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164-422: Although teaching the existence of a creator divinity, commonly called Nsambi , Palo regards this entity as being uninvolved in human affairs and instead focuses its attention on the spirits of the dead. Central to Palo is the nganga , a vessel usually made from an iron cauldron. Many nganga are regarded as material manifestations of ancestral or nature deities known as mpungu . The nganga will typically contain

328-462: A nganga once they are passed the age of menopause , decades after their male contemporaries. Gay men are often excluded from Palo, and observers have reported high levels of homophobia within the tradition, in contrast to the large numbers of gay men involved in Santería. Palo is an initiatory religion. Rather than being practised openly, its practices are typically secretive, but revolve around

492-707: A vassal state of the Kingdom of Portugal . In 1914, following the Portuguese suppression of a Kongo revolt, Portugal abolished the titular monarchy . The title of King of Kongo was restored from 1915 until 1975, as an honorific without real power. The remaining territories of the kingdom were assimilated into the colonies of Portuguese Angola , the Belgian Congo , and the Republic of Cabinda , respectively. The modern-day Bundu dia Kongo sect favours reviving

656-517: A Catholic, he could not ally with non-Catholics to attack the city. The end of the first quarter of the 17th century saw a new flare-up in Kongo's political struggle. At the heart of the conflict were two noble houses fighting over the kingship. On one side of the conflict was the House of Kwilu, which counted most of the kings named Álvaro. They were ousted by the opposing House of Nsundi , when Pedro II

820-504: A Dutch attack on Luanda. While relations between Sao Salvador and Luanda were not warm, the two polities had enjoyed an easy peace, due to the former's internal distractions, and the latter's war against the Kingdom of Matamba . The same year of the Portuguese ouster from Luanda, Kongo entered into a formal agreement with the new government, and agreed to provide military assistance as needed. Garcia II ejected nearly all Portuguese and Luso-African merchants from his kingdom. The colony of Angola

984-499: A Dutch fleet under the command of the celebrated admiral Piet Heyn arrived in Luanda to carry out an attack in 1624. The plan failed to come to fruition as by then Pedro had died and his son Garcia Mvemba a Nkanga was elected king. King Garcia I was more forgiving of the Portuguese and had been successfully persuaded by their various gestures of conciliation. He was unwilling to press the attack on Angola at that time, contending that as

1148-585: A Lukeni, led expansion southward into lands ruled by Mpemba. He established a new base on the mountain Mongo dia Kongo and made alliances with the Mwene Mpangala, ruler of a market town then loyal to Mpemba and also with the Mwene Kabunga whose lands lay west of there of uncertain loyalty but the site of a famous shrine. Two centuries later the Mwene Kabunga's descendants still symbolically challenged

1312-404: A Palo practitioner travels to a graveyard at night. There, they focus on a specific grave and seek to communicate with the spirit of the person buried there, typically through divination. Following negotiations, they create a trata (pact) with the spirit, whereby the latter agrees to serve the practitioner in exchange for promises of offerings. Once they believe that they have the spirit's consent,

1476-494: A belief in the historical Kingdom of Kongo as Palo's place of origin, a place where the spirits are more powerful. There is no central authority in control of Palo, but separate groups of practitioners who operate autonomously. It is largely transmitted orally, and has no sacred text , nor any systematized doctrine. There is thus no overarching orthodoxy , and no strict ritual protocol, giving its practitioners scope for innovation and change. Different practitioners often interpret

1640-455: A body." In the religion of Candomblé Bantu , Nzambi is the "sovereign master". He created the earth and then withdrew from the world. Nzambi Mpungu remains responsible for rainfall and health. In the religion of Kumina there is a high creator god is known as "King Zombi" which is a derivative of Nzambi Mpungu. In the religion of Palo , "Nzambi" is the god who created the universe and animates it. Nzambi resides in all natural things, and

1804-467: A broom or whip. When a practitioner dies, their nganga may be disassembled if it is believed that the inhabiting nfumbi refuses to serve anyone else and wishes to be set free. The nganga may then be buried beneath a tree, placed into a river or the sea, or buried with the deceased initiate. Alternatively, Palo teaches that the nganga may desire a new keeper, thus being inherited by another practitioner. Palo teaches deference to teachers, elders, and

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1968-556: A common notion is that the keeper becomes like their nganga . A practitioner may receive their own nganga only once they have reached a certain level of seniority in the tradition, and the highest-ranking members may have multiple ngangas , some of which they have inherited from their own teachers. Some practitioners will consult a nganga to help them make decisions in life, deeming it omniscient . The nganga desires its keeper's attention; initiates believe that they often become jealous and possessive of their keepers. Ochoa characterised

2132-552: A core region of some 130,000 square kilometers. By the early seventeenth century the city and its hinterland had a population of around 100,000, or nearly one out of every six inhabitants in the Kingdom (according to baptismal statistics compiled by a Jesuit priest in 1623), while the kingdom as a whole numbered some 780,000. The concentration of population, economic activity, and political power in Mbanza Kongo strengthened

2296-649: A day of its creation, Palo custom holds that it must be fed with animal blood. Some practitioners will then bury the nganga , either in a cemetery or natural area, before recovering it for use in their rituals. [The nganga ] mediates and concretizes a mystical relationship between the spirit and its human counterpart, a relationship often described as a pact or bargain entered into ( pacto , trata ) and surrounded not by images of domestic nurturance, reciprocal exchange, and beneficial dependence, but by symbols of wage labor and payment, dominance and subalternity, enslavement and revolt. — Historian Stefan Palmié The nganga

2460-450: A devastating war on Ndongo, and then to raid and pillage some southern Kongo provinces. He was particularly interested in the province of Kasanze , a marshy region that lay just north of Luanda. Many slaves being deported through Luanda fled into this region and were often granted sanctuary, and for this reason, Mendes de Vasconcelos decided that a determined action was needed to stop it. The next governor of Angola, João Correia de Sousa, used

2624-512: A full mythology , its worldview includes a supreme creator divinity, Nsambi or Sambia. In the religion's mythology, Nsambi is believed responsible for creating the world and the first man and woman. This entity is regarded as being remote and inaccessible from humanity, and thus no prayers or sacrifices are directed towards it. The anthropologist Todd Ramón Ochoa, an initiate of Palo Briyumba, describes Nsambi as "the power in matter that pushes back against human manipulation and imposes itself against

2788-451: A mission of conquest, also under Paulo Dias de Novais, this time to conquer the country and monopolize its slave trade. A common characteristic of political life in the kingdom of Kongo was fierce competition over succession to the throne. Afonso's own contest for the throne was intense, and he had to fight a major battle with his half brother, and probably against lesser enemies in the early years of his reign. Afonso described his ascent to

2952-511: A mvila za makanda . Although Cuvelier and other scholars contended that these traditions applied to the earliest period of Kongo's history, it is more likely that they relate primarily to local traditions of clans ( makanda ) and especially to the period following 1750. By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin. In the east were the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza , considered to be

3116-407: A neophyte is being initiated, to help seal the pact between them. It is feared that a nganga that develops a taste for human blood will continually demand it, ultimately killing its keeper. As well as blood, the nganga will be offered food and tobacco, fumigated with cigar smoke and aspirated with cane liquor, often sprayed onto it by mouth. Initiates follow a specific etiquette when engaging with

3280-431: A new nganga is often kept secret, amid concerns that if a rival Palo practitioner learns the exact ingredients of the particular nganga , it will leave the latter vulnerable to supernatural attacks. When a new nganga is created for a practitioner, it is said to nacer ("spring forth" or "be born") from the "mother" nganga which rules the house. Elements may be removed from this parent nganga for incorporation into

