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59-435: A pallet is the structural foundation of a unit load , which allows handling and storage efficiencies. Goods in shipping containers are often placed on a pallet secured with strapping , stretch wrap or shrink wrap and shipped. In addition, pallet collars can be used to support and protect items shipped and stored on pallets. Containerization for transport has spurred the use of pallets because shipping containers have

118-711: A pallet or slip sheet and stabilized with stretch wrap , pressure-sensitive tape , strapping or shrink wrap . About 2 billion unit loads are in daily use in the United States. There are three kinds of unit load design: component-based, systems-based, and standards-compliant. These have different applications. Component-based design is the outmoded ad hoc method of unit load design. Components are sometimes over-specified to get assured performance, or tested to get inexpensive economic performance. Unit load storage and distribution systems consist of several interacting parts: Considerable knowledge exists regarding

177-476: A detached structure" unless protected by fire sprinklers . Items made from pallet wood are likely to be durable and demonstrate good weather resistance due to these treatments. However, close contact with pallet wood or inhalation of dusts from sanding or sawing can be a source of exposure to pesticide and fungicide chemicals. It is likely that the January 2010 recall of Johnson and Johnson Tylenol and other drugs

236-492: A distribution point, usually a distribution center , wholesaler , or retail store for sale to consumers or for use. Most consumer and industrial products move through the supply chain in unitized or unit load form for at least part of their distribution cycle. Unit loads make handling, storage, and distribution more efficient. They help reduce handling costs and damage by reducing individual handling. A typical unit load might consist of corrugated fiberboard boxes stacked on

295-553: A hundred trips or more, and resist weathering, rot, chemicals and corrosion. The benefits of plastic pallets over wood pallets include the ability to be easily sanitized, resistance to odor, fire retardancy, longer service life span, durability and better product protection, non-splintering, and lighter weight, thus saving on transportation and labor costs and making them safer and more environmentally friendly. They often stack. Plastic pallets are exempt by inspection for biosafety concerns, and easily sanitize for international shipping. HDPE

354-575: A low cost. Standards permit a unit load to be designed and tested to meet a written specification or test method . A unit load can be verified to comply with a standard and validated to determine that the unit load is indeed effective. Standards provide institutional memory of the many conditions in real logistic trains, and collect the best practices for design and testing unit loads. Standards also describe load requirements, so that logistic providers can plan to meet them. ASTM D4169 has standard test protocols for unit loads. These vary based on

413-420: A more complex structure than softwoods and are often much slower growing as a result. The dominant feature separating "hardwoods" from softwoods is the presence of pores, or vessels . The vessels may show considerable variation in size, shape of perforation plates (simple, scalariform, reticulate, foraminate), and structure of cell wall, such as spiral thickenings. As the name suggests, the wood from these trees

472-882: A nominal 4 inches (102 mm) high by 3 inches (76 mm) wide timber, and weigh about 135 pounds (61 kg). Their deck is fully covered by 30 mm (1.18 in) plywood, and is painted in blue in European and Russian countries. Two-way pallets are designed to be lifted by the deckboards. Four-way pallets, or pallets for heavy loads (or general-purpose systems that might have heavy loads) are best lifted by their more rigid stringers. These pallets are usually heavier, bigger and more durable than two-way pallets. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sanctions six pallet dimensions, detailed in ISO Standard 6780:2003 Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling — Principal dimensions and tolerances , which

531-481: A pallet does not need to be lifted from all four sides, two-way pallets with unnotched stringers may be used, with the additional benefits of added rigidity and strength. Specifying tolerances on flatness and water content may help the supplier meet target requirements. Inspection of pallets, whether in person or by a third-party (such as "SPEQ" inspected pallets) offer additional assurance of quality. The main processes that are used to manufacture wooden pallets: Due to

590-619: A pallet measurement, the first number is the stringer length and the second is the deckboard length. Square or nearly square pallets help a load resist tipping. Pallet users want pallets to pass easily through buildings, to stack and fit in racks , to be accessible to forklifts and pallet jacks and to function in automated warehouses . To avoid shipping air, pallets should also pack tightly inside intermodal containers and vans. Though some major standards exist, there are no universally accepted standards for pallet dimensions. Companies and organizations utilize hundreds of different pallet sizes around

649-477: A patent from Robert Braun on a four-way pallet in 1945, and a patent from Norman Cahners (a U.S. Navy supply officer) shows a disposable pallet in 1949. The principle of a modern four-way pallet is described by Darling Graeme in 1949. The production of pallets accounts for 43% of hardwood and 15% of softwood usage in the U.S. The cheapest pallets are made of softwood and are often considered expendable, to be discarded as trash along with other wrapping elements, at

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708-515: A significantly reduced height, providing substantial freight cost reduction. Low-profile hand pallet trucks allow picking up pallets as low as 25 mm. Steel pallets are strong and are used for heavy loads, high-stacking loads, long term dry storage, and loads moved by abusive logistic systems. They are often used for military ammunition. Metal pallets make up less than 1% of the market. Materials include carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. Of these, carbon steel offers excellent durability at

767-517: A specific industry (such as groceries) or type of material (such as wood). ISO Technical Committee 51 (Pallets for unit load method of materials handling) states its scope of work entailing the "standardization of pallets in general use in the form of platforms or trays on which goods may be packed to form unit loads for handling by mechanical devices". The Technical Committee works in conjunction with other Technical Committees focused on transportation infrastructure to develop interrelated standards. TC 51

826-743: Is a square pallet originally made of hardwood 1,165 mm × 1,165 mm (45.9 in × 45.9 in) in size which fits perfectly in the RACE container of the Australian Railway. They are ill-suited for the standard 20-foot (6.1 m) and 40-foot (12 m) ISO shipping containers used around the globe. Australian standard pallets are usually manufactured in hardwood, but 1165 × 1165 mm pallets can also be manufactured using lighter timber suitable for use as disposable pallets using 16 millimeter boards. Extensively used in storage and warehousing, they are popular pallets for racking, with

885-523: Is also known as a "four-way" pallet, since a pallet-jack may be used from any side to move it. Carrier blocks are specialized pallets for lumber carriers Flush pallets are pallets with deck boards that are flush with the stringers and stringer boards along the ends and sides of the pallet. All stringer and some block pallets have "unidirectional bases", i.e. bottom boards oriented in one direction. While automated handling equipment can be designed for this, often it can operate faster and more effectively if

944-453: Is difficult to predict. Therefore, unit loads must be