Misplaced Pages

#622377

55-528: In the Buginese language , pallawa is a punctuation symbol. It is composed of three cascading diagonal dots. A pallawa is used to separate rhythmico-intonational groups, thus functionally corresponding to the full stop and comma of the Latin script . This writing system –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Buginese language The word Buginese derives from

110-545: A "completed action") correspond to the imperfect and perfect forms of the equivalent verbs in French and Spanish, savoir and saber . This is also true when the sense of verb "to know" is "to know somebody", in this case opposed in aspect to the verb "to meet" (or even to the construction "to get to know"). These correspond to imperfect and perfect forms of conocer in Spanish, and connaître in French. In German, on

165-599: A kind of lexical aspect, except that it is typically not a property of a verb in isolation, but rather a property of an entire verb phrase . Achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives have telic situation aspect, while states and activities have atelic situation aspect. The other factor in situation aspect is duration, which is also a property of a verb phrase. Accomplishments, states, and activities have duration, while achievements and semelfactives do not. In some languages, aspect and time are very clearly separated, making them much more distinct to their speakers. There are

220-621: A more elaborate paradigm of aspectual distinctions (often at the expense of tense). The following table, appearing originally in Green (2002) shows the possible aspectual distinctions in AAVE in their prototypical, negative and stressed /emphatic affirmative forms: (see Habitual be ) (see ) Although Standard German does not have aspects, many Upper German and all West Central German dialects, and some more vernacular forms of German do make an aspectual distinction which partly corresponds with

275-475: A number of languages that mark aspect much more saliently than time. Prominent in this category are Chinese and American Sign Language , which both differentiate many aspects but rely exclusively on optional time-indicating terms to pinpoint an action with respect to time. In other language groups, for example in most modern Indo-European languages (except Slavic languages and some Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi ), aspect has become almost entirely conflated, in

330-775: A past tense, it relates the action to the present time. One cannot say of someone now deceased that they "have eaten" or "have been eating". The present auxiliary implies that they are in some way present (alive), even when the action denoted is completed (perfect) or partially completed (progressive perfect).) Aspects of the past tense: Aspects can also be marked on non-finite forms of the verb: "(to) be eating" ( infinitive with progressive aspect), "(to) have eaten" (infinitive with perfect aspect), "having eaten" ( present participle or gerund with perfect aspect), etc. The perfect infinitive can further be governed by modal verbs to express various meanings, mostly combining modality with past reference: "I should have eaten" etc. In particular,

385-460: A prepositional for -phrase describing a time duration: "I had a car for five hours", "I shopped for five hours", but not "*I bought a car for five hours". Lexical aspect is sometimes called Aktionsart , especially by German and Slavic linguists. Lexical or situation aspect is marked in Athabaskan languages . One of the factors in situation aspect is telicity . Telicity might be considered

440-427: A relation between the time of the event and the time of reference. This is the case with the perfect aspect , which indicates that an event occurred prior to (but has continuing relevance at) the time of reference: "I have eaten"; "I had eaten"; "I will have eaten". Different languages make different grammatical aspectual distinctions; some (such as Standard German ; see below ) do not make any. The marking of aspect

495-515: A specific aspectual sense beyond the incompleteness implied by the tense: يَضْرِبُ ( yaḍribu , he strikes/is striking/will strike/etc.). Those are the only two "tenses" in Arabic (not counting أَمْر amr , command or imperative, which is traditionally considered as denoting future events.) To explicitly mark aspect, Arabic uses a variety of lexical and syntactic devices. Contemporary Arabic dialects are another matter. One major change from al-fuṣḥā

550-463: A verbal noun. In the Tyrolean and other Bavarian regiolect the prefix *da can be found, which form perfective aspects. "I hu's gleant" (Ich habe es gelernt = I learnt it) vs. "I hu's daleant" (*Ich habe es DAlernt = I succeeded in learning). In Dutch (a West Germanic language ), two types of continuous form are used. Both types are considered Standard Dutch. The first type is very similar to

605-651: Is a grammatical category that expresses how a verbal action, event, or state, extends over time. For instance, perfective aspect is used in referring to an event conceived as bounded and unitary, without reference to any flow of time during the event ("I helped him"). Imperfective aspect is used for situations conceived as existing continuously or habitually as time flows ("I was helping him"; "I used to help people"). Further distinctions can be made, for example, to distinguish states and ongoing actions ( continuous and progressive aspects ) from repetitive actions ( habitual aspect ). Certain aspectual distinctions express

