the shoulders of two porters. From the mid-17th century, visitors taking the waters at Bath would be conveyed in a chair enclosed in baize curtains, especially if they had taken a heated bath and were going straight to bed to sweat. The curtains kept off a possibly fatal draft. These were not

2870-519: The 19th century, but such enclosed portable litters have been used as an elite form of transport for centuries, especially in cultures where women are kept secluded. Sedan chairs, in use until the 19th century, were accompanied at night by link-boys who carried torches. Where possible, the link boys escorted the fares to the chairmen, the passengers then being delivered to the door of their lodgings. Several houses in Bath, Somerset , England still have

2952-406: The Chinese or Japanese lacquer. Burmese lacquer sets slower, and is painted by craftsmen's hands without using brushes. Raw lacquer can be "coloured" by the addition of small amounts of iron oxides , giving red or black depending on the oxide. There is some evidence that its use is even older than 8,000 years from archaeological digs in Japan and China. Later, pigments were added to make colours. It

3034-465: The Dutch, as a status marker: the more elaborate the palanquin, the higher the status of the owner. The joli was transported either by hired help, by nobles' peasants, or by slaves. Historically, the palanquin of a Javanese king ( raja ), prince ( pangeran ), lord ( raden mas ) or other noble ( bangsawan ) was known as a jempana ; a more throne-like version was called a pangkem . It was always part of

3116-476: The Middle East. Known applications of lacquer in China included coffins, music instruments, furniture, and various household items. Lacquer mixed with powdered cinnabar is used to produce the traditional red lacquerware from China. From the 16th century to the 17th century, lacquer was introduced to Europe on a large scale for the first time through trade with Japanese . Until the 19th century, lacquerware

3198-556: The Netherlands, and Spain in the 17th century, the Europeans developed imitation techniques. The European technique, which is used on furniture and other objects, uses finishes that have a resin base similar to shellac. The technique, which became known as japanning, involves applying several coats of varnish which are each heat-dried and polished. In the 18th century, japanning gained a large popular following. Although traditionally

3280-620: The Territories of the Portugals in India is prohibited to men, because indeed 'tis a thing too effeminate, nevertheless, as the Portugals are very little observers of their own Laws, they began at first to be tolerated upon occasion of the Rain, and for favours, or presents, and afterwards became so common that they are us'd almost by everybody throughout the whole year. Some translations of

3362-578: The UK, Herbert Austin were introducing nitrocellulose lacquers at the same time, and soon the market flourished. Nitrocellulose lacquers are also used to make firework fuses waterproof. The nitrocellulose and other resins and plasticizers are dissolved in the solvent, and each coat of lacquer dissolves some of the previous coat. These lacquers were a huge improvement over earlier automobile and furniture finishes, both in ease of application and in colour retention. The preferred method of applying quick-drying lacquers

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3444-430: The automobile and other similar industrial applications. Water-based lacquers are used extensively in wood furniture finishing as well. One drawback of water-based lacquer is that it has a tendency to be highly reactive to other fresh finishes such as quick-dry primer (excluding waterborne lacquer primers), caulking and even some paints that have a paint/primer aspect. Tannin bleed-through can also be an issue, depending on

3526-541: The brand of lacquer used. Once it happens, there is no easy fix as the lacquer is so reactive to other products. Water-based lacquer used for wood finishing is also not rated for exterior wear, unless otherwise specified. Just as china is a common name for porcelain , japanning is an old name to describe the European technique to imitate Asian lacquerware . As Asian lacquer work became popular in England, France,

3608-402: The chairmen hustled through. There were often disastrous accidents, upset chairs, and broken glass-paned windows. In Great Britain, in the early 19th century, the public sedan chair began to fall out of use, perhaps because streets were better paved or perhaps because of the rise of the more comfortable, companionable and affordable hackney carriage . In Glasgow , the decline of the sedan chair

3690-406: The combustibility issues of solvent-based lacquers, the product still dries fairly quickly. Even though its odor is weaker, water-based lacquers can still produce airborne particulates that can get into the lungs, so proper protective wear still needs to be worn. More and more water-based colored lacquers are replacing solvent-based clear and colored lacquers in under-hood and interior applications in

3772-399: The departed. In pre-colonial Philippines, litters were a way of transportation for the elite ( maginoo , ginu , tumao ); Rajahs , Lakans , Datus , sovereign princes ( Rajamuda ) and their wives use a Sankayan or Sakayan , a wooden or bamboo throne with elaborate and intricate carvings carried by their servants. Also among their retinue were payong (umbrella)-bearers, to shade

