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137-517: The palace was commissioned by the papal nephew , Duke Luigi Braschi Onesti . He was the son of Count Girolamo Onesti and Giulia Braschi, sister of Pope Pius VI , who created him Duke of Nemi. The architect was Cosimo Morelli . The site had been purchased in 1790 by Braschi, supported by funds from Pope Pius VI. Braschi demolished the 16th-century palace that Giuliano da Sangallo the Younger had built for Francesco Orsini in order to erect his own from

274-587: A condottiero for the French king. The scope of his foreign policy was to gain the most advantageous terms for his family. Alexander is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, partly because he acknowledged fathering several children by his mistresses. As a result, his Italianized Valencian surname, Borgia , became a byword for libertinism and nepotism , which are traditionally considered as characterizing his pontificate. Rodrigo de Borja

411-553: A papal bull of March 14, 1566. However, Pius V relentlessly avoided delegating any real autonomous power to Bonelli. The Cardinal Nephew (also called cardinale padrone or Secretarius Papae et superintendens status ecclesiasticæ : "Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State", Italian : Sopraintendente dello Stato Ecclesiastico ) was an official legate of the Roman Curia , approximately equivalent to

548-653: A Cardinal Nephew. Alexander VIII also undid another reform of Innocent XI by restoring the revenues of the former Chancery to the Vice-Chancellor , who was, at the time, his cardinal-nephew, Pietro Ottoboni . Edith Standen, a consultant to the Metropolitan Museum of Art , calls Ottoboni the "last and certainly not least magnificent example" of the "splendor of an extinct species, the Cardinal-Nephew". Until 1692 (and sometimes thereafter),

685-563: A Papal legate to quell a revolt. Borgia was successful in his mission, and his uncle rewarded him with his appointment as vice-chancellor of the Holy Roman Church. The position of vice-chancellor was both incredibly powerful and lucrative, and Borgia held this post for 35 years until his own election to the papacy in 1492. At the end of 1457, Rodrigo Cardinal Borgia's elder brother, Pedro Luis Borgia, fell ill, so Rodrigo temporarily filled Pedro Luis' position as captain-general of

822-418: A bull banning nepotism, which had been tediously composed between 1677 and 1686. Innocent XI refused entreaties from within the papal court to bring his only nephew, Livio Odescalchi , the prince of Sirmio , to Rome, although he did elevate Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri, a distant relative, cardinal on September 2, 1686. Innocent XI's successor, Pope Alexander VIII (1689–1691), was the last Pope to create

959-1304: A cardinal-nephew held the curial office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State , known as the Cardinal Nephew , and thus the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The curial office of the Cardinal Nephew as well as the institution of the cardinal-nephew declined as the power of the Cardinal Secretary of State increased and the temporal power of popes decreased in the 17th and 18th centuries. The list of cardinal-nephews includes at least fifteen, and possibly as many as nineteen popes ( Gregory IX , Alexander IV , Adrian V , Gregory XI , Boniface IX , Innocent VII , Eugene IV , Paul II , Alexander VI , Pius III , Julius II , Leo X , Clement VII , Benedict XIII , and Pius VII ; perhaps also John XIX and Benedict IX , if they were really promoted cardinals; as well as Innocent III and Benedict XII , if in fact they were related to their elevators); one antipope ( John XXIII ); and two or three saints ( Charles Borromeo , Guarinus of Palestrina , and perhaps Anselm of Lucca , if he

1096-489: A cardinal-nephew was the exception to the rule. Every Renaissance pope who created cardinals appointed a relative to the College of Cardinals , and the nephew was the most common choice, although one of Alexander VI 's creations was his own son. The institution of the cardinal-nephew evolved over seven centuries, tracking developments in the history of the papacy and the styles of individual popes. From 1566 until 1692,

1233-640: A centralized despotism. In this manner, he was able to take advantage of the defeat of the French in order to break the power of the Orsini. From that time on, Alexander was able to build himself an effective power base in the Papal States. Virginio Orsini , who had been captured by the Spanish, died a prisoner at Naples, and the Pope confiscated his property. The rest of the Orsini clan still held out, defeating

1370-455: A famed papal historian, "the evil wrought by them in and to the church has been well nigh fatal to it; and it continued to increase until increasing danger warned the Pontiffs to abstain. The worst cardinals, providing, of course, the material for the worst Popes, have been for the most part cardinal nephews, the temptation to the creation of such having been rendered too great to be resisted by

1507-458: A few choices for the creation of a Cardinal Nephew. According to papal historian Frederic Baumgartner, Pope Sixtus V 's (1585–1590) reign "started badly" because Alessandro Peretti di Montalto was "his only nephew eligible for the office, but he could hardly serve the Pope as a trustworthy confidant", causing several cardinals to refuse to attend his investiture. Another papal historian Ludwig von Pastor notes that "the misfortune of Pope Pamphilj

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1644-480: A few months, Farnese had become Borgia's new mistress. She was 15, and he was 58. Borgia continued to acquire new benefices with their large streams of income, including the bishopric of Majorca and Eger in Hungary. In 1492, Pope Innocent VIII died. Since Borgia was 61, this was likely his last chance to become pope. When his uncle Alonso de Borja ( bishop of Valencia ) was elected Pope Callixtus III, he "inherited"

1781-417: A flattering summary of contemporary descriptions of Alexander, relating him to have been "of a medium complexion, with dark eyes and slightly full lips, of robust health"; in later life, he reports that "his aspect [was declared] to be venerable and far more august than an ordinary human appearance", and that he was "so familiar with Holy Writ , that his speeches were fairly sparkling with well-chosen texts of

1918-764: A formal distance between the person of the pontiff and the everydayness of pontifical affairs. Gregorio Leti 's Papal Nepotism, or the True Relation of the Reasons Which Impel the Popes to make their Nephews Powerful (1667) is one example of contemporary criticism of the institution of the cardinal-nephew; Leti holds the rare distinction of having all of his publications on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books"). The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 defended

2055-524: A hostage, to Charles VIII, and to give Charles Civitavecchia (16 January 1495). On 28 January Charles VIII departed for Naples with Cem and Cesare, but the latter slipped away to Spoleto . Neapolitan resistance collapsed, and Alfonso II fled and abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand II . Ferdinand was abandoned by all and also had to escape, and the Kingdom of Naples was conquered with surprising ease. A reaction against Charles VIII soon set in, for all

2192-583: A letter of condolence to the pope on the death of the Duke of Gandia; "Faith, most Holy Father, is the one and true source of peace and consolation... Faith alone brings consolation from a far-off country." But eventually the Florentines tired of the friar's moralising and the Florentine government condemned the reformer to death, executing him on 23 May 1498. The prominent Italian families looked down on