SECTION 10

#1732773216623

660-502: Is a past habitual , as in "I used to go to school," and going to / gonna + VERB is a prospective , a future situation highlighting current intention or expectation, as in "I'm going to go to school next year." The aspectual systems of certain dialects of English, such as African-American Vernacular English (see for example habitual be ), and of creoles based on English vocabulary, such as Hawaiian Creole English , are quite different from those of standard English, and often reflect

715-475: Is clearly similar if not identical to the Greek aorist, which is considered a tense but is more of an aspect marker. In the Arabic, aorist aspect is the logical consequence of past tense. By contrast, the "Verb of Similarity" ( الْفِعْل الْمُضَارِع al-fiʿl al-muḍāriʿ ), so called because of its resemblance to the active participial noun, is considered to denote an event in the present or future without committing to

770-412: Is inferred through use of these aspectual markers, along with optional inclusion of adverbs. There is a distinction between grammatical aspect, as described here, and lexical aspect . Other terms for the contrast lexical vs. grammatical include: situation vs. viewpoint and inner vs. outer . Lexical aspect, also known as Aktionsart , is an inherent property of a verb or verb-complement phrase, and

825-430: Is not (necessarily) when the event occurs, but how the time in which it occurs is viewed: as complete, ongoing, consequential, planned, etc. In most dialects of Ancient Greek, aspect is indicated uniquely by verbal morphology. For example, the very frequently used aorist , though a functional preterite in the indicative mood, conveys historic or 'immediate' aspect in the subjunctive and optative. The perfect in all moods

880-523: Is not marked formally. The distinctions made as part of lexical aspect are different from those of grammatical aspect. Typical distinctions are between states ("I owned"), activities ("I shopped"), accomplishments ("I painted a picture"), achievements ("I bought"), and punctual, or semelfactive , events ("I sneezed"). These distinctions are often relevant syntactically. For example, states and activities, but not usually achievements, can be used in English with

935-775: Is often conflated with the marking of tense and mood (see tense–aspect–mood ). Aspectual distinctions may be restricted to certain tenses: in Latin and the Romance languages , for example, the perfective–imperfective distinction is marked in the past tense , by the division between preterites and imperfects . Explicit consideration of aspect as a category first arose out of study of the Slavic languages ; here verbs often occur in pairs, with two related verbs being used respectively for imperfective and perfective meanings. The concept of grammatical aspect (or verbal aspect ) should not be confused with perfect and imperfect verb forms ;

990-436: Is often confused with the closely related concept of tense , because they both convey information about time. While tense relates the time of referent to some other time, commonly the speech event, aspect conveys other temporal information, such as duration, completion, or frequency, as it relates to the time of action. Thus tense refers to temporally when while aspect refers to temporally how . Aspect can be said to describe

1045-522: Is represented by ⟨ny⟩ , [ŋ] by ⟨ng⟩ , [ɟ] by ⟨j⟩ , [j] by ⟨y⟩ . The glottal stop [ʔ] is usually represented by an apostrophe (e.g. ana' [anaʔ] 'child'), but occasionally ⟨q⟩ is also used. /e/ and /ə/ are usually uniformly spelled as ⟨e⟩ , but /e/ is often written as ⟨é⟩ to avoid ambiguity. Buginese has four sets of personal pronouns, one free set, and three bound sets: The enclitic set

1100-448: Is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker. In literary Arabic ( الْفُصْحَى al-fuṣḥā ) the verb has two aspect-tenses: perfective (past), and imperfective (non-past). There is some disagreement among grammarians whether to view the distinction as a distinction in aspect, or tense, or both. The past verb ( الْفِعْل الْمَاضِي al-fiʿl al-māḍī ) denotes an event ( حَدَث ḥadaṯ ) completed in

1155-570: Is the basic aspectual distinction in the Slavic languages. It semantically corresponds to the distinction between the morphological forms known respectively as the aorist and imperfect in Greek , the preterite and imperfect in Spanish, the simple past ( passé simple ) and imperfect in French, and the perfect and imperfect in Latin (from the Latin perfectus , meaning "completed"). Essentially,

SECTION 20

#1732773216623

1210-537: Is the result of migration since the 17th century that was mainly driven by continuous warfare situations. ( Dutch direct colonization started in the early 20th century.) Buginese has six vowels: /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , /o/ , /u/ , and the central vowel /ə/ . The following table gives the consonant phonemes of Buginese together with their representation in Lontara script . When Buginese is written in Latin script, general Indonesian spelling conventions are applied: [ɲ]