3444-452: A non-Christian, although not necessarily of a Jew. Sometimes, the bones of a criminal or mad person are deliberately sought. Those observing Palo during the 1990s, including Ochoa and the medical anthropologist Johann Wedel, noted that judía ngangas were then rare. Many practitioners maintain that the two types of nganga should be kept separate to stop them fighting. Unlike ngangas cristianas , which only receive their keeper's blood at

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3608-425: A part of its culture for the rest of the kingdom's independent existence. King Afonso himself studied hard at this task. Rui d'Aguiar once said Afonso I knew more of the church's tenets than he did. The Kongo church was always short of ordained clergy and made up for it by the employment of a strong laity. Kongolese school teachers or mestres (Kikongo alongi a aleke) were the anchor of this system. Recruited from

3772-425: A partisan of the House of Kwilu, managed to force Garcia I to flee and placed Ambrósio I of the House of Kwilu on the throne. King Ambrósio either could not or did not remove Paulo from Soyo, though he did eventually remove Jordão. After a rule marked by rumors of war mobilizations and other disruptions, a great riot at the capital resulted in the death of the king by a mob. Ambrosio was replaced with Alvaro IV by

3936-551: A person's will". In the context of Afro-Cuban religion, Nsambi has been compared to Olofi in Santería and Abasí in Abakuá. In Palo, veneration is directed towards ancestors and spirits of the natural world, both of which are called mpungus . According to the anthropologist Katerina Kerestetzi, a mpungu represents "a sort of minor divinity". Each mpungu commonly has its own names and epithets, and may display multiple aspects or manifestations, each with their own specific names. Among

4100-418: A piece of clothing from a grave may suffice. Practitioners will often claim that their nganga contains human remains even if it does not. The most important body part for this purpose is the skull, called the kiyumba . The human bones are termed the nfumbe , a Palo Kikongo word meaning "dead one"; it characterises both the bones themselves and the dead person they belonged to. Bones are selected judiciously;

4264-445: A praise house is usually someone who has previously consulted a palero or palera to request their aid, for instance in the area of health, love, property, or money, or in the fear that they have been bewitched. The Palo practitioner may suggest that the client's misfortunes result from their bad relationship with the spirits of the dead, and that this can be improved by receiving initiation into Palo. New initiates are called ngueyos ,

4428-400: A special handshake in which their right thumbs are locked together and the palms meet. Palo is organized around autonomous initiatory groups. Each of these groups is called a munanso congo ("Kongo House"), or sometimes a casa templo ("temple house"). Ochoa rendered this as "praise house". Their gatherings for ceremonies are supposed to be kept secret. Practitioners sometimes seek to protect

4592-468: A spirit-vessel called the nganga , a term which in Central Africa referred not to an object but to a man who oversaw religious rituals. This spirit-vessel is also commonly known as the prenda , a Spanish term meaning "treasure" or "jewel". Alternative terms that are sometimes used for it are el brujo (the sorcerer), the caldero (cauldron), or the cazuela (pot), while a small, portable version

4756-417: A structure in their backyard. This may be decorated in a way that alludes to the forest, for instance with the remains of animal species that live in forest areas, as the latter are deemed abodes of the spirits. When an individual practices both Palo and Santería, they typically keep the spirit-vessels of the respective traditions separate, in different rooms. Terms like nganga and prenda designate not only

4920-702: A term deriving from the Kikongo word for a deceased individual, mvumbi . Alternative terms used for the dead in Palo include the Yoruba term eggun , or Spanish words like el muerto ("the dead") or, more rarely, espíritu ("spirit"). Practitioners will sometimes refer to themselves, as living persons, as the "walking dead". In Palo, the dead are often viewed as what Ochoa called "a dense and indistinguishable mass" rather than as discrete individuals, and in this collective sense they are often termed Kalunga . Palo teaches that

5084-612: A term meaning "child" in the Palo Kikongo language. In the Briyumba and Monte traditions, new initiates are also known as pinos nuevos ("saplings"). Ngueyos may attend feasts for the praise house's nganga , to which they are expected to contribute, and may seek advice from it, but they will not receive their own personal nganga nor attend initiation ceremonies for the higher grades. Many practitioners are content to remain at this level and do not pursue further initiation to reach

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5248-516: A wide range of objects, among the most important being sticks and human remains, the latter called nfumbe . In Palo, the presence of the nfumbe means that the spirit of that dead person inhabits the nganga and serves the palero or palera who possesses it. The Palo practitioner commands the nganga to do their bidding, typically to heal but also to cause harm. Those nganga primarily designed for benevolent acts are baptised; those largely designed for malevolent acts are left unbaptised. The nganga

5412-470: A world-embracing religion, rather than a world-renouncing one. Both men and women are allowed to practice Palo. While women can hold the religion's most senior positions, most praise houses in Havana are run by men, and an attitude of machismo is common among Palo groups. Ochoa thought that Palo could be described as patriarchal , and the scholar of religion Mary Ann Clark encountered many women who deemed

5576-531: Is ngangulero and ngangulera , meaning "a person who works a nganga ", the latter being the spirit-vessel central to the religion. The term carries pejorative connotations in Cuban society although some practitioners adopt it as a term of pride. A similarly pejorative term embraced by some adherents is brujo (witch), with Palo being one of several African-derived religions in the Americas whose practitioners adopt

5740-409: Is "fed" with blood from sacrificed male animals , including dogs, pigs, goats, and cockerels. This blood is poured into the nganga , over time blackening it. Practitioners believe that the blood maintains the nganga's power and vitality and ensures ongoing reciprocity with its keeper. Human blood is typically only given to the nganga when the latter is created, so as to animate it, and later when

5904-580: Is "fed" with the blood of sacrificed animals and other offerings, while its will and advice is interpreted through divination . Group rituals often involve singing, drumming, and dancing to facilitate possession by spirits of the dead. Palo developed among Afro-Cuban communities following the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries. It emerged largely from the traditional religions brought to Cuba by enslaved Bakongo people from Central Africa, but also incorporated ideas from Roman Catholicism,

6068-439: Is a living being but its main component is a dead man; it overflows with materiality but its body represents an invisible being; its word is infallible but its personality is drawn from the history of an ordinary person. — Anthropologist Katerina Kerestetzi The making of a nganga is a complex procedure. It can take several days, with its components occurring at specific times during the day and month. The process of creating

6232-455: Is connected to the oricha Ochosi and to Saint Norbert . However, mpungus play a less important role in Palo than the oricha do in Santería. There is also a difference in how the relationship between these entities is established; in Santería it is believed that the oricha call people to their worship, pressuring them to do so by inflicting sickness or misfortune, whereas in Palo it is

6396-402: Is divided into multiple traditions or ramas , including Mayombe, Monte, Briyumba, and Kimbisa, each with their own approaches to the religion. Many practitioners also identify as Roman Catholics and practice additional Afro-Cuban traditions such as Santería or Abakuá . Palo is most heavily practiced in eastern Cuba although it is found throughout the island and abroad, including in other parts of

6560-407: Is physically unique, bearing its own individual name; some are deemed male, others female. It is custom that the nganga should not stand directly on either a wooden or tile base, and for that reason the area beneath it is often packed with bricks and earth. The nganga is kept in a domestic sanctum, the munanso , or cuarto de fundamento . This may be a cupboard, a room in a practitioner's house, or

6724-443: Is termed the nkuto . On rare occasions, a practitioner may also refer to the nganga as a nkisi (plural minkisi ). The minkisi are Bakongo ritual objects believed to possess an indwelling spirit and are the basis of the Palo nganga tradition, the latter being a "uniquely Cuban" development. The nganga comprises either a clay pot, gourd, or an iron pot or cauldron. This is often wrapped tightly in heavy chains. Every nganga