2329-450: A near-impossibility. Consequently, Borgia continued his previous strategy of positioning himself as kingmaker. This time, Borgia gathered the votes to make Francesco della Rovere (the uncle of future Borgia rival Giuliano della Rovere ) Pope Sixtus IV . Della Rovere's appeal was that he was a pious and brilliant Franciscan friar who lacked many political connections in Rome. He seemed to be

2466-496: A new crusade. Before embarking to lead the crusade personally, Pope Pius II fell ill and died, so Borgia would need to ensure the election of yet another ally to the papacy to maintain his position as vice-chancellor. On the first ballot, the conclave of 1464 elected Borgia's friend Pietro Barbo as Pope Paul II . Borgia was in high standing with the new pope and retained his positions, including that of vice-chancellor. Paul II reversed some of his predecessor's reforms that diminished

2603-568: A parallel government, in which family members often figured prominently. The loss of temporal power over the Papal States ( de facto in 1870 with the " Roman Question " and de jure in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty ) also eliminated the structural conditions which had figured prominently in the family politics of earlier Popes. A Pope's nephew dies twice; the second time like all men, the first time when his uncle dies. Even into

2740-446: A potential threat to any future pontiff; for example, Ludovisi came to lead the opposition against Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644), even talking about calling a council against the Pope (which never occurred as Ludovisi died in 1632) because "no one else had the standing to confront Urban's titanic temper". Nepotism is a common feature in the history of governance, particularly in cultures where identity and loyalty are determined more at

2877-568: A short stay in Florence, set out for Rome (November 1494). Alexander appealed to Ascanio Sforza and even to the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II for help. He tried to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but his position was precarious. When the Orsini offered to admit the French to their castles, Alexander had no choice but to come to terms with Charles. On 31 December, Charles VIII entered Rome with his troops,

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3014-530: A younger brother, Pedro . His family name is written Llançol in Valencian and Lanzol in Castillian . Rodrigo adopted his mother's family name of Borja in 1455 following the elevation to the papacy of maternal uncle Alonso de Borja (Italianized to Alfonso Borgia) as Calixtus III . His cousin and Calixtus's nephew Luis de Milà y de Borja became a cardinal. Gerard Noel writes that Rodrigo's father

3151-544: Is Anselm of Lucca , the nephew or brother of Pope Alexander II (1061–1073), although until the end of 12th the majority of the alleged cases of such appointments are dubious, either because the relationship between the Pope and cardinal is not proven, or because the cardinalate of the papal kinsman is uncertain. However, it is beyond doubt that the promotions of papal relatives to the College of Cardinals were common in 13th century . According to historian John Bargrave, "by

3288-468: Is considered to have exercised "more unlimited authority" than any previous cardinal-nephew. Notably, cardinal-nephews were allowed to create facultas testandi to will the rewards of their benefices to secular family members. Gregory XV's successor, Urban VIII (1623–1644) convened two special committees of theologians, both of whom endorsed this practice. As Fabio Chigi, I had a family. As Alexander VII I have none. You won't find my name anywhere in

3425-498: Is estimated that Paul V Borghese had transferred to his family approximately 4% of the total income of the Holy See during his pontificate. Borghese's personal revenues in 1610 were 153,000 scudi compared to the mere 4,900 scudi that constituted his entire family's income in 1592. Pope Gregory XIV (1590–1591) began the practice of creating cardinal-nephews whose formal appointment coincided de facto with their nomination, and

3562-400: Is your present habit, but safely, quietly and modestly as becomes a religious, or until we make different arrangements. If you obey, as we hope you will, we for the time being suspend the operation of our former Brief so that you may live in peace in accordance with the dictates of your conscience. The hostility of Savonarola seems to have been political rather than personal, and the friar sent

3699-727: The Avignon Papacy , the Cardinal Nephew was responsible for the spiritual and temporal governance of the Comtat Venaissin , where the Avignon Popes had resided; in 1475, Pope Sixtus IV raised the Diocese of Avignon to the rank of an archbishopric, to the benefit of his nephew Giuliano della Rovere . The terms of the office of Cardinal Nephew were established by a papal brief developed and refined by Pius V's successors to Paul V (1605–1621). The Cardinal Nephew

3836-796: The Canary Islands in his papal bull Sicut dudum , which included the excommunication of all those who engaged in the slave trade with native chiefs there. A form of indentured servitude was allowed, being similar to a peasant's duty to his liege lord in Europe. In the wake of Columbus 's landing in the New World, Pope Alexander was asked by the Spanish monarchy to confirm their ownership of these newly found lands. The bulls issued by Pope Alexander VI: Eximiae devotionis (3 May 1493), Inter caetera (4 May 1493) and Dudum siquidem (23 September 1493), granted rights to Spain with respect to

3973-417: The Cardinal Secretary of State , which absorbed its functions after the office of Cardinal Nephew was abolished in 1692. The office has been likened by historians to a " prime minister ", " alter ego ", or "vice-pope". The Cardinal Nephew was generally among a Pope's first cardinal creations, and his creature was traditionally accompanied by a salute from the guns of Castel Sant'Angelo . Following

4110-473: The Council of Bazill , Session 21, the number of cardinals was not to be above 24, and not any nephew of the Pope or of any cardinal was to be of that number. ( Session 23.)" Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff, including six on September 20, 1342, the greatest number of cardinal-nephews elevated at one time. The capitulation of the 1464 papal conclave limited

4247-519: The Curia under the next four popes, acquiring significant influence and wealth in the process. In 1492, Rodrigo was elected pope, taking the name Alexander VI. Alexander's papal bulls of 1493 confirmed or reconfirmed the rights of the Spanish crown in the New World following the finds of Christopher Columbus in 1492. During the second Italian war , Alexander VI supported his son Cesare Borgia as

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4384-603: The Holy See ; only four were able career churchmen. On the death of Pope Innocent VIII on 25 July 1492, the three likely candidates for the Papacy were the 61-year-old Borgia, seen as an independent candidate, Ascanio Sforza for the Milanese, and Giuliano della Rovere , seen as a pro-French candidate. It was rumoured but not substantiated that Borgia succeeded in buying the largest number of votes and Sforza, in particular,

4521-578: The Kingdom of Valencia , Spain), military assistance to help him subjugate the feudal princelings of papal Romagna, and a princess bride, Charlotte of Albret from the Kingdom of Navarre . Alexander hoped that Louis XII's help would be more profitable to his house than that of Charles VIII had been. In spite of the remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself with France in January 1499 and

4658-666: The Papal States from 11 August 1492 until his death in 1503. Born into the prominent Borgia family in Xàtiva in the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon , Spain , Rodrigo studied law at the University of Bologna . He was ordained deacon and made a cardinal in 1456 after the election of his uncle as Pope Callixtus III , and a year later he became vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church. He proceeded to serve in