1265-461: Is the use of a prefix particle ( بِ bi in Egyptian and Levantine dialects—though it may have a slightly different range of functions in each dialect) to explicitly mark progressive, continuous, or habitual aspect: بيكتب , bi-yiktib , he is now writing, writes all the time, etc. Aspect can mark the stage of an action. The prospective aspect is a combination of tense and aspect that indicates

1320-639: Is used as an aspectual marker, conveying the sense of a resultant state. E.g. ὁράω – I see (present); εἶδον – I saw (aorist); οἶδα – I am in a state of having seen = I know (perfect). Turkish has a same/similar aspect, such as in Görmüş bulunuyorum/durumdayım , where görmüş means "having seen" and bulunuyorum/durumdayım means "I am in the state". In many Sino-Tibetan languages, such as Mandarin , verbs lack grammatical markers of tense, but are rich in aspect (Heine, Kuteva 2010, p. 10). Markers of aspect are attached to verbs to indicate aspect. Event time

1375-642: Is used with subjects of intransitive verbs, and objects of transitive verbs. The proclitic set is with subjects of transitive verbs. The suffixed set is primarily used in possessive function. The following are grammatical aspects of the language: ᨄᨘᨑᨊᨚ pura-no have [portmanteau of perfective na ( ᨊ ) + you] ᨆᨙᨋ? manre eat ᨄᨘᨑᨊᨚ ᨆᨙᨋ? pura-no manre {have [portmanteau of perfective na ( ᨊ ) + you]} eat 'Have you already eaten?' ᨉᨙᨄ deq-pa not + [conditional ( ᨄ )] ᨉᨙᨄ deq-pa {not + [conditional ( ᨄ )]} 'Not yet.' ⟨q⟩ represents

1430-466: The Ethnologue : Bone (Palakka, Dua Boccoe, Mare), Pangkep (Pangkajane), Camba, Sidrap (Sidenreng, North Pinrang, Alitta), Pasangkayu (Ugi Riawa), Sinjai (Enna, Palattae, Bulukumba), Soppeng (Kessi), Wajo, Barru (Pare-Pare, Nepo, Soppeng Riaja, Tompo, Tanete), Sawitto (Pinrang), Luwu (Luwu, Bua Ponrang, Wara, Malangke-Ussu). The numbers are: Grammatical aspect In linguistics , aspect

1485-508: The babad of Java. These records are usually written in a matter-of-fact tone with very few mythical elements, and the writers would usually put disclaimers before stating something that they cannot verify. Prior to the Dutch arrival in the 19th century, a missionary, B. F. Matthews, translated the Bible into Buginese, which made him the first European to acquire knowledge of the language. He

1540-603: The Malay word for the palmyra palm , lontar , the leaves of which are the traditional material for manuscripts in India , South East Asia and Indonesia . Today, however, it is often written using the Latin script . The Buginese lontara (locally known as Aksara Ugi ) has a slightly different pronunciation from the other lontaras like the Makassarese. Like other Indic scripts, it also utilizes diacritics to distinguish

1595-587: The South Sulawesi subgroup of the Austronesian language family. Within the South Sulawesi subgroup, it is most closely related to Campalagian . Most of the native speakers (around 3 million) are concentrated in South Sulawesi , Indonesia but there are small groups of Buginese speakers on the island of Java , Samarinda and east Sumatra of Indonesia , east Sabah and Malay Peninsula , Malaysia and South Philippines . This Bugis diaspora

1650-399: The English continuous form : alongside the standard present tense Ich esse ('I eat') and past Ich aß ('I ate') there is the form Ich bin/war am essen/Essen ('I am/was at the eating'; capitalization varies). This is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb sein ("to be") followed by the preposition and article am (= an dem ) and the infinitive, which German uses in many constructions as

1705-413: The English language between the simple past "X-ed," as compared to the progressive "was X-ing". Compare "I wrote the letters this morning" (i.e. finished writing the letters: an action completed) and "I was writing the letters this morning" (the letters may still be unfinished). In describing longer time periods, English needs context to maintain the distinction between the habitual ("I called him often in