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6888-469: The Manikongo , the Portuguese version of the Kongo title Mwene Kongo , meaning "lord or ruler of the Kongo kingdom", but its sphere of influence extended to neighbouring kingdoms, such as Ngoyo , Kakongo , Loango , Ndongo , and Matamba , the latter two located in what is Angola today. From c.  1390 to 1862, it was an independent state. From 1862 to 1914, it functioned intermittently as

7052-569: The Cuban War of Independence resulted in an independent republic in 1898, the country's new constitution enshrined freedom of religion . Palo nevertheless remained marginalized by Cuba's Roman Catholic, Euro-Cuban establishment, which typically viewed it as brujería ( witchcraft ), an identity that many Palo practitioners have since embraced. In the 1960s, growing emigration following the Cuban Revolution spread Palo abroad. Palo

7216-644: The Kimpanzu lineage of the dead Alvaro V . Garcia II took the throne on the eve of several crises. One of his rivals, Daniel da Silva (who probably received the patronage of the Daniel da Silva who was killed by Garcia II while defending Alvaro IV ), managed to secure the County of Soyo and used it as a base against Garcia II for the whole of his reign. As a result, Garcia II was prevented from completely consolidating his authority. Another problem facing King Garcia II

7380-616: The Kwanza River at Muxima and Masangano. Following this victory, the Dutch once again appeared to lose interest in conquering the colony of Angola. As in their conquest of Pernambuco, the Dutch West India Company was content to allow the Portuguese to remain inland. The Dutch sought to spare themselves the expense of war, and instead relied on control of shipping to profit from the colony. Thus, to Garcia's chagrin,

7544-573: The firma , which is drawn onto it. The name of the nganga may refer to the indwelling mpungu ; an example would be a nganga called the "Sarabanda Noche Oscura" because it contains the mpungu Sarabanda. The nganga is deemed to be alive; Ochoa commented that, in the view of Palo's followers, the ngangas are not static objects, but "agents, entities, or actors" with an active role in society. They are believed to express their will to Palo's practitioners both through divination and through spirit possession. Palo revolves around service and submission to

7708-408: The missionary Girolamo da Montesarchio , an Italian Capuchin who visited the area from 1650 to 1652, the site was so holy that looking upon it was deadly. These rocks may be the rugged uplands of Lovo where there is extensive cave and rock art that dates from at least the fifteenth century. At some point around 1375, Nimi a Nzima , ruler of Mpemba Kasi and Vungu, made an alliance with Nsaku Lau,

7872-457: The nfumbe , for instance with animal blood, rum, and cigars. In turn, the nfumbe offers services called trabajos , protects its keeper, and carries out their commands. Practitioners will sometimes talk of their nfumbe having a distinct personality, displaying traits such as stubbornness or jealousy. The nfumbe will rule over other spirits in the nganga , including those of plants and animals. Specific animal parts added are believed to enhance

8036-419: The nfumbe . A paper note on which the nfumbe' s name is written may also be added. Palo teaches that the nfumbe spirit then resides in the nganga . This becomes the owner's slave, making the relationship between the palero / palera and their nfumbe quite different from the reciprocal relationship that the santero / santera has with their oricha in Santería. The keeper of the nganga promises to feed

8200-408: The nganga , which is central to its ceremonies, trabajos ("works"), and divination. The language used in Palo ceremonies, as in its songs, is often called Palo Kikongo; a "Creole speech" based on both Kikingo and Spanish, it Hispanicizes the spelling of many Kikongo words and gives them new meanings. Practitioners greet one another with the phrase nsala malekum . They also acknowledge each other with

8364-406: The nganga . Kerestetzi observed that in Palo, "the nganga is not an intermediary of the divine, it is the divine itself [...] It is a god in its own right." Those who keep ngangas are termed the perros (dogs) or criados (servants) of the spirit-vessel, which in turn is deemed to protect them. The relationship that a Palo practitioner develops with their nganga is supposed to be lifelong, and

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8528-475: The nganga . They typically wear white, go barefoot, and draw marks on their body to keep them "cool" and protect from the tumult of the dead. Practitioners kneel before the ngangas in greeting; they may greet them with the Arabic -derived phrase " Salaam alaakem, malkem salaam ." The nganga likes to be addressed in song and each nganga has particular songs that "belong" to it. Candles will often be burned while

8692-518: The oricha , like the Rada, are even-tempered, while the Palo spirits, like the Petwo, are more chaotic and unpredictable. The spirits of the dead play a prominent role in Palo, with Kerestetzi observing that one of Palo's central features is its belief that "the spirits of the dead mediate and organize human action and rituals." In Palo, the spirit of a dead person is referred to as a nfumbe (or nfumbi ),

8856-404: The palero / palera will dig up their bones, or at least collect soil from their grave, and take it home. After being removed from their grave, the bones of the nfumbe may undergo attempts to "cool" and settle them, being aspirated with white wine and aguardiente and fumigated with cigar smoke. Placing the bones in the spirit-vessel is perceived as sealing the pact between the practitioner and

9020-512: The state religion of his kingdom. Upon his ascension as king in 1509, Afonso I worked to create a viable version of the Catholic Church in Kongo , providing for its income from royal assets and taxation that provided salaries for its workers. With advisers from Portugal such as Rui d'Aguiar, the Portuguese royal chaplain sent to assist Kongo's religious development, Afonso created a syncretic version of Christianity that would remain

9184-456: The tata and yayi are initiates of long-standing, referred to as a padre nganga if male and a madre nganga if female. The initiation of people to this level are rare. At their initiation ceremony to the level of padre or madre , a palero / palera will often be given their own nganga . The tata or yayi may choose not to tell the padre / madre the contents of the new nganga or instructions regarding how to use it, thus ensuring that

9348-450: The tata or yayi ; if they serve the former then they are called a bakofula , if they serve the latter they are a mayordomo ("butler", "steward"). The madrinas and padrinas are often considered possessive of their student initiates. Experienced practitioners who run their own praise houses often vie with one another for prospective initiates and will sometimes try to steal members from each other. An individual seeking initiation into

9512-485: The Americas such as Venezuela, Mexico, and the United States. In many of these countries, Palo practitioners have faced problems with law enforcement for engaging in grave robbery to procure human bones for their nganga . Palo is an Afro-Cuban religion, and more broadly an Afro-American religion . Its name derives from palo , a Spanish term for sticks, referencing the important role that these items play in

9676-410: The Briyumba tradition are for instance characterised by a ring of sticks extending beyond their rim. Objects may also be selected for their connection with the indwelling mpungu . A nganga of Sarabanda for instance may feature many metal objects, reflecting his association with metals and war. As more objects are added over time, typically as offerings, the quantity of material will often spill out from

9840-504: The Christian Bible became known as the nkanda ukisi (holy book). The church became known as the nzo a ukisi (holy house). While some European clergy often denounced these mixed traditions, they were never able to root them out. Part of the establishment of this church was the creation of a strong priesthood and to this end, Afonso's son Henrique was sent to Europe to be educated. Henrique became an ordained priest and in 1518

10004-559: The Duke of Mbamba, Daniel da Silva. King Alvaro IV was only eleven at the time and easily manipulated. In 1632, Daniel da Silva marched on the capital in order to "rescue his nephew from his enemies". At the time, he was under the protection of the Count of Soyo, Paulo, Alvaro Nimi a Lukeni a Nzenze a Ntumba and his brother Garcia II Nkanga a Lukeni . After a dramatic battle in Soyo, the young king

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10168-473: The Dutch for their services in slaves taken from ranks of Dembos rebels. These slaves were sent to Pernambuco , Brazil where the Dutch had taken over a portion of the Portuguese sugar-producing region. A Dutch-Kongo force attacked Portuguese bases on the Bengo River in 1643 in retaliation for Portuguese harassment. The Dutch captured Portuguese positions and forced their rivals to withdraw to Dutch forts on