4795-427: The de facto rubber stamp of the pontiff himself. Although Pope Leo XI (1605) died before he was able to elevate his nephew, Roberto Ubaldini , Ubaldini was elevated by Leo XI's successor, Pope Paul V in 1615. Some historians consider Scipione Borghese , cardinal-nephew to Pope Paul V , to be the "prototypical representative" of a cardinal-nephew, unlike those before him, created to "provide for and oversee

4932-473: The "Infans Romanus" , Rodrigo and Bernardo, were of uncertain maternal parentage. His daughter Isabella was the great-great-grandmother of Pope Innocent X , who was therefore descended in a direct line from Alexander. While the explorers of Spain imposed a form of slavery called " encomienda " on the indigenous peoples they met in the New World, some popes had spoken out against the practice of slavery. In 1435, Pope Eugene IV had issued an attack on slavery in

5069-406: The "politics of equilibrium" did nothing but render the country unable to defend itself against a powerful invading force. Italy was shown to be very vulnerable to the predations of the powerful nation-states, France and Spain, that had forged themselves during the previous century. Alexander VI now followed the general tendency of all the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories and establish

5206-466: The 16th and 17th centuries. The last cardinal-nephew was named in 1689 and the practice was abolished in 1692. The word nepotism originally referred specifically to this practice, when it appeared in the English language about 1669. From the middle of the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) until Pope Innocent XII 's anti-nepotism bull (a papal charter), Romanum decet pontificem (1692), a pope without

5343-410: The 18th century, the cardinal-nephew was a natural power broker at the conclave following his uncle's death, as a figure whom cardinals desirous of continuing the status quo could rally around. In particular, the cardinal-nephew often commanded the loyalty of his uncle's creatures , whom he generally had a role in naming. For example, Alessandro Peretti di Montalto led his uncle's creatures in

5480-454: The Borgias' power increased. Cesare then returned to Rome, where his father asked him to assist Goffredo in reducing the last Orsini strongholds; this he was unwilling to do, much to his father's annoyance; but he eventually marched out, captured Ceri and made peace with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano . The war between France and Spain for the possession of Naples dragged on, and

5617-513: The Church. These nepotistic appointments were characteristic of the era. Each pope during this period found himself surrounded by the servants and retainers of his predecessors who often owed their loyalty to the family of the pontiff who had appointed them. In 1455, he inherited his uncle's post as bishop of Valencia, and Callixtus appointed him Dean of Santa Maria in Xàtiva. The following year, he

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5754-462: The Curia. An analysis of the five papal conclaves between 1605 and 1644 shows that cardinal-nephews were generally unsuccessful in electing their chosen candidates, although the victor was usually a cardinal created by the deceased Pope. Crown-cardinals in particular, when they deigned to travel to Rome for the conclave, tended to oppose the election of cardinal-nephews, although they equally opposed

5891-575: The European powers were alarmed at his success. On 31 March 1495 the Holy League was formed between the pope, the emperor, Venice , Ludovico il Moro and Ferdinand of Spain . The League was ostensibly formed against the Turks, but in reality it was made to expel the French from Italy. Charles VIII had himself crowned King of Naples on 12 May, but a few days later began his retreat northward. He met

6028-490: The French threat was set in motion: a Neapolitan army was to advance through Romagna and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize Genoa . Both expeditions were badly conducted and failed, and on 8 September Charles VIII crossed the Alps and joined Ludovico il Moro at Milan. The Papal States were in turmoil, and the powerful Colonna faction seized Ostia in the name of France. Charles VIII rapidly advanced southward, and after

6165-757: The League at Fornovo and cut his way through them and was back in France by November. Ferdinand II was reinstated at Naples soon afterwards, with Spanish help. The expedition, if it produced no material results, demonstrated the foolishness of the so-called "politics of equilibrium", the Medicean doctrine of preventing one of the Italian principates from overwhelming the rest and uniting them under its hegemony. Charles VIII's belligerence in Italy had made it transparent that

6302-546: The Onesti lineage, an endeavor which yielded only a circuitous connection to Saint Romualdo. After the turbulent 1800 papal conclave , Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) shunned the institution of the cardinal-nephew and instead relied on his Cardinal Secretary of State , Ercole Consalvi . During the 19th century, the only nephew of a Pope created cardinal was Gabriele della Genga Sermattei , nephew of Pope Leo XII , created cardinal by Pope Gregory XVI on February 1, 1836. Although

6439-694: The Pope it elected ( Pope Paul II ) to appointing one cardinal-nephew, along with other conditions designed to increase the power of the College of Cardinals and reduce the Pope's ability to dilute that power. The Fifth Council of the Lateran declared in 1514 that the care of relatives was to be commended, and the creation of cardinal-nephews was often recommended or justified based on the need to care for indigent family members. A cardinal-nephew could usually expect profitable appointments; for example, Alessandro Farnese , cardinal-nephew of Pope Paul III (1534–1549) held 64 benefices simultaneously in addition to

6576-613: The Sacred Books". Rodrigo de Borja's career in the Church began in 1445 at the age of 14 when he was appointed sacristan at the Cathedral of Valencia by his influential uncle, Alfons Cardinal de Borja , who had been appointed a cardinal by Pope Eugene IV the previous year. In 1448, Borja became canon at the cathedrals of Valencia, Barcelona, and Segorbe. His uncle, Cardinal de Borja, persuaded Pope Nicholas V to allow young Borja to perform this role in absentia and receive

6713-521: The Spanish Borgia family, and they resented their power, which they sought for themselves. This is, at least partially, why both Pope Callixtus III and Pope Alexander VI gave powers to family members whom they could trust. In these circumstances, Alexander, feeling more than ever that he could rely only on his own kin, turned his thoughts to further family aggrandizement. He had annulled Lucrezia's marriage to Giovanni Sforza , who had responded to

6850-493: The Spanish cardinals were absent from the conclave and della Rovere's faction had an overwhelming advantage. Della Rovere chose to promote Cardinal Cibo as his preferred candidate, and Cibo wrote to the Borgia faction wanting to strike a deal. Once again, Borgia played kingmaker and conceded to Cardinal Cibo who became Pope Innocent VIII . Again, Borgia retained his position of vice-chancellor, successfully holding this position over

6987-400: The alternative; for example, the college urged Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) to appoint a cardinal-nephew, who they hoped would replace Benedict XIII's notorious lieutenant Niccolò Coscia . Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585) also had to be urged by key figures in the college to appoint his cardinal-nephew: Filippo Boncompagni. The cardinal-nephews of the 18th century declined in influence as

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7124-524: The associated income, so that Borja could travel to Rome . While in Rome, Rodrigo Borgia (as his surname was usually spelled in Italian ) studied under Gaspare da Verona, a humanist tutor. He then studied law at Bologna where he graduated, not simply as Doctor of Law , but as "the most eminent and judicious jurisprudent." The election of his uncle, Alfons Cardinal de Borja, as Pope Callixtus III in 1455 enabled Borgia's appointments to other positions in