Pallawa - Misplaced Pages Continue

1760-558: The action is in preparation to take place. The inceptive aspect identifies the beginning stage of an action (e.g. Esperanto uses ek- , e.g. Mi ekmanĝas , "I am beginning to eat".) and inchoative and ingressive aspects identify a change of state ( The flowers started blooming ) or the start of an action ( He started running ). Aspects of stage continue through progressive, pausative, resumptive, cessive, and terminative. Important qualifications: The English tense–aspect system has two morphologically distinct tenses, past and non-past ,

1815-575: The action pertains to the present. Grammatical aspect is a formal property of a language , distinguished through overt inflection , derivational affixes, or independent words that serve as grammatically required markers of those aspects. For example, the Kʼicheʼ language spoken in Guatemala has the inflectional prefixes k - and x - to mark incompletive and completive aspect; Mandarin Chinese has

1870-490: The aspect markers - le 了, - zhe 着, zài - 在, and - guò 过 to mark the perfective, durative stative, durative progressive, and experiential aspects, and also marks aspect with adverbs ; and English marks the continuous aspect with the verb to be coupled with present participle and the perfect with the verb to have coupled with past participle . Even languages that do not mark aspect morphologically or through auxiliary verbs , however, can convey such distinctions by

1925-648: The glottal stop. It is not written in the Lontara script. Example of usage: ᨆᨙᨒᨚ ᨀ méloq-kaq want-I ᨌᨛᨆᨙ cemmé bathe { ᨆᨙᨒᨚ ᨀ } ᨌᨛᨆᨙ méloq-kaq cemmé want-I bathe I want to take a bath Buginese was traditionally written using the Lontara script , of the Brahmic family , which is also used for the Makassar language and the Mandar language . The name Lontara derives from

1980-517: The imperfective and perfective. Yaska also applied this distinction to a verb versus an action nominal. Grammarians of the Greek and Latin languages also showed an interest in aspect, but the idea did not enter into the modern Western grammatical tradition until the 19th century via the study of the grammar of the Slavic languages . The earliest use of the term recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853. Aspect

2035-703: The inherent vowel, so it is normally impossible to write consonant clusters (a few ones were added later, derived from ligatures, to mark the prenasalization ), geminated consonants or final consonants. The Bugis still distinguish themselves according to their major precolony states ( Bone , Wajo , Soppeng and Sidenreng ) or groups of petty states (around Pare-Pare , Sinjai and Suppa.) The languages of these areas, with their relatively minor differences from one another, have been largely recognized by linguists as constituting dialects: recent linguistic research has identified eleven of them, most comprising two or more sub-dialects. The following Buginese dialects are listed in

2090-571: The lack of written records. The earliest written record of this language is Sureq Galigo , the epic creation myth of the Bugis people. Another written source of Buginese is Lontara , a term which refers to the traditional script and historical record as well. The earliest historical record of Lontara dates to around the 17th century. Lontara records have been described by historians of Indonesia as "sober" and "factual" when compared to their counterparts from other regions of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as

2145-474: The latter of which is also known as the present-future or, more commonly and less formally, simply the present . No marker of a distinct future tense exists on the verb in English; the futurity of an event may be expressed through the use of the auxiliary verbs " will " and " shall ", by a non-past form plus an adverb , as in "tomorrow we go to New York City", or by some other means. Past is distinguished from non-past, in contrast, with internal modifications of

2200-418: The meanings of the latter terms are somewhat different, and in some languages, the common names used for verb forms may not follow the actual aspects precisely. The Indian linguist Yaska ( c.  7th century BCE ) dealt with grammatical aspect, distinguishing actions that are processes ( bhāva ), from those where the action is considered as a completed whole ( mūrta ). This is the key distinction between

2255-453: The modals will and shall and their subjunctive forms would and should are used to combine future or hypothetical reference with aspectual meaning: The uses of the progressive and perfect aspects are quite complex. They may refer to the viewpoint of the speaker: But they can have other illocutionary forces or additional modal components: English expresses some other aspectual distinctions with other constructions. Used to + VERB

Pallawa - Misplaced Pages Continue

2310-401: The non-standard German type. It is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb zijn ("to be"), followed by aan het and the gerund (which in Dutch matches the infinitive). For example: The second type is formed by one of the conjugated auxiliary verbs liggen ("to lie"), zitten ("to sit"), hangen ("to hang"), staan ("to stand") or lopen ("to walk"), followed by the preposition te and