10332-528: The Europeans, the Kingdom of Kongo was sited at the centre of an extensive trading network. Apart from natural resources and ivory , the country manufactured and traded copperware, ferrous metal goods, raffia cloth, and pottery . The Kongo people spoke in the Kikongo language . The eastern regions, especially that part known as the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza , were particularly famous for

10496-702: The God of the sun (fire) and change. It was believed that Nzambi Mpungu/Nzambici created the universe, the spiritual world ( Ku Mpémba ) and the physical world ( Ku Nseke ). Contrary to what the title "the Great Spirit" implies, Nzambi Mpungu/Nzambici and the spiritual nature of the Kongo people did not exist under the same confines of hierarchy as the omnipotent God of the monotheistic Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism and Islam ). All spirits within Kongo spirituality were believed to be equally significant and each had their own purpose across both worlds. After

10660-645: The Imbangala to launch a full-scale invasion of southern Kongo in 1622, following the death of Álvaro III. Correia de Sousa claimed he had the right to choose the king of Kongo. He was also upset that the Kongolese electors chose Pedro II , a former Duke of Mbamba. Pedro II was originally from the duchy of Nsundi, hence the name of the royal house he created, the House of Nsundi . Correia de Sousa also contended that Pedro II had sheltered runaway slaves from Angola during

10824-565: The Jagas drove him from the capital to refuge on an island in the Congo River, Alvaro appealed to Portugal for aid, and was sent an expedition under Francisco de Gouveia Sottomaior governor of São Tomé . As a part of the same process, Álvaro agreed to allow the Portuguese to establish a colony in Luanda , the source of the nzimbu shell money used by the kingdom. In addition, Kongo provided

10988-539: The Kongo became increasingly politically active. New markets for slaves such as Mpanzalumbu (a rebel Kongolese province conquered by Afonso in 1526) and the Mbundu Kingdom of Ndongo also harmed the Kongolese monopoly on the slave trade. In 1526, Afonso complained in correspondence to King João III of Portugal about merchants' violation of his end of the monopoly, claiming that Portuguese officials had not regulated them sufficiently, and threatened to stop

11152-485: The Kongo religion, Palo also draws upon the traditional religions of other African peoples who were brought to Cuba, such as the West African Yoruba . These African elements combined with influences from Roman Catholicism and also from Spiritism , a French variant of Spiritualism . Palo's African heritage is important to practitioners, who often refer to their religious homeland as Ngola ; this indicates

11316-412: The Kongo's early campaigns of expansion brought new populations under the kingdom's control and produced many war captives. Starting in the 14th century (and reaching its height in the 17th century), the kings of the Kongo forcibly relocated captured peoples to the royal capital at Mbanza Kongo . The resulting high concentration of population around Mbanza Kongo and its outskirts played a critical role in

11480-401: The Kongolese monarchy and allowed for a centralized government. Captives taken in war were enslaved and integrated into the local population, producing a food and labor surplus, while rural regions of the kingdom paid taxes in the form of goods the capital could not produce itself. A class of urban nobility developed in the capital, and their demand for positions at court and consumer goods fueled

11644-631: The Mwene Mbamba became the Duke of Mbamba. The Mwene Mpemba became Marquis of Mpemba, and the Mwene Soyo became Count of Soyo. In 1607, he and his son Álvaro II Nimi a Nkanga (crowned in 1587) bestowed orders of chivalry called the Order of Christ . The capital was also renamed São Salvador or "Holy Savior" in Portuguese during this period. In 1596, Álvaro's emissaries to Rome persuaded

11808-606: The Pope to recognize São Salvador as the cathedral of a new diocese which would include Kongo and the Portuguese territory in Angola. However, the king of Portugal won the right to nominate the bishops to this see , which became a source of tension between the two countries. Portuguese bishops in the kingdom were often favourable to European interests in a time when relations between Kongo and Angola were tense. They refused to appoint priests, forcing Kongo to rely more and more heavily on

11972-405: The Portuguese and Dutch signed a peace treaty in 1643, ending the brief albeit successful war. With the Portuguese out of the way and an end to Dutch pursuit of troops, Garcia II could finally turn his attention to the growing threat posed by the Count of Soyo. While Garcia was disappointed that his alliance with the Dutch could not drive out the Portuguese, it did free him to turn his attention to

12136-616: The Portuguese archives. In this inquest, one can see that factions formed behind prominent men, such as Afonso I's son, Pedro Nkanga a Mvemba and Diogo Nkumbi a Mpudi , his grandson who ultimately overthrew Pedro in 1545. Although the factions placed themselves in the idiom of kinship (using the Portuguese term geração or lineage, probably kanda in Kikongo) they were not formed strictly along heredity lines since close kin were often in separate factions. The players included nobles holding appointive titles to provincial governorships, members of

12300-478: The Portuguese with support in their war against the Kingdom of Ndongo in 1579. The kingdom of Ndongo was located inland east of Luanda and although claimed in Kongo's royal titles as early as 1535, was probably never under a firm Kongo administration. Álvaro also worked hard to westernize Kongo, gradually introducing European style titles for his nobles, so that the Mwene Nsundi became the Duke of Nsundi;

12464-627: The army attacked his country and killed him. Following its success in Nambu a Ngongo, the Portuguese army advanced into Mbamba in November. The Portuguese forces scored a victory at the Battle of Mbumbi . There they faced a quickly gathered local force led by the new Duke of Mbamba, and reinforced by forces from Mpemba led by its marquis. Both the Duke of Mbamba and the Marquis of Mpemba were killed in

12628-516: The battle. According to Esikongo accounts, they were eaten by the Imbangala allies of the Portuguese. However, Pedro II, the newly crowned king of Kongo, brought the main army, including troops from Soyo, down into Mbamba and decisively defeated the Portuguese, driving them from the country at a battle waged somewhere near Mbanda Kasi in January 1623. Portuguese residents of Kongo, frightened by

12792-410: The better a nganga is cared for, the stronger it is and the better it can protect its keeper, but at the same time the more it is thought capable of dominating its keeper, potentially even killing them. Various stories circulating the Palo community tell of practitioners driven to disastrous accidents, madness, or destitution. Tales of a particular nganga' s rebelliousness and stubbornness contribute to

12956-415: The centralization of Kongo. The capital was a densely settled area in an otherwise sparsely populated region where rural population densities probably did not exceed 5 persons per km . Early Portuguese travelers described Mbanza Kongo as a large city, the size of the Portuguese town of Évora as it was in 1491. By the end of the sixteenth century, Kongo's population was probably over half a million people in

13120-420: The community of practitioners to be too masculinist. Many Palo initiates maintain that women should not be given a nganga while they are still capable of menstruating; the religion teaches that a menstruating woman's presence would weaken the nganga and that the nganga's thirst for blood would cause the woman to bleed excessively, potentially killing her. For this reason, many female practitioners only receive

13284-506: The conquest in an annual celebration. He furthered this with a second more important alliance with Vunda, another of Mpemba's subordinate rulers. To cement this alliance, as with the one with Mbata, Lukeni lua Nimi allowed him to be an elector to the kingdom. After the death of Nimi a Lukeni, the rulers that followed Lukeni claimed relation to his kanda , or lineage, and were known as the Kilukeni . The Kilukeni Kanda — or "house", as it

13448-511: The consequences for their business of the invasion, wrote a hostile letter to Correia de Sousa, denouncing his invasion. Following the defeat of the Portuguese at Mbanda Kasi , Pedro II declared Angola an official enemy. The king then wrote letters denouncing Correia de Sousa to the King of Spain and the Pope. Meanwhile, anti-Portuguese riots broke out all over the kingdom and threatened its long-established merchant community. Portuguese throughout