3854-526: The difficulties posed by the mountainous terrain of the Korean peninsula and the lack of paved roads, gama s were preferred over wheeled vehicles. In traditional weddings, the bride and groom are carried to the ceremony in separate gama s, this custom goes back to the times of Joseon Dynasty , when the gamas were also used for celebrations of passing government exams and funerals. As the population of Japan increased and less and less land remained available for

3936-499: The early 1920s, when the end of the WWI caused a massive overcapacity of nitrocellulose production, and soon greatly displaced much use of the slower-drying paints and lacquers that preceded them; they were extensively used in the automotive industry and others for the next 30 years until further chemical advancements replaced them. Prior to their introduction, mass-produced automotive finishes were limited in colour, damaged easily, and took

4018-606: The elite travelled in light bamboo seats supported on a carrier's back like a backpack. In the Northern Wei dynasty and the Northern and Southern Song dynasty , wooden carriages on poles appear in painted landscape scrolls. A commoner used a wooden or bamboo civil litter ( Chinese : 民轎 ; pinyin : min2 jiao4 ), while the mandarin class used an official litter (Chinese: 官轎 ; pinyin: guan1 jiao4 ) enclosed in silk curtains. The chair with perhaps

4100-635: The exhibition "Les magicians de la terre" in the Centre Pompidou in Paris they were shown in many art museums around the world. From at least the 15th century until the 19th century, litters of varying types known as tipoye were used in the Kingdom of Kongo as a mode of transportation for the elites. Seat-style litters with a single pole along the back of the chair carried by two men (usually slaves) were topped with an umbrella. Lounge-style litters in

4182-684: The fingering. There are a number of forms of urushiol. They vary by the length of the R chain, which depends on the species of plant producing the urushiol. Urushiol can also vary in the degree of saturation in the carbon chain. Urushiol can be drawn as follows: [REDACTED] , where: R = (CH 2 ) 14 CH 3 or R = (CH 2 ) 7 CH=CH(CH 2 ) 5 CH 3 or R = (CH 2 ) 7 CH=CHCH 2 CH=CH(CH 2 ) 2 CH 3 or R = (CH 2 ) 7 CH=CHCH 2 CH=CHCH=CHCH 3 or R = (CH 2 ) 7 CH=CHCH 2 CH=CHCH 2 CH=CH 2 Types of lacquer vary from place to place but they can be divided into unprocessed and processed categories. The basic unprocessed lacquer

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4264-566: The form of a miniature hut. In Spanish-colonial Philippines, litters remained one of the options of transportation for the Spanish inhabitants and members of the native principalia class. In Southern Ghana the Akan and the Ga-Dangme carry their chiefs and kings in palanquins when they appear in their state durbars . When used in such occasions these palanquins may be seen as a substitutes of

4346-463: The gallop'. Portuguese and Spanish navigators and colonisers encountered litters of various sorts in India , Mexico , and Peru . Such novelties, imported into Spain , spread into France and then to Britain . All the European names for these devices ultimately derive from the root sed- , as in Latin sedere , "to sit", which gave rise to seda ("seat") and its diminutive sedula ("little seat"),

4428-594: The gates of other persons for hire." Those for "women are covered with silk curtains." Palanquins are mentioned in literature as early as the Ramayana ( c.  250   BC ). Indian women of rank always travelled by palanquin. The conveyance proved popular with European residents in India, and was used extensively by them. Pietro Della Valle , a 17th-century Italian traveller, wrote: Going in Palanchino in

4510-435: The government's dak ( Hindi : "mail") system averaged about 10 miles (16 km), and could be covered in three hours. A relay's usual complement consisted of two torch-bearers, two luggage-porters, and eight palanquin-bearers who worked in gangs of four, although all eight might pitch in at steep sections. A passenger could travel straight through or break their journey at dak bungalows located at certain stations. Until

4592-508: The grazing of animals, restrictions were placed upon the use of horses for non-military purposes, with the result that human-powered transport grew increasingly important and eventually came to prevail. Kago ( Kanji : 駕籠, Hiragana : かご) were often used in Japan to transport the non-samurai citizen. Norimono were used by the warrior class and nobility, most famously during the Tokugawa period when regional samurai were required to spend

4674-427: The greatest importance was the bridal chair ( Chinese : 喜轎 ; pinyin : xi3 jiao4 ). A traditional bride is carried to her wedding ceremony by a "shoulder carriage" (Chinese: 肩輿 ; pinyin: jiān yú ), usually hired. These were lacquered in an auspicious shade of red, richly ornamented and gilded , and were equipped with red silk curtains to screen the bride from onlookers. Sedan chairs were once