2365-535: The other hand, the distinction is also lexical (as in English) through verbs kennen and kennenlernen , although the semantic relation between both forms is much more straightforward since kennen means "to know" and lernen means "to learn". The Germanic languages combine the concept of aspect with the concept of tense . Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect, progressive perfect, and [in

2420-431: The past tense] habitual) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of perfective vs. imperfective that is found in most languages with aspect. Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly. One instance of this is the alternation, in some forms of English, between sentences such as "Have you eaten?" and "Did you eat?". In European languages, rather than locating an event time,

2475-473: The past" – a habit that has no point of completion) and perfective ("I called him once" – an action completed), although the construct "used to" marks both habitual aspect and past tense and can be used if the aspectual distinction otherwise is not clear. Sometimes, English has a lexical distinction where other languages may use the distinction in grammatical aspect. For example, the English verbs "to know" (the state of knowing) and "to find out" (knowing viewed as

2530-421: The past, but it says nothing about the relation of this past event to present status. For example, وَصَلَ waṣala , "arrived", indicates that arrival occurred in the past without saying anything about the present status of the arriver – maybe they stuck around, maybe they turned around and left, etc. – nor about the aspect of the past event except insofar as completeness can be considered aspectual. This past verb

2585-400: The perfective aspect looks at an event as a complete action, while the imperfective aspect views an event as the process of unfolding or a repeated or habitual event (thus corresponding to the progressive/continuous aspect for events of short-term duration and to habitual aspect for longer terms). For events of short durations in the past, the distinction often coincides with the distinction in

2640-525: The texture of the time in which a situation occurs, such as a single point of time, a continuous range of time, a sequence of discrete points in time, etc., whereas tense indicates its location in time. For example, consider the following sentences: "I eat", "I am eating", "I have eaten", and "I have been eating". All are in the present tense , indicated by the present-tense verb of each sentence ( eat , am , and have ). Yet since they differ in aspect each conveys different information or points of view as to how

2695-400: The use of adverbs or other syntactic constructions. Grammatical aspect is distinguished from lexical aspect or Aktionsart , which is an inherent feature of verbs or verb phrases and is determined by the nature of the situation that the verb describes. The most fundamental aspectual distinction, represented in many languages, is between perfective aspect and imperfective aspect. This

2750-399: The verb. These two tenses may be modified further for progressive aspect (also called continuous aspect), for the perfect , or for both. These two aspectual forms are also referred to as BE +ING and HAVE +EN, respectively, which avoids what may be unfamiliar terminology. Aspects of the present tense: (While many elementary discussions of English grammar classify the present perfect as

2805-479: The verbal morphological system, with time. In Russian , aspect is more salient than tense in narrative. Russian, like other Slavic languages, uses different lexical entries for the different aspects, whereas other languages mark them morphologically , and still others with auxiliaries (e.g., English). In Hindi , the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker. Periphrastic Hindi verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements

SECTION 50

#1732773216623

2860-495: The vowels [i] , [u] , [e] , [o] and [ə] from the default inherent vowel /a/ (actually pronounced [ɔ] ) implicitly represented in all base consonant letters (including the zero-consonant a ). But unlike most other Brahmic scripts of India, the Buginese script traditionally does not have any virama sign (or alternate half-form for vowel-less consonants, or subjoined form for non-initial consonants in clusters) to suppress

2915-522: The way tense does, aspect describes "the internal temporal constituency of a situation", or in other words, aspect is a way "of conceiving the flow of the process itself". English aspectual distinctions in the past tense include "I went, I used to go, I was going, I had gone"; in the present tense "I lose, I am losing, I have lost, I have been losing, I am going to lose"; and with the future modal "I will see, I will be seeing, I will have seen, I am going to see". What distinguishes these aspects within each tense

2970-404: The word Bahasa Bugis in Malay . In Buginese, it is called Basa Ugi while the Bugis people are called To Ugi . According to a Buginese myth, the term Ugi is derived from the name to the first king of Cina, an ancient Bugis kingdom, La Sattumpugi . To Ugi basically means 'the followers of La Sattumpugi'. Little is known about the early history of this language due to

3025-470: Was also one of the first Europeans to master Makassarese . The dictionaries and grammar books compiled by him, and the literature and folklore texts he published, remain basic sources of information about both languages. Upon colonization by the Dutch , a number of Bugis fled from their home area of South Sulawesi seeking a better life. This led to the existence of small groups of Buginese speakers throughout Maritime Southeast Asia . Buginese belongs to

#622377