13612-460: The corner of the patio or an outhouse. They are often called a rinconcito ("little corner"). Offerings of food and drink are often placed at the rinconcito and allowed to decay. This is a practice also maintained by many followers of Santería, although this emphasis placed on the material presence of the dead differs from the Spiritist views of deceased spirits. A key role in Palo is played by

13776-435: The country were humiliatingly disarmed and even forced to give up their clothes. Pedro, anxious not to alienate the Portuguese merchant community, and aware that they had generally remained loyal during the war, did as much as he could to preserve their lives and property, leading some of his detractors to call him "king of Portuguese". As a result of Kongo's victory, the Portuguese merchant community of Luanda revolted against

13940-532: The day on which Jesus Christ was crucified, and thus paleros and paleras believe that the powers of nganga cristianas are temporarily nullified, allowing the nganga judías to be used. On Good Friday, a white sheet will often be placed over nganga cristianas to keep them "cool" and protect them during this vulnerable period. The nganga does not merely transcend different ontological categories, it also blurs common oppositions, for example between living and dead, material and immaterial, sacred and profane. It

14104-449: The dead are considered "hot". After this, markings known as firmas may be drawn onto the new vessel. During the process of constructing the nganga , an experienced Palo practitioner will divine to ensure that everything is going well. Corn husk packets called masangó may be added to establish the capacities of that nganga . The creator may also add some of their own blood, providing the new nganga with an infusion of vital force. Within

14268-510: The dead. According to Ochoa, the religion maintains that "speed, strength, and clever decisiveness" are positive traits for practitioners, while also exulting the values of "revolt, risk and change". The religion has not adopted the Christian notion of sin , and does not present a particular model of ethical perfection for its practitioners to strive towards. The focus of the practice is thus not perfection, but power. It has been characterised as

14432-556: The development of a successful sugar-growing colony on the Portuguese island of São Tomé , Kongo became a major source of slaves for the island's traders and plantations. The Cantino Atlas of 1502 mentions Kongo as a source of slaves for the São Tomé colony, but notes they were few. Correspondence by Afonso also show the purchase and sale of slaves within the country and his accounts on capturing slaves in war which were given and sold to Portuguese merchants. Afonso continued to expand

14596-535: The early 16th century by Portuguese who visited the Kingdom of Kongo . European missionaries along with Kongo intellectuals (including King Afonso I of Kongo ) set out to render European Christian religious concepts into Kikongo and they chose this name to represent God. Jesuit missionaries in the 1540s noted the acceptance of this relationship as well, and it was probably included in the now lost catechism produced by Carmelites in Kikongo in 1557. Certainly, it

14760-491: The external slave trade. However, as the slave trade grew in size, it came to gradually erode royal power in Kongo. Portuguese traders based in São Tomé began violating the royal monopoly on the slave trade, trading instead with other African states in the region. Portuguese merchants also began to trade goods with powerful Kongolese nobles, depriving the monarchy of tax revenue, while Portuguese priests and merchants living in

14924-517: The flesh-cutting process required for initiation into Palo. Comparisons have also been drawn between Palo and other African-derived traditions in the Americas. Certain similarities in practice have for instance been identified between Palo and Haitian Vodou . Palo also has commonalities with Obeah , a practice found in Jamaica, and it is possible that Palo and Obeah cross-fertilised via Jamaican migration to Cuba from 1925 onward. Although Palo lacks

15088-457: The foundation changed over time, depending on historical circumstances. Modern research into oral tradition , including recording them in writing began in the 1910s with Mpetelo Boka and Lievan Sakala Boku writing in Kikongo and extended by Redemptorist missionaries like Jean Cuvelier and Joseph de Munck . In 1934, Cuvelier published a Kikongo language summary of these traditions in Nkutama

15252-466: The governor, hoping to preserve their ties with the king. Backed by the Jesuits, who had also just recommenced their mission there, they forced João Correia de Sousa to resign and flee the country. The interim government that followed the departure was led by the bishop of Angola. They were very conciliatory to Kongo and agreed to return over a thousand of the slaves captured by Correia de Sousa, especially

15416-454: The growing threat posed by the Count of Soyo. The Counts of Soyo were initially strong partisans of the House of Nsundi and its successor, the House of Kinlaza . Count Paulo had assisted in the rise of the Kinlaza to power. However, Paulo died at about the same time as Garcia became king in 1641. A rival count, Daniel da Silva from the House of Kwilu, took control of the county as a partisan of

15580-467: The human practitioner who desires and instigates the relationship with the spirit. In Cuba, Palo is often regarded as being cruder, wilder, and more violent than Santería, with its spirits being fierce and unruly. Those initiates who work with both the oricha and the Palo spirits are akin to those practitioners of Haitian Vodou who conduct rituals for both the Rada and Petwo branches of the lwa spirits;

15744-605: The identity of the witch as a form of reappropriation . Palo is one of three major Afro-Cuban religions present on Cuba, the other two being Santería , which derives largely from the Yoruba religion of West Africa, and Abakuá , which has its origins in the Ekpe society of West Africa's Efik-Ibibio peoples. Many Palo initiates are also involved in Santería, Abakuá, Spiritism, or Roman Catholicism; some Palo practitioners believe that only baptised Roman Catholics should be initiated into

15908-504: The individual comprises both a physical body and a spirit termed the sombra ("shade"), which are connected via a cordón de plata ("silver cord"). This conception reflects a combination of the Bakongo notion of the spirit "shadow" with the Spiritist notion of the perisperm , a spirit-vapor surrounding the human body. Once a person dies they are thought to gain additional powers and knowledge such as prescience . They can contact and assist

16072-529: The introduction of Catholicism by the Portuguese, there was a massive effort to convert Central Africans by creating connections between Christianity and their traditional African religions. While it was largely a failure for ethnic groups, like the Mbundu in the Kingdom of Ndongo , the Portuguese were able to persuade many Bakongo in the Kingdom of Kongo that Nzambi Mpungu was the Christian God and that

16236-463: The keeper seeks to work with the vessel. A glass of water may be placed nearby, intended to "cool" the presence of the dead, and to assist their crossing to the human world. Objects like necklaces, small packages, and dolls may be placed around the nganga so as to be vitalized with power, allowing them to be used in other rites. To ensure that a nganga does its keeper's bidding, the latter sometimes threatens it, sometimes insulting it or hitting it with

16400-466: The king had the right to appoint their own clients to lower positions, down to villages who had their own locally chosen leadership. As this centralization increased, the allied provinces gradually lost influence until their powers were only symbolic, manifested in Mbata, once a co-kingdom, but by 1620 simply known by the title "Grandfather of the King of Kongo" ( Nkaka'ndi a Mwene Kongo ). The kingdom of

16564-405: The kingdom of Kongo into the 1540s, expanding its borders to the south and east. The expansion of Kongo's population, coupled with his earlier religious reforms, allowed Afonso to centralize power in his capital and increase the power of the monarchy. He also established a royal monopoly on some trade. To govern the growing slave trade, Afonso and several Portuguese kings claimed a joint monopoly on

16728-667: The kingdom through secession from Angola, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Oral traditions about the early history of the country were set in writing for the first time in the late 16th century, and especially detailed versions were recorded in the mid-17th century, include those written by the Italian Capuchin missionary Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo . Traditions about

16892-426: The kingdom's economy. Rural development was intentionally discouraged by the Kongolese king, ensuring the capital remained the economic and political center of the kingdom. This concentration allowed resources, soldiers and surplus foodstuffs to be readily available at the request of the king and made the king overwhelmingly powerful when compared to any potential rival. By the time of the first recorded contact with