7261-403: The baptismal registers of Siena . Not all Cardinal Nephews were cardinal-nephews in the strictest sense. In fact, papal historian Valérie Pirie considers not having a nephew a "tremendous asset for a would-be Pope" as it left the position open for an ally cardinal. For example, Pope Clement X gave the office to Cardinal Paoluzzi-Altieri, whose nephew had recently married Laura Caterina Altieri,

7398-463: The birth dates of the four children in comparison with Alexander's known whereabouts preclude him from having fathered any of them. His "acknowledgement" merely consisted of addressing them as "beloved son / daughter" in correspondence (while applying the same address to, e.g., Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in the same letter). Another mistress was the beautiful Giulia Farnese (" Giulia la Bella "), wife of Orsino Orsini . Giulia

7535-606: The bull Inter caetera on 4 May 1493, divided the title between Spain and Portugal along a demarcation line. This became the basis of the Treaty of Tordesillas . Pope Alexander VI made many alliances to secure his position. He sought help from Charles VIII of France (1483–1498), who was allied to Ludovico "il Moro" Sforza (the Moor, so-called because of his swarthy complexion), the de facto Duke of Milan, who needed French support to legitimise his rule. As King Ferdinand I of Naples

7672-664: The capture of Ostia and the submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and Savelli . Then occurred a major domestic tragedy for the house of Borgia. On 14 June, his son the Duke of Gandia , who was lately created Duke of Benevento and had a questionable lifestyle, disappeared; the next day, his corpse was found in the Tiber. Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castel Sant'Angelo . He declared that henceforth

7809-545: The cardinal-bishop of Porto. In 1480, the pope legitimized Cesare as a favour to Cardinal Borgia, and in 1482, the pope began to appoint the seven-year-old to church positions, demonstrating Borgia's intention to use his influence to promote his children. Contemporaneously, Borgia continued to add to his list of benefices, becoming the wealthiest cardinal by 1483. He also become Dean of the College of Cardinals in that year. In 1484, Pope Sixtus IV died, necessitating another election for Borgia to manipulate to his advantage. Borgia

7946-471: The cardinal-nephew (or a lay nephew) would be the chief archivist of the Pope, usually removing the archives to a family archive upon the death of the pontiff. In particular, the archival collections of the Barberini , Farnese , Chigi , and Borghese families contain important papal documents. Pope Innocent XII (1691–1700) issued a papal bull on June 22, 1692, Romanum decet pontificem , banning

8083-423: The cardinals of the French faction, and Giuliano della Rovere. Alexander now feared that Charles might depose him for simony , and that the king would summon a council to nominate a new pope. Alexander was able to win over the bishop of Saint-Malo , who had much influence over the king, by making him a cardinal. Alexander agreed to send Cesare as legate to Naples with the French army; to deliver Cem Sultan , held as

8220-609: The chancellorship but also with a lucrative abbey benefice and another titular church. In 1460, Pope Pius rebuked Cardinal Borgia for attending a private party which Pius had heard turned into an orgy. Borgia apologized for the incident but denied that there had been an orgy. Pope Pius forgave him, and the true events of the evening remain unknown. In 1462, Rodrigo Borgia had his first son, Pedro Luis, with an unknown mistress. He sent Pedro Luis to grow up in Spain. The following year, Borgia acceded to Pope Pius's call for cardinals to help fund

8357-578: The chief cardinal on how to create a faction of cardinals with all the requisites for the establishment of his grandeur"), discovered in the archive of the Santa Maria de Monserrato offers advice to cardinal-nephews for consolidating power within the College of Cardinals. Another text, the Ricordi dati da Gregorio XV al cardinale Lodovisio suo nipote ("Memoir addressed by Gregory XV to his Nephew Cardinal Lodovisio") offers advice for how to rise within

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8494-410: The choir chanted Psalm 118:19–20. The pope knocked on the door three times, workers moved it from the inside, and everyone then crossed the threshold to enter into a period of penance and reconciliation. Thus, Pope Alexander formalized the rite and began a longstanding tradition that is still in practice. Similar ceremonies were held at the other three basilicas. Alexander instituted a special rite for

8631-587: The closing of a holy door, as well. On the Feast of the Epiphany in 1501, two cardinals began to seal the holy door with two bricks, one silver and one gold. Sampietrini (basilica workers) completed the seal, placing specially-minted coins and medals inside the wall. Of Alexander's many mistresses, one of his favourites was Vannozza dei Cattanei , born in 1442, and who was married to three different men. The relationship began in 1470, and she had four children whom

8768-659: The college, saying he had "enough to account to God for the unworthy ones he had appointed". However, cardinal-nephews were not guaranteed the leadership of their uncle's creatures ; for example, in the papal conclave, 1621 , Scipione Borghese could count only twenty-nine votes (a fraction of his uncle's fifty-six cardinals), Pietro Aldobrandini controlled only nine (of his uncle's thirteen remaining cardinals), and Montalto only five of his uncle's remaining cardinals. In fact, international rivalries sometimes overwhelmed family loyalties when cardinal-nephews were relatively "poorly organized". As Pope Innocent X (1644–1655) died with

8905-589: The colonisers' language) before hostilities against them began. They were given the option to accept the authority of the pope and Spanish crown or face being attacked and subjugated. In 1993, the Indigenous Law Institute called on Pope John Paul II to revoke Inter caetera and to make reparation for "this unreasonable historical grief". This was followed by a similar appeal in 1994 by the Parliament of World Religions . A danger now arose in

9042-690: The conclave's master of ceremonies and a leading figure of the papal household under several popes, recorded in his diary that the 1492 conclave was a particularly expensive campaign. Della Rovere was bankrolled to the cost of 200,000 gold ducats by King Charles VIII of France , with another 100,000 supplied by the Republic of Genoa . The leading candidates in the first ballot were Oliviero Carafa of Sforza's party with nine votes, and Giovanni Michiel and Jorge Costa, both of della Rovere's party with seven votes each. Borgia himself gathered seven votes. However, Borgia convinced Sforza to join with his camp through

9179-655: The course of five papacies and four elections. In 1485, Pope Innocent VIII nominated Borgia to become the Archbishop of Seville , a position that King Ferdinand II wanted for his own son. In response, Ferdinand angrily seized the Borgia estates in Aragon and imprisoned Borgia's son Pedro Luis. However, Borgia healed the relationship by turning down this appointment. Pope Innocent, at the urging of his close ally Giuliano della Rovere, decided to declare war against Naples, but Milan, Florence, and Aragon chose to support Naples over

9316-451: The curia was a major scandal. Opponents, such as the powerful Florentine friar Girolamo Savonarola , launched invectives against papal corruption and appealed for a general council to confront the papal abuses. Alexander is reported to have been reduced to laughter when Savonarola's denunciations were related to him. Nevertheless, he appointed Sebastian Maggi to investigate the friar, and he responded on 16 October 1495: We are displeased at