4756-732: The lacquer tree has existed in Japan since nearly 12,600 years ago in the incipient Jōmon period . This was confirmed by radioactive carbon dating of the lacquer tree found at the Torihama shell mound and is the oldest lacquer tree in the world found as of 2011. Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in Hokkaido . The ornaments woven with lacquered red thread were discovered in

4838-533: The latter of which was contracted to sella , the traditional Classical Latin name for a chair, including a carried chair. In Europe this mode of transportation met with instant success. Henry VIII of England (reigned 1509–1547) was carried around in a sedan chair—it took four strong chairmen to carry him towards the end of his life—but the expression "sedan chair" did not appear in print until 1615. Trevor Fawcett notes (see link) that British travellers Fynes Moryson (in 1594) and John Evelyn (in 1644–45) remarked on

4920-419: The link extinguishers on the exteriors, shaped like outsized candle snuffers. In the 1970s, entrepreneur and Bathwick resident, John Cuningham, revived the sedan chair service business for a brief amount of time. In traditional Catholic processions , holy statues and relics are still carried through the streets using litters. In pharaonic Egypt and many other places such as India , Rome , and China ,

5002-580: The mid-17th century, sedans for hire had become a common mode of transportation. London had "chairs" available for hire in 1634, each assigned a number and the chairmen licensed because the operation was a monopoly of a courtier of King Charles I . Sedan chairs could pass in streets too narrow for a carriage, helping to alleviate the crush of coaches in London streets, an early instance of traffic congestion . A similar system later operated in Scotland . In 1738

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5084-402: The mid-19th century, palanquins remained popular for those who could afford them, but they fell out of favor for long journeys as steamers, railways, and roads suitable for wheeled transport were developed. By the beginning of the 20th century they were nearly "obsolete among the better class of Europeans". Rickshaws , introduced in the 1930s, supplanted them for trips around town. Modern use of

5166-462: The occupant. The porters were known as silleros , cargueros or silleteros (sometimes translated as "saddle-men"). Sling (furniture) Sling furniture is usually a suspended, free-swinging chair , bed , or hammock that is made of a framework connected to hanging straps or rope. When attached to poles or a frame for carrying, a sling becomes a stretcher , a simple form of litter . This article about furniture or furnishing

5248-568: The only public conveyance in Hong Kong, filling the role of cabs. Chair stands were found at all hotels, wharves, and major crossroads. Public chairs were licensed, and charged according to tariffs which would be displayed inside. Private chairs were an important marker of a person's status. Civil officers' status was denoted by the number of bearers attached to his chair. Before Hong Kong 's Peak Tram went into service in 1888, wealthy residents of The Peak were carried on sedan chairs by porters up

5330-622: The palanquin is limited to ceremonial occasions. A doli carries the bride in a traditional wedding , and they may be used to carry religious images in Hindu processions. Many parts in Uttar Pradesh, India like Gorakhpur and around places Vishwakarma communities has been involved in making the dolis for wedding processions. The last known doli making dates back around 2000 by Sharmas(Vishwakarmas) in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. In Han China

5412-410: The polymer (the term actually post-dates the empirical solution, with Staudinger 's modern structural theory explaining polymer solution viscosity by length of molecular chains not yet experimentally proven in 1920s) with heat treatments, either with 2% of mineral acid or in an autoclave at considerable pressure. The first practical nitrocellulose enamel Glossy White S.2567, still for interior use,

5494-444: The proper sedan chairs "to carry the better sort of people in visits, or if sick or infirmed" ( Celia Fiennes ). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the chairs stood in the main hall of a well-appointed city residence, where a lady could enter and be carried to her destination without setting foot in a filthy street. The neoclassical sedan chair made for Queen Charlotte (Queen Consort from 1761 to 1818) remains at Buckingham Palace . By

5576-472: The resin is urushiol, a mixture of various phenols suspended in water, plus a few proteins. In order for it to set properly it requires a humid and warm environment. The phenols oxidize and polymerize under the action of laccase enzymes, yielding a substrate that, upon proper evaporation of its water content, is hard. These lacquers produce very hard, durable finishes that are both beautiful and very resistant to damage by water, acid, alkali or abrasion. The resin

5658-412: The resin. It sets by a process called "aqua-polymerization", absorbing oxygen to set; placing in a humid environment allows it to absorb more oxygen from the evaporation of the water. Lacquer-yielding trees in Thailand, Vietnam, Burma and Taiwan, called Thitsi , are slightly different; they do not contain urushiol, but similar substances called laccol or thitsiol . The result is similar but softer than

5740-533: The rich elite, when not mounted on horseback. The habit must have proven quite persistent, for the Third Council of Braga in 675 AD saw the need to order that bishops, when carrying the relics of martyrs in procession, must walk to the church, and not be carried in a chair, or litter, by deacons clothed in white. In the Catholic Church, Popes were carried the same way in sedia gestatoria , which