17056-399: The kingdom. The export of female slaves was also prohibited. Afonso's early letters show evidence of domestic slave markets. As relations between Kongo and Portugal grew in the early 16th century, trade between the kingdoms also increased. Most of the trade was in palm cloth, copper, and ivory, but also increasing numbers of slaves. Although initially Kongo exported few slaves, following

17220-565: The kings of Portugal eventually determined the best way to deal with the trade through the Kwanza to Ndongo was to establish their own base there. In 1560, again responding to a request from Angola, the Portuguese crown sent Paulo Dias de Novais as ambassador to Ndongo with the idea of settling relations with the country. Ngola Kiluanji was not interested in this mission, however, as it offered only baptism and diplomatic relations, while he hoped for military support. In 1575, Portugal would follow with

17384-492: The laity. Documents of the time show that lay teachers (called mestres in Portuguese-language documents) were paid salaries and appointed by the crown, and at times Kongo kings withheld income and services to the bishops and their supporters (a tactic called "country excommunication"). Controlling revenue was vital for Kongo's kings since even Jesuit missionaries were paid salaries from the royal exchequer. At

17548-477: The latter's governorship of Mbamba. The First Kongo-Portuguese War began in 1622, initially because of a Portuguese campaign against the Kasanze Kingdom , which was conducted ruthlessly. From there, the army moved to Nambu a Ngongo, whose ruler, Pedro Afonso, was held to be sheltering runaway slaves as well. Although Pedro Afonso, facing an overwhelming army of over 20,000, agreed to return some runaways,

17712-429: The latter's initiation, ngangas judías are fed their keeper's blood more often; they are feared capable of betraying their keeper to drain more of their blood. Palo teaches that although nganga judías are more powerful, they are less effective. This is because nganga judías are scared of the nganga cristianas and thus vulnerable to them on every day of the year except Good Friday . In Christianity, Good Friday marks

17876-511: The lesser nobles captured at the Battle of Mbumbi . Regardless of the overtures of the new government in Angola, Pedro II had not forgotten the invasion and planned to remove the Portuguese from the realm altogether. The king sent a letter to the Dutch Estates General proposing a joint military attack on Angola with a Kongo army and a Dutch fleet. He would pay the Dutch with gold, silver and ivory for their efforts. As planned,

18040-447: The living, but also cause them problems such as anxiety and sleeplessness. Paleros / paleras venerate the souls of their ancestors; when a group feast is held, the ancestors of the house will typically be invoked and their approval to proceed requested. To ascertain the consent of the dead, Palo's practitioners will often employ divination or forms of spirit mediumship from Spiritism. Some practitioners claim an innate capacity to sense

18204-579: The midst of the crisis caused by the Jaga invasion marked the beginning of a new royal line, the House of Kwilu . There were certainly factions that opposed him, though it is not known specifically who they were. Álvaro's rule began in war with the Jagas , who may have been external invaders or rebels from within the country, either peasants or nobles from rival factions fighting against the profound changes and instability introduced by European trading and slaving. As

18368-412: The most important of these concessions was allowing Manuel, the Count of Soyo, to hold office for many years beginning some time before 1591. During this same period, Álvaro II made a similar concession to António da Silva, the Duke of Mbamba. António da Silva was strong enough to decide the succession of the kingdom, selecting Bernardo II in 1614, but putting him aside in favor of Álvaro III in 1615. It

18532-510: The most prominent of these mpungu , at least in Havana , are Lucero, Sarabanda, Siete Rayos, Ma' Kalunga, Mama Chola, Centella Ndoki, and Tiembla Tierra. Others include Nsasi, Madre de Agua, Brazo Fuerte, Lufo Kuyo, Mama canata, Bután, and Baluandé. Each mpungu may have its own particular associations; Lucero for instance opens and closes paths while Sarabanda is seen as being strong and wild. The mpungus of nature are deemed to live in rivers and

18696-406: The new creation. The first nganga of a tradition, from which all others ultimately stem, is called the tronco ("trunk"). The senior practitioner creating the nganga may ask a high-ranking initiate to assist them, something considered a great privilege. The new cauldron or vessel will be washed in agua ngongoro , a mix of water and various herbs; the purpose of this is to "cool" the vessel, for

18860-420: The newly formed Kimpanzu faction. He would claim that Soyo had the right to choose its own ruler, though Garcia never accepted this claim, and spent much of the first part of his reign fighting against it. Garcia did not support da Silva's move, as Soyo's ruler was one of the most important offices in Kongo. In 1645, Garcia II sent a force against Daniel da Silva under the command of his son, Afonso. The campaign

19024-524: The nobility and trained in the kingdom's schools, they provided religious instruction and services to others building upon Kongo's growing Christian population. At the same time, they permitted the growth of syncretic forms of Christianity which incorporated older religious ideas with Christian ones. Examples of this are the introduction of KiKongo words to translate Christian concepts. The KiKongo words ukisi (an abstract word meaning charm, but used to mean "holy") and nkanda (meaning book) were merged so that

19188-475: The oldest and most powerful, which likely included Nsundi , Mbata , Mpangu , and possibly Kundi and Okanga . South of these was Mpemba . It included various kingdoms such as Mpemba Kasi and Vunda . To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states; Vungu (its leader), Kakongo , and Ngoyo . According to Kongo tradition in the seventeenth century, the kingdom's origin

19352-539: The only religion legally permitted on the island by the Spanish colonial government. The minkisi , spirit-vessels that were key to various Bakongo healing societies, provided the basis for the nganga of Palo. The religion took its distinct form around the late 19th or early 20th century, about the same time that Yoruba religious traditions merged with Roman Catholic and Spiritist ideas in Cuba to produce Santería . After

19516-475: The other spirits were similar to angels, who were subservient to God. Not only did this act make way for an easier conversion of the Bakongo people to Christianity, it also created a hierarchy in Bakongo spirituality that reduced other spirits like Nzambici, simbi and nkisi to "lesser spirits" that no longer had relevant voices in spiritual matters. One Kikongo saying is "Ku tombi Nzambi ko, kadi ka kena ye nitu ko." It means "Don’t look for God, He does not have

19680-405: The owner, or which have been obtained from far away, may be added, and the harder that these objects are to obtain, the more significant they are often considered to be. This varied selection of material can result in the nganga being characterised as a microcosm of the world. The precise form of the nganga , such as its size, can reflect the customs of the different Palo traditions. Ngangas in

19844-410: The physical vessel but also the spirit believed to inhabit it. For many practitioners, the nganga is regarded as a material manifestation of a mpungu deity. Different mpungu will lend different traits to the nganga ; Sarabanda for instance imbues it with his warrior skills. The mpungu involved may dictate the choice of vessel used for the nganga , as well as the stone placed in it and the symbol,

20008-403: The plot, the text of which was sent to Portugal in 1552 which shows the way in which plotters hoped to overthrow the king by enticing his supporters to abandon him. King Diogo's successor, Afonso II , was killed by the Portuguese days after his succession, and an uprising occurred which killed the Portuguese candidate, allowing King Bernardo I of Kongo to be enthroned. However, King Bernardo I

20172-427: The praise house by placing small packets, termed makutos (sing. nkuto ), at each corner of the block around the building; these packets contain dirt from four corners and material from the nganga . Munanso congo form familias de religión ("religious families"). Each is led by a man or woman regarded as a symbolic parent of their initiates; this senior palero is called a tata nganga ("father nganga "), while

20336-507: The presence of spirits of the dead, and initiates are often expected to interact with these spirits and to try and influence them for their own personal benefit. In communicating with the dead, paleros and paleras are sometimes termed muerteros ("mediums of the dead"). The dead are also believed capable of existing within physical matter. They can for instance be represented by small assemblages of material, often discarded or everyday household objects, which are placed together, typically in