9453-486: The della Rovere family. As a part of his war opposition, Borgia sought to obstruct an alliance negotiation between the papacy and France. These negotiations were unsuccessful and in July 1486, the pope capitulated and ended the war. In 1488, Borgia's son Pedro Luis died, and Juan Borgia became the new duke of Gandia. In the following year, Borgia hosted the wedding ceremony between Orsino Orsini and Giulia Farnese , and within

9590-701: The disturbed state of affairs in Florence, the more so in that it owes its origin to your preaching. For you predict the future and publicly declare that you do so by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit when you should be reprehending vice and praising virtue ... Prophecies like these should not be made when your charge is to forward peace and concord. Moreover, these are not the time for such teachings, calculated as they are to produce discord even in times of peace let alone in times of trouble. ... Since, however, we have been most happy to learn from certain cardinals and from your letter that you are ready to submit yourself to

9727-417: The election of crown-cardinals of other monarchs. In general, a cardinal-nephew had to outlive one or more successors of his uncle to become regarded as papabile , both because of their youth and their tendency to be blamed for any unpopular papal policies of their uncles. A papal election could bring a dramatic change of fortune for a cardinal-nephew, often bringing the former favorites into conflict with

9864-514: The exorbitant greatness of the power, dignity, and wealth attributed to the members of the Sacred College. The value of these great "prizes" was so enormous, that the "hat" became an object of ambition to princes, and it was the primary object with a long series of Popes to bestow it on their kinsmen." The curial office of Cardinal Secretary of State in many ways evolved from the roles formerly filled by cardinal-nephews. From 1644 to 1692,

10001-577: The first cardinal-nephew known as il cardinale padrone ("the Cardinal boss") accumulated a vast array of benefices: the bishopric of Bologna , 23 abbeys , the directorship of the Apostolic Signatura , as well as the offices of the vice-chancellor and high-chamberlain, and was able to have most of them redistributed among 17 of his kinsmen upon his death. These benefices and offices netted Ludovisi more than 200,000 scudi annually, and he

10138-458: The first holy door in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Eve 1499, and papal representatives opened the doors in the other three patriarchal basilicas. For this, Pope Alexander had a new opening created in the portico of St. Peter's and commissioned a marble door. Alexander was carried in the sedia gestatoria to St. Peter's. He and his assistants, bearing candles, processed to the holy door, as

10275-541: The ground up. Construction was suspended in February 1798 during the Napoleonic occupation of the city, when the French temporarily took possession of it until 1802 and confiscated the recently acquired collection of antiquities it contained (though Braschi was reimbursed for them). In 1809, when Rome was declared an Imperial city by Napoleon, Duke Luigi moved into the palace and was declared mayor. On his death in 1816

10412-426: The institution of the cardinal-nephew as a necessary countermeasure to the intrigue of the old Church. According to Francis A. Burkle-Young, 15th century Popes in particular found it necessary to elevate their relatives to the College of Cardinals due to their distrust of the crown-cardinals , Roman baronial families, and Italian princely families who also populated the college. According to Thomas Adolphus Trollope ,

10549-424: The institutionalization of nepotism disappeared in the 18th century, " pietas " (duty to family) remained a theme of papal administration into the 20th century, although rarely with the overt intervention of a papal uncle. Following the example of Pius VI, Popes Leo XIII (who elevated his brother, Giuseppe Pecci , cardinal on May 12, 1879) and Pius XII (1939–1958) weakened the formal curial bureaucracy in favor of

10686-430: The interests of the Borgia family in Aragon. Borgia returned to Rome the following year, narrowly surviving a storm that sank a nearby galley that was carrying 200 men of the Borgia household. Back in Rome, Borgia began his affair with Vannozza dei Cattenei which would yield four children: Cesare in 1475, Giovanni in 1474 or 1476, Lucrezia in 1480, and Gioffre in 1482. In 1476, Pope Sixtus appointed Borgia to be

10823-567: The level of the family than that of the nation-state . The use of nephews, rather than direct descendants, is a product of the tradition of clerical celibacy within the Catholic Church , although hereditary descent from uncles to nephews is also seen in the patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East . The creation of relatives and known-allies as cardinals was only one way in which medieval and Renaissance Popes attempted to dilute

10960-402: The marriage. The couple named Borgia to be the godfather of their first son in recognition of this decision. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella was critical in the unification of Castile and Aragon into Spain. Borgia also negotiated peace between Castile and Aragon and an end to the civil wars in the latter Kingdom, gaining the favour of the future King Ferdinand - who would go on to promote

11097-613: The moral reform of the Church would be the sole object of his life. Every effort was made to discover the assassin. No conclusive explanation was ever reached, and it may be that the crime was simply as a result of one of the Duke's sexual liaisons. There is no evidence that the Borgias resorted to poisoning, judicial murder, or extortion to fund their schemes and the defense of the Papal States. The only contemporary accusations of poisoning were from some of their servants, extracted under torture by Alexander's bitter enemy Della Rovere, who succeeded him as Pope Julius II . The debased state of

11234-490: The new French king Louis XII entered a secret agreement; in exchange for a bull of divorce between the king and Joan of France (so he could marry Anne of Brittany ) and making Georges d'Amboise (the king's chief advisor) the cardinal of Rouen , Cesare was given the duchy of Valentinois in France (chosen because it was homophonous with his nickname, Valentino, derived from his father's papal epithet Valentinus ("The Valencian ", as seen on his coins denoting his origin in

11371-406: The new Pope. For example, Prospero Colonna and Francisco de Borja were excommunicated , and Carlo Carafa was executed . The papal conclave, May 1605 , is one example of a conclave where a candidate ( Antonmaria Sauli ) was defeated because enough other cardinals were convinced of the need for "a Pope willing to punish the cardinal-nephews for robbing the papacy". A cardinal-nephew was also

11508-553: The newly discovered lands in the Americas similar to those Pope Nicholas V had previously conferred on Portugal with the bulls Romanus Pontifex and Dum Diversas . Morales Padron (1979) concludes that these bulls gave power to enslave the natives. Minnich (2010) asserts that this "slave trade" was permitted to facilitate conversions to Christianity. Other historians and Vatican scholars strongly disagree with these accusations and assert that Alexander never gave his approval to

11645-543: The news, he lured Cardinal Orsini to the Vatican and cast him into a dungeon, where he died. His goods were confiscated and many other members of the clan in Rome were arrested, while Alexander's son Goffredo Borgia led an expedition into the Campagna and seized their castles. Thus the two great houses of Orsini and Colonna, who had long fought for predominance in Rome and often flouted the pope's authority, were subjugated and

11782-434: The office of Cardinal Nephew vacant his faction proved divided and leaderless in the conclave, although his sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini was invited to address the cardinals from within the enclosure, the only woman ever so honored. Instruzione al cardinal Padrone circa il modo come si deve procurare una fazione di cardinali con tutti i requisiti che deve avere per lo stabilimento della sua grandezza ("Instructions to