5822-558: The royalty and nobility from the intense heat. Princesses ( binibini , dayang dayang ) who were sequestered from the world were called Binukot or Binocot (“set apart”). A special type of royal, these individuals were forbidden to walk on the ground or be exposed to the general populace. When they needed to go anywhere, they were veiled and carried in a hammock or a basket-like litter similar to bird's nests carried by their slaves. Longer journeys required that they be borne inside larger, covered palanquins with silk covers, with some taking

5904-616: The ruler and divinities (in the form of an idol like lord Krishna ) were often transported in a litter in public, frequently in procession, as during state ceremonial or religious festivals. The instructions for how to construct the Ark of the Covenant in the Book of Exodus resembles a litter. In Ancient Rome , a litter called lectica or sella often carried members of the imperial family, as well as other dignitaries and other members of

5986-469: The shape of a bed were used to move one to two people with a porter at each corner. Due to the tropical climate, horses were not native to the area nor could they survive very long once introduced by the Portuguese. Human portage was the only mode of transportation in the region and became highly adept with missionary accounts claiming the litter transporters could move at speeds 'as fast as post horses at

6068-490: The sides of the couch. The largest and heaviest types would be carried by draught animals. Another form, commonly called a sedan chair , consists of a chair or windowed cabin suitable for a single occupant, also carried by at least two porters, one in front and one behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the chair. These porters were known in London as "chairmen". These have been very rare since

6150-414: The social status of the traveller. The most ornate palanquins have lacquer paintwork and cast bronze finials at the ends of the poles. Designs include foliage, animals, and geometric patterns. Ibn Batutta describes them as being "carried by eight men in two lots of four, who rest and carry in turn. In the town there are always a number of these men standing in the bazaars and at the sultan's gate and at

6232-678: The steep paths to their residence including Sir Richard MacDonnell's (former Governor of Hong Kong ) summer home , where they could take advantage of the cooler climate. Since 1975 an annual sedan chair race has been held to benefit the Matilda International Hospital and commemorate the practice of earlier days. In Korea, royalty and aristocrats were carried in wooden litters called gama ( Korean :  가마 ). Gama s were primarily used by royalty and government officials. There were six types of gama , each assigned to different government official rankings. Because of

6314-459: The time of the British in India, dolis served as military ambulances, used to carry the wounded from the battlefield. In the early 19th century, the most prevalent mode of long-distance transport for the affluent was by palanquin. The post office could arrange, with a few days notice, relays of bearers to convey a traveller's palanquin between stages or stations. The distance between these in

6396-504: Was introduced in 1919 in the UK by Nobel Explosives . In 1923, General Motors' Oakland brand automobile was the first to introduce one of the new fast-drying nitrocellulose lacquers, a bright blue, produced by DuPont under their Duco tradename. In 1924 the other GM makes followed suit, and by 1925 nitrocellulose lacquers were thoroughly disrupting the traditional paint business for automobiles, appliances, furniture, musical instruments, caskets, and other products. Henry Ford and, in

6478-516: Was one of Japan's major exports, and European royalty, aristocrats and religious people represented by Marie-Antoinette , Maria Theresa and The Society of Jesus collected Japanese lacquerware luxuriously decorated with maki-e . The terms related to lacquer such as " Japanning ", "Urushiol" and " maque " which means lacquer in Mexican Spanish, are derived from Japanese. The trees must be at least ten years old before cutting to bleed

6560-462: Was reflective of greater cultural permeation by Islam. Occasionally, a weapon or heirloom, such as an important keris or tombak, was given its own palanquin. In Hindu culture in Bali today, the tradition of using palanquins for auspicious statues, weapons or heirlooms continues, for funerals especially; in more elaborate rituals, a palanquin is used to bear the body, and is subsequently cremated along with

6642-621: Was replaced later by the popemobile . A palanquin is a covered litter, usually for one passenger. It is carried by an even number of bearers (between two and eight, but most commonly four) on their shoulders, by means of a pole projecting fore and aft. The word is derived from the Sanskrit palyanka , meaning bed or couch. The Malay and Javanese form is palangki , in Hindi and Bengali, palki , in Telugu pallaki . The Portuguese apparently added

6724-445: Was used since ancient times. Shellac is the secretion of the lac bug ( Tachardia lacca Kerr. or Laccifer lacca ). It is used for wood finish, lacquerware, skin cosmetic, ornaments, dye for textiles, production of different grades of shellac for surface coating. Urushiol -based lacquers differ from most others, being slow-drying, and set by oxidation and polymerization , rather than by evaporation alone. The active ingredient of

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