20500-409: The prestige of its keeper, as it indicates that their nganga is powerful. The contents of the nganga are termed the fundamentos , and are believed to contribute to its power. Sticks, called palos , are key ingredients; palos are selected from certain species of tree. The choice of tree selected indicates the branch of Palo involved, with the sticks believed to embody the properties and powers of

20664-488: The production of cloth. In 1483, the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the coast of the Kongo Kingdom. Cão left some of his men in Kongo and took Kongo nobles to Portugal. He returned to Kongo with the Kongo nobles in 1485; such commissioning, hiring, or even kidnapping of local Africans to use as local ambassadors, especially for newly contacted areas, was by then an already established practice. At that point

20828-437: The relationship between the palero / palera and their nganga as a "struggle of wills", with the Palo practitioner looking upon the nganga with "respect based on fear". The nganga is regarded as the source of a palero or palera's supernatural power. Within the religion's beliefs, it can both heal and harm, and in the latter capacity is thought capable of causing misfortune, illness, and death. Practitioners believe that

20992-464: The religion differently, resulting in highly variable practices. Several distinct traditions or denominations of Palo exist, called ramas ("branches"), with the main ramas being Mayombe, Briyumba, Monte, and Kimbisa. Practitioners are usually termed paleros if male, paleras if female, terms which can be translated as "one who handles tree branches". An alternative term for adherents is mayomberos . Another term applied to Palo practitioners in Cuba

21156-411: The religion's practices. Another term for the religion is La Regla de Congo ("Kongo Rule" or "Law of Kongo") or Regla Congo , a reference to its origins among the traditional Kongo religion of Central Africa's Bakongo people . Palo is also sometimes referred to as brujería (witchcraft), both by outsiders and by some practitioners themselves. Although its beliefs and practices come principally from

21320-461: The rituals of the two traditions separate, with some Palo initiates objecting to the introduction of elements from Santería into their religion. If someone is to be initiated into both, generally they will be initiated into Palo first; some claim that this is because moving from Santería to Palo represents a spiritual regression, while others maintain that the oricha spirit placed within the adherent's body during Santería initiation would not tolerate

21484-438: The royal capital was key to the power of the Kongolese king, and it was the same mechanism of enslavement and transfer of population that made Kongo an efficient exporter of slaves. Kongolese laws and cultural traditions protected freeborn Kongolese from enslavement, and so most of the enslaved population were war captives. Convicted Kongolese criminals could also be forced into slavery, but were initially protected from sale outside

21648-459: The royal council and also officials in the now well-developed Church hierarchy. King Diogo I skillfully replaced or outmaneuvered his entrenched competitors after he was crowned in 1545. He faced a major conspiracy led by Pedro I , who had taken refuge in a church, and whom Diogo in respect of the Church's rule of asylum allowed to remain in the church. However, Diogo did conduct an inquiry into

21812-500: The ruler of Soyo , the coastal province. Nzinga a Nkuwu took the Christian name of João I in honor of Portugal's king at the time, João II . João I ruled until his death around 1509 and was succeeded by his son Afonso Mvemba a Nzinga . He faced a serious challenge from a half brother, Mpanzu a Kitima. The king overcame his brother in a battle waged at Mbanza Kongo . According to Afonso's own account, sent to Portugal in 1506, he

21976-479: The ruler of the neighboring Mbata Kingdom . Nimi a Nzima married Lukeni lua Nsanze (Luqueni Luansanze in the text), Nsaku Lau's daughter. This alliance guaranteed that each of the two allies would help ensure the succession of its ally's lineage in the other's territory. Mbata in turn was a former province of the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza whose capital lay farther east along the current border of Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo . Mbata may have been

22140-493: The ruling king, Nzinga a Nkuwu, decided he would become Christian and sent another, large mission headed by Kala ka Mfusu, the noble who had earlier gone to Portugal as a hostage. They remained in Europe for nearly four years, studying Christianity and learning reading and writing. The mission returned with Cão along with Catholic priests and soldiers in 1491, baptizing Nzinga a Nkuwu as well as his principal nobles, starting with

22304-637: The same time as this ecclesiastical problem developed, the governors of Angola began to extend their campaigns into areas that Kongo regarded as firmly under its sovereignty. This included the region around Nambu a Ngongo , which Governor João Furtado attacked in the mid-1590s. Other campaigns in the vicinity led to denunciations by the rulers of Kongo against these violations of their sovereignty. Álvaro I and his successor, Álvaro II, also faced problems with factional rivals from families that had been displaced from succession. In order to raise support against some enemies, they had to make concessions to others. One of

22468-442: The sea, as well as in trees, with uncultivated areas of forest regarded as being especially potent locations of spiritual power. Practitioners are expected to make agreements with these nature spirits. Particular mpungus are often equated with specific oricha spirits from Santería, as well as with saints from Roman Catholicism. Sarabanda, for example, is associated with the oricha Oggun and with Saint Peter , while Lufo Kuyo

22632-431: The senior palera is a yayi nganga ("mother nganga "). This person must have their own nganga and the requisite knowledge of ritual to lead others. This figure is referred to as the padrino ("godfather") or madrina ("godmother") of their initiates; their pupil is the ahijado ("godchild"). A person's rank within the house depends on the length of their involvement and the depth of their knowledge about Palo. Below

22796-421: The senior partner in the original alliance, as he had the title of "Nkaka andi a Mwene Kongo," or grandfather of the king of Kongo. Nimi a Nzima and Lukeni lua Nsanze's son Lukeni lua Nimi (circa 1380–1420) began the expansion that would found the Kingdom of Kongo. The name Nimi a Lukeni appeared in later oral traditions and some modern historians, notably Jean Cuvelier, popularized it. Lukeni lua Nimi, or Nimi

22960-532: The sex of the nfumbe is typically chosen to match the gender of the nganga it is being incorporated into. According to Palo tradition, an initiate should exhume the bones from a graveyard themselves, although in urban areas this is often impractical and practitioners instead obtain them through black market agreements with the groundskeepers and administrators responsible for maintaining cemeteries. Elsewhere, they may purchase humans remains through botánicas or obtain anatomical teaching specimens. By tradition,

23124-469: The skills of the nfumbe in the nganga ; a bat's skeleton for instance might give the nfumbe the ability to fly at night, a turtle would give it a ferocious bite, and a dog's head would give it a powerful sense of smell. The nganga generally divide into two categories, the cristiana (Christian) and the judía (Jewish). The terms cristiana and judía in this context reflect the influence of 19th-century Spanish Catholic ideas about good and evil, with

23288-456: The slave trade altogether. Afonso noted that some unscrupulous nobles were resorting to kidnapping their fellow Kongolese to supply the slave trade. To reform the trade, Afonso reiterated the need to follow Kongolese law and not enslave Kongolese freemen, while also establishing a board to better regulate the slave trade. Afonso also established a special committee to determine the legality of the enslavement of those who were being sold. However,

23452-401: The spirits of the dead. Long deceased ancestors who have become spirits will over a long period of time become enveloped in the natural elements and thus Nzambi himself. The natural powers of Nzambi can be harnessed by a Nganga and in common ceremonies. Kingdom of Kongo The Kingdom of Kongo ( Kongo : Kongo Dya Ntotila or Wene wa Kongo; Portuguese : Reino do Congo )

23616-686: The status of padre or madre . Nzambi a Mpungu Nzambi a Mpungu (also Nzambi and Nzambi Mpungu ) is the Supreme God , eternal Sky Father and God of the Sun (fire) in traditional Kongo spirituality . His female counterpart is Nzambici , the Sky Mother and Goddess of the Moon . Among other Central African Bantu peoples, such as the Chokwe , and in the Kingdom of Ndongo , Nzambi Mpungu