11919-492: The office of Cardinal Nephew, limiting his successors to elevating only one cardinal relative, eliminating various sinecures traditionally reserved for cardinal-nephews, and capping the stipend or endowment the nephew of a Pope could receive to 12,000 scudi . Romanum decet pontificem was later incorporated into the Code of Canon Law of 1917 in canons 240, 2; 1414, 4; and 1432, 1. In 1694, Innocent XII's series of reforms

12056-586: The palace remained unfinished and the family funds depleted. In 1871 the Braschi Onesti heirs sold the building to the Italian State, who made it the seat of the Ministry of Interior (now moved into Palazzo del Viminale ). During the Italian fascist period, it was used as the political headquarters of Benito Mussolini , and was adorned with a giant sculpture of the dictator's face surrounded by

12193-488: The papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere fortified himself in his bishopric of Ostia at the Tiber 's mouth as Alexander formed a league against Naples (25 April 1493) and prepared for war. Ferdinand allied himself with Florence , Milan and Venice . He also appealed to Spain for help, but Spain was eager to be on good terms with the papacy to obtain the title to the recently discovered New World . Alexander, in

12330-440: The papal army until he recovered. In 1458, Cardinal Borgia's uncle and greatest benefactor, Pope Callixtus, died. In the papal election of 1458 , Rodrigo Borgia was too young to seek the papacy himself, so he sought to support a cardinal who would maintain him as vice-chancellor. Borgia was one of the deciding votes in the election of Cardinal Piccolomini as Pope Pius II , and the new pope rewarded Borgia not only with maintaining

12467-431: The papal conclave of 1590 despite being only 21. According to conclave historian Frederic Baumgartner, "the purpose of such appointments was ensuring that the Pope's family would have power and influence for a much longer time than the brief period that a Pope could expect to reign". A notable exception is Pope Gregory XV (1621–1623) who declined on his death bed the request of Ludovico Ludovisi to name more relatives to

12604-591: The papal legate for Spain to negotiate a peace treaty between Castile and Aragon and to solicit their support for another crusade. In 1472, Borgia was appointed to be the papal chamberlain until his departure to Spain. Borgia arrived in his native Aragon in the summer, reuniting with family and meeting with King Juan II and Prince Ferdinand. The pope gave Cardinal Borgia discretion over whether to give dispensation for Ferdinand 's marriage to his second cousin Isabella of Castile , and Borgia decided in favour of approving

12741-557: The papal service" proved more effective than nepotism for future Popes and thus "greatly reduced the need for papal nephews". The rise of the Cardinal Secretary of State was the "most obvious element of this new approach". Alexander VI Pope Alexander VI (born Rodrigo de Borja ; c. 1431 – 18 August 1503) ( epithet : Valentinus ("The Valencian ")) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of

12878-491: The papal troops sent against them under Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Duke of Urbino and Giovanni Borgia , Duke of Gandia, at Soriano (January 1497). Peace was made through Venetian mediation, the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their confiscated lands; the Duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was left by the pope to pay his own ransom. The Orsini remained very powerful, and Pope Alexander VI could count on none but his 3,000 Spanish troops. His only success had been

13015-423: The peace by a marriage between his son Gioffre and Doña Sancha , another granddaughter of Ferdinand I. In order to dominate the College of Cardinals more completely, Alexander, in a move that created much scandal, created 12 new cardinals. Among the new cardinals was his own son Cesare, then only 18 years old. Alessandro Farnese (later Pope Paul III), the brother of one of the Pope's mistresses, Giulia Farnese ,

13152-487: The perfect cardinal to reform the Church, and the perfect cardinal for Borgia to maintain his influence. Sixtus IV rewarded Borgia for his support by promoting him to cardinal-bishop and consecrating him as the Cardinal-Bishop of Albano , requiring Borgia's ordination as a priest. Borgia also received a lucrative abbey from the pope and remained vice-chancellor. At the end of the year, the pope appointed Borgia to be

13289-597: The permanent social and economic ascent of the reigning papal family into the ranks of the high Roman aristocracy". For example, in 1616, 24 of the 30 abbeys belonging to Borghese were rented out, a practice the Council of Trent had attempted to eliminate. A thorough financial analysis of Borghese's cardinalate by Volker Reinhardt (based on a series of extant account books) examines the strategies Borghese used to build up wealth during his uncle's pontificate and non-ecclesiastical assets before his uncle's death, which Volker considers to be exemplary of Baroque papal families. It

13426-559: The piazza in front of the Palazzo Braschi. Papal nephew A cardinal-nephew ( Latin : cardinalis nepos ; Italian : cardinale nipote ; Spanish : valido de su tío ; Portuguese : cardeal-sobrinho ; French : prince de fortune ) was a cardinal elevated by a pope who was that cardinal's relative. The practice of creating cardinal-nephews originated in the Middle Ages , and reached its apex during

13563-698: The piazza, is the Monument to Marco Minghetti ; Minghetti had led the Ministry of the Interior and served as prime minister, with offices in this palace. The oval hall inside the main entrance overlooks Via San Pantaleo, and leads to the monumental staircase with its eighteen red granite columns which came from the gallery built by the Emperor Caligula on the banks of the River Tiber . Decorating

13700-430: The pontiff. Saint Charles Borromeo , cardinal-nephew of Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), had ensured the subordination of the secretarius intimus to the Cardinal Nephew, which came to be sometimes known as the secretarius maior . Pius IV was notorious for nepotism: between 1561 and 1565 he transferred more than 350,000 scudi to his relatives. Following the Council of Trent (1563), Pope Pius V (1566–1572) drew up

13837-449: The pope openly acknowledged as his own: Cesare (born 1475), Giovanni , afterwards duke of Gandia (commonly known as Juan, born 1474 or 1476), Lucrezia (born 1480), and Gioffre (Goffredo in Italian, born 1481 or 1482). Rodrigo only legitimized his children after becoming pope. He had pretended that his four children with Vannozza were his niece and nephews and that they were fathered by Vannozza's husbands. G. J. Meyer argued that

13974-514: The pope was forever intriguing, ready to ally himself with whichever power promised the most advantageous terms at any moment. He offered to help Louis XII on condition that Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help Spain in exchange for Siena , Pisa and Bologna . Cesare was preparing for another expedition in August 1503 when, after he and his father had dined with Cardinal Adriano Castellesi on 6 August, they were taken ill with fever

14111-464: The pope. Borgia led the opposition within the College of Cardinals to this war, and King Ferdinand rewarded Borgia by making his son Pedro Luis the Duke of Gandia and arranging a marriage between his cousin Maria Enriquez and the new duke. Now, the Borgia family was directly tied to the royal families of Spain and Naples. While Borgia gained the favour of Spain, he stood opposed to the pope and

14248-485: The post of bishop of Valencia. Sixteen days before the death of Pope Innocent VIII , he proposed Valencia as a metropolitan see and became the first archbishop of Valencia. When Rodrigo de Borgia was elected pope as Alexander VI following the death of Innocent VIII, his son Cesare Borgia "inherited" the post as second archbishop of Valencia. The third and the fourth archbishops of Valencia were Juan de Borja and Pedro Luis de Borja , grandnephews of Alexander VI. There

14385-458: The power of the Cardinal Secretary of State increased. The church of Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) is described by historian Eamon Duffy as "all the evils of nepotism without the nephew". Neri Maria Corsini , cardinal-nephew of Pope Clement XII (1730–1740) was by far the most powerful cardinal-nephew of the 18th century, on account of his uncle's advanced age and blindness . However, Clement XII's successor, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758)

14522-423: The power of the College of Cardinals as an "ecclesiastical rival" and perpetuate their influence within the church after their death. The institution of the cardinal-nephew had the effect both of enriching the Pope's family with desirable benefices and of modernizing the administration of the papacy, by allowing the pontiff to rule through a proxy which was more easily deemed fallible when necessary and provided

14659-506: The power of the Cardinal Secretary of State was essentially inversely proportional to that of the Cardinal Nephew, to whom the Secretariat was subordinate. During some pontificates, for example that of Pope Pius V (1566–1572) and his nephew Michele Bonelli , the cardinal-nephew and secretary of state were one and the same. According to Baumgartner, "the rise of a centralized administration with professional bureaucrats with careers in

14796-436: The power of the chancellory. Following the election, Borgia fell ill of the plague but recovered. Borgia had two daughters, Isabella (*1467) and Girolama (*1469), with an unknown mistress. He openly acknowledged all three of his children. Pope Paul II died suddenly in 1471. While Borgia had acquired the reputation and wealth to mount a bid for the papacy in this conclave , there were only three non-Italians, making his election

14933-608: The practice of slavery. Other later popes, such as Pope Paul III in Sublimis Deus (1537), Pope Benedict XIV in Immensa Pastorium (1741), and Pope Gregory XVI in his letter In supremo apostolatus (1839), continued to condemn slavery. Thornberry (2002) asserts that Inter caetera was applied in the Spanish Requirement of 1513 , which was read to American Indians (who could not understand

15070-430: The promise of being appointed vice-chancellor as well as bribes that included benefices and perhaps four mule-loads of silver. With Sforza now canvassing for votes, Borgia's election was assured. Borgia was elected on 11 August 1492 and assumed the name of Alexander VI (due to confusion about the status of Pope Alexander V , elected by the Council of Pisa ). Many inhabitants of Rome were happy with their new pope because he

15207-484: The reproofs of the Church, as becomes a Christian and a religious, we are beginning to think that what you have done has not been done with an evil motive, but from a certain simple-mindedness and a zeal, however misguided, for the Lord's vineyard. Our duty, however, prescribes that we order you, under holy obedience, to cease from public and private preaching until you are able to come to our presence, not under armed escort as

15344-459: The shape of a conspiracy by the deposed despots, the Orsini, and of some of Cesare's own condottieri . At first, the papal troops were defeated and things looked bleak for the house of Borgia. But a promise of French help quickly forced the confederates to come to terms. Cesare, by an act of treachery, then seized the ringleaders at Senigallia and put Oliverotto da Fermo and Vitellozzo Vitelli to death (31 December 1502). When Alexander VI heard

15481-444: The sole heiress of Clement X's family. Many historians consider Olimpia Maidalchini , the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X (1644–1655), to have been a de facto Cardinal Nephew; the position was formally held by her son, Camillo Pamphili , then her nephew, Francesco Maidalchini (after Pamphili renounced his cardinalate in order to wed), and (after Francesco proved incompetent) Camillo Astalli , her cousin. Popes often had only

15618-464: The staircase there are ancient sculptures and fine stuccoes by Luigi Acquisti inspired by the myth of Achilles. On the piazza at the Southwest corner of the palace is the statue of Pasquino . The Neoclassical architect Giuseppe Valadier designed the chapel on the piano nobile or first floor. He also designed the white marble façade on the adjacent church of San Pantaleo for which is named

15755-445: The suggestion that he was impotent with the unsubstantiated counterclaim that Alexander and Cesare indulged in incestuous relations with Lucrezia, in 1497. Unable to arrange a union between Cesare and the daughter of King Frederick IV of Naples (who had succeeded Ferdinand II the previous year), he induced Frederick by threats to agree to a marriage between the Duke of Bisceglie , a natural son of Alfonso II, and Lucrezia. Alexander and

15892-534: The terms for the office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State, who was to handle the temporal affairs of the Papal States and the foreign relations of the Holy See . After abortively attempting to divide the duties of the Superintendent among four non-familial cardinals, Pius V acceded to the urgings of the College of Cardinals and his Spanish ambassador, and appointed his grandnephew, Michele Bonelli , as Superintendent, demarcating his duties with

16029-555: The turbulent cities one by one in his capacity as nominated gonfaloniere (standard bearer) of the church. But the expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico Sforza interrupted his conquests, and he returned to Rome early in 1500. In the Jubilee year 1500, Alexander ushered in the custom of opening a holy door on Christmas Eve and closing it on Christmas Day the following year. After consulting with his Master of Ceremonies, Johann Burchard , Pope Alexander VI opened

16166-409: The vice-chancellorship. Pope Paul IV (1555–1559), in his old age, was said to have "fallen almost completely under the cardinal-nephew's influence"; Paul IV's cardinal-nephew, Carlo Carafa , was accused in August 1558 by a Theatine of seducing a Roman noble woman, Plautila de' Massimi, who had come into possession of an inordinate amount of money and jewelry, but the accusations were dismissed by

16303-423: The word "SI" (Italian for "YES”). After the war, it housed 300 refugee families and many of the interior frescoes were seriously damaged by the fires they lit to keep warm. In 1949 the palace passed to the civic authorities and, following extensive conservation in 1952, the present installation of the museum was effected. The main entrance is on Via San Pantaleo (between Piazza Navona and Corso Vittorio Emanuele). In

16440-504: Was Jofré de Borja y Escrivà, making Rodrigo a Borja from his mother and father's side. However, Cesare, Lucrezia and Jofre were known to be of Llançol paternal lineage. G. J. Meyer suggests that Rodrigo would have likely been uncle (from a shared female family member) to the children, and attributes the confusion to attempts to connect Rodrigo as the father of Giovanni (Juan), Cesare , Lucrezia , and Gioffre (Jofré in Valencian ), who were surnamed Llançol i Borja . Peter de Roo gives

16577-409: Was a generous and competent administrator who had served for decades as vice-chancellor. In contrast to the preceding pontificate, Pope Alexander VI adhered initially to strict administration of justice and orderly government. Before long, though, he began endowing his relatives at the Church's and at his neighbours' expense. Cesare Borgia , his son, while a youth of seventeen and a student at Pisa ,