23780-407: The teacher maintains control in their relationship with the student. A tata or yayi may be reluctant to teach their padres and madres too much about Palo, fearing that if they do so the student will break from their praise house to establish their own. A padre or madre will not have initiates of their own. A particular padre (but not a madre ) might be selected as a special assistant of

23944-464: The throne, representing it as specifically a war by pagans against the Christian ruler. But this was probably more propaganda on his part, and succession struggles were probably normal even in the early years of the kingdom. A great deal is known about how such struggles took place from the contest that followed Afonso's death in late 1542 or early 1543. This is in large part due to a detailed inquest conducted by royal officials in 1550, which survives in

24108-444: The tradition. Practitioners often see these various religions as offering complementary skills and mechanisms to solve people's issues, or alternatively as each being best suited to resolving different problems. " Cruzar palo con cha " ("cross Palo with Ocha") is a phrase used to indicate that an individual practises both Palo and Santería, ocha being one of the terms used for Santería's deities. Those following both will usually keep

24272-539: The trees from which they came. Soil may be added from various locations, for instance from a graveyard, hospital, prison, and a market, as may water taken from a river, a well, and the sea. A matari stone, representing the specific mpungu linked to that nganga , may be incorporated. Other material added can include animal remains, feathers, shells, plants, gemstones, coins, razorblades, knives, padlocks, horseshoes, railway spikes, blood, wax, aguardiente liquor, wine, quicksilver , and spices. Objects that are precious to

24436-417: The vessel itself and be arranged around it, sometimes taking up a whole room. The mix of items produces a strong, putrid odour and attracts insects, with Ochoa describing the ngangas as being "viscerally intimidating to confront". Human bones are also typically included in the nganga . Some traditions, like Briyumba, consider this an essential component of the spirit-vessel; other initiates feel that soil or

24600-635: The word judía connoting something being non-Christian rather than being specifically associated with Judaism . Nganga cristianas are deemed "baptised" because holy water from a Catholic church is included as one of their ingredients; they may also include a crucifix. The human remains included in them are also expected to be that of a Christian. While nganga cristianas can be used to counter-strike against attackers, they are prohibited from killing. Conversely, nganga judías are used for trabajos malignos , or harmful work, and are capable of murder. Human remains included in nganga judías are typically those of

24764-468: Was a failure, due to Kongo's inability to take Soyo's fortified position at Mfinda Ngula. Worse still, Afonso was captured in the battle, forcing Garcia to engage in humiliating negotiations with da Silva to win back his son's freedom. Italian Capuchin missionaries who had just arrived in Soyo, in the aftermath of the battle, assisted in the negotiations. In 1646, Garcia sent a second military force against Soyo, but his forces were again defeated. Because Garcia

24928-695: Was a kingdom in Central Africa . It was located in present-day northern Angola , the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Southern of Gabon and the Republic of the Congo . At its greatest extent it reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Congo River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The kingdom consisted of several core provinces ruled by

25092-496: Was a rebellion in the Dembos region, which also threatened his authority. Lastly, there was the agreement made by Pedro II in 1622, promising Kongo's support to the Dutch in an offensive to oust Portugal from Luanda. In 1641, the Dutch invaded Angola and captured Luanda, after an almost bloodless struggle. They immediately sought to renew their alliance with Kongo, which had had a false start in 1624, when Garcia I refused to assist

25256-467: Was able to win the battle thanks to the intervention of a heavenly vision of the cross Saint James and the Virgin Mary . Inspired by these events, he subsequently designed a coat of arms for Kongo that was used by all following kings on official documents, royal paraphernalia and the like until 1860. While King João I later reverted to his traditional beliefs, Afonso I established Christianity as

25420-479: Was also called Kalunga , the god of fire and change. This may have a connection to an element of Bakongo cosmology called Kalûnga . It was seen as the spark of fire that begot all life in the universe. After Portuguese colonization, Nzambi Mpungu became synonymous with the Christian God and existed chiefly as the Creator God . Nzambi Mpungu was recorded as the name of the God of the Kongo people as early as

25584-597: Was declared an enemy once again, and the Duke of Mbamba was sent with an army to assist the Dutch. The Dutch also provided Kongo with military assistance, in exchange for payment in slaves. In 1642, the Dutch sent troops to help Garcia II put down an uprising by peoples of the southern district in the Dembos region. The government quickly put down the Nsala rebellion, reaffirming the Kongo-Dutch alliance. King Garcia II paid

25748-547: Was in Vungu , which had extended its authority across the Congo to Mpemba Kasi , which was itself the northernmost territory of Mpemba whose capital was located about 150 miles south. A dynasty of rulers from this small polity built up its rule along the Kwilu Valley, or what was called Nsi a Kwilu and its elite are buried near its center. Traditions from the 17th century allude to this sacred burial ground. According to

25912-411: Was killed by the "Jaga" Yaka , invasion in 1567. And was replaced by Henrique I who was also killed while fighting in the east, leaving the government in the hands of his stepson Álvaro Nimi a Lukeni lua Mvemba . He was crowned Álvaro I, "by common consent," according Duarte Lopes, Kongo's ambassador to Rome. Álvaro I was not directly descended from a previous king, and so his seizure of the throne in

26076-460: Was named as titular bishop of Utica (a North African diocese recently reclaimed from the Muslims). He returned to Kongo in the early 1520s to run Kongo's new church. He died in 1531. Slavery had existed since the Kingdom of Kongo's founding, as during its early wars of expansion the nascent kingdom had taken many captives. Kongo's tradition of forcibly transferring peoples captured in wars to

26240-637: Was only with difficulty that Álvaro III was able to put his own choice in as Duke of Mbamba when António da Silva died in 1620 instead of having the province fall into the hands of the duke's son. At the same time, however, Álvaro III created another powerful and semi-independent nobleman in Manuel Jordão, who held Nsundi for him. Tensions between Portugal and Kongo increased further as the governors of Portuguese Angola became more aggressive. Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos , who arrived as governor in 1617, used mercenary African groups called Imbangala to make

26404-519: Was placed on the throne by powerful local forces in São Salvador, probably as a compromise when Álvaro III died without an heir old enough to rule. As the reigning power, the House of Nsundi worked earnestly to place partisans in king-making positions throughout the empire. Either Pedro II or Garcia I managed to secure Soyo in the hands of Count Paulo, who held it and supported the House of Nsundi from about 1625 until 1641. Meanwhile, Manuel Jordão,

26568-425: Was recorded in Portuguese language documents written in Kongo — ruled Kongo unopposed until 1567. The 16th-century tradition contended that the former kingdoms "in ancient times had separate kings, but now all are subjects and tributaries of the king of Congo." Tradition noted that in each case the governorship was given to members of the royal family or other noble families. Governors who served terms determined by

26732-445: Was successfully restored only to be later poisoned by Alvaro V , a Kimpanzu . After waging a second war against his cousins, Nimi a Lukeni and Nkanga a Lukeni, Alvaro V was killed, and replaced by Alvaro VI in 1636, initiating the House of Kinlaza 's rule over Kongo. Following his death in 1641, Alvaro VI's brother took over, and was crowned Garcia II . The former House of Nsundi was consolidated with their House of Kwilu rivals as

26896-457: Was used for God in the catechism of 1624, a translation by the "best masters of the church" in Kongo under the supervision of the Jesuit priest Mateus Cardoso. Prior to European colonization, Nzambi Mpungu and his female counterpart, Nzambici , were perceived as the "Marvels of Marvels" who existed everywhere simultaneously and gave life to all things. Nzambi Mpungu was the "sovereign master,"

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