16714-644: Was also among the newly created cardinals. On 25 January 1494, Ferdinand I died and was succeeded by his son Alfonso II (1494–1495). Charles VIII of France now advanced formal claims on the Kingdom of Naples. Alexander authorised him to pass through Rome, ostensibly on a crusade against the Ottoman Empire , without mentioning Naples. But when the French invasion became a reality Pope Alexander VI became alarmed, recognised Alfonso II as king of Naples, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange for various fiefs for his sons (July 1494). A military response to

16851-576: Was also the correspondence liaison for all papal nuncios and gubernatorial legates , and the prefect for two congregations: the Consulta and the Congregazione del Buon Governo . The Cardinal Nephew was also the captain-general of the papal army and a "channel through which flowed benefices one way and gold the other". However, these formal functions only came into force during the pontificates of unusually weak Popes; most Cardinal Nephews were

16988-483: Was born c. 1431, in the town of Xàtiva near Valencia , one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon , in what is now Spain. He was named for his paternal grandfather, Rodrigo Gil de Borja y Fennolet . His parents were Jofré Llançol i Escrivà (died bef. 24 March 1437) and his Aragonese wife and distant cousin Isabel de Borja y Cavanilles (died 19 October 1468), daughter of Juan Domingo de Borja y Doncel . He had

17125-412: Was bribed with four mule-loads of silver. Mallett shows that Borgia was in the lead from the start and that the rumours of bribery began after the election with the distribution of benefices; Sforza and della Rovere were just as willing and able to bribe as anyone else. The benefices and offices granted to Sforza, moreover, would be worth considerably more than four mule-loads of silver. Johann Burchard ,

17262-400: Was change in the constitution of the College of Cardinals during the course of the 15th century, especially under Sixtus IV and Innocent VIII. Of the 27 cardinals alive in the closing months of the reign of Innocent VIII no fewer than 10 were cardinal-nephews , eight were crown nominees, four were Roman nobles and one other had been given the cardinalate in recompense for his family's service to

17399-527: Was concluded with an expensive campaign to eliminate the " venality " of offices while reimbursing their current holders. These reforms are viewed by some scholars as a delayed reaction to the financial crisis created by the nepotism of Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644). However, even following Romanum decet pontificem , only three of the eight Popes of the 18th century failed to make a nephew or brother cardinal. The College of Cardinals apparently preferred rule by nephews than by favorites, which they perceived as

17536-449: Was described by Hugh Walpole as "a priest without indolence or interest, a prince without favorites, a Pope without nephews". Romualdo Braschi-Onesti , cardinal-nephew of Pius VI (1775–1799), was the penultimate cardinal-nephew. Despite Pius VI's lineage to a noble Cesena family, his only sister had married a man from the poor Onesti family. Therefore, he commissioned a genealogist to discover (and inflate) some trace of nobility in

17673-409: Was joined by Venice. By autumn Louis XII was in Italy expelling Lodovico Sforza from Milan. With French success seemingly assured, the Pope determined to deal drastically with Romagna, which although nominally under papal rule was divided into a number of practically independent lordships on which Venice, Milan, and Florence cast hungry eyes. Cesare, empowered by the support of the French, began to attack

17810-644: Was made Archbishop of Valencia , and Giovanni Borgia inherited the Spanish Dukedom of Gandia , the Borgias' ancestral home in Spain. For the Duke of Gandia and for Gioffre , also known as Goffredo, the Pope proposed to carve fiefs out of the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples . Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandia were Cerveteri and Anguillara , lately acquired by Virginio Orsini , head of that powerful house. This policy brought Alexander into conflict with Ferdinand I of Naples as well as with Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for

17947-570: Was mother of Laura Orsini , born in 1492, probably daughter of Alexander. However, he still loved Vannozza and his children by her. Caring for them proved the determining factor of his whole career. He lavished vast sums on them. Vannozza lived in the Palace of a late Cardinal, or in a large, palatial villa. The children lived between their mother's home and the Papal Palace itself. Six other children, Girolama , Isabella, Pedro-Luiz , Giovanni

18084-612: Was ordained deacon and created cardinal-deacon of San Nicola in Carcere . Rodrigo Borgia's appointment as cardinal only occurred after Callixtus III asked the cardinals in Rome to create three new positions in the College of Cardinals , two for his nephews Rodrigo and Luis Juan de Milà, and one for the Prince Jaime of Portugal. In 1457, Callixtus III assigned the young Cardinal de Borja (or Borgia in Italian) to go to Ancona as

18221-834: Was really a cardinal). The creation of cardinal-nephews predates the hierarchical preeminence of cardinals within the Roman Catholic Church , which grew out of the 1059 decree of Pope Nicholas II , In nomine Domini , which established cardinal bishops as the sole electors of the Pope, with the consent of cardinal deacons and cardinal priests . The first known cardinal-nephew is Lottario ( Latin : Loctarius ), seniore, cousin of Pope Benedict VIII (1012–1024), elected circa 1015. Benedict VIII also elevated his brother Giovanni (the future Pope John XIX) and his cousin Teofilatto (the future Pope Benedict IX) as cardinal-deacons. The first known cardinal-nephew after 1059

18358-431: Was that the only person in his family who would have had the qualities necessary to fill such a position was a woman". Pope Innocent XI (1676–1689) despised the practice and only accepted his election as Pope after the College of Cardinals consented to his plans for reform, which included a ban on nepotism. However, Innocent XI backed down after thrice failing to achieve the support of the majority of his cardinals for

18495-414: Was threatening to come to the aid of the rightful duke Gian Galeazzo Sforza , the husband of his granddaughter Isabella , Alexander encouraged the French king in his plan for the conquest of Naples. But Alexander, always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family, then adopted a double policy. Through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador, he made peace with Naples in July 1493 and cemented

18632-622: Was thus separate from the ordinal process for creating cardinals, and, when he fell ill, he authorized his cardinal-nephew, Paolo Emilio Sfondrato , to use the Fiat ut petitur , a power which was later diminished at the urging of the college. Paul V issued a motu proprio on April 30, 1618, formally bestowing on his cardinal-nephew the same authority Pope Clement VIII had given to Pietro Aldobrandini , beginning what historian Laurain-Portemer calls "l'age classique'" of nepotism . Pope Gregory XV 's (1621–1623) cardinal-nephew, Ludovico Ludovisi ,

18769-405: Was wealthy and powerful enough to mount a bid, but he faced competition from Giuliano della Rovere , the late pope's nephew. Della Rovere's faction had the advantage of being incredibly large as Sixtus had appointed many of the cardinals who would participate in the election. Borgia's attempts to gather enough votes included bribery and leveraging his close ties to Naples and Aragon. However, many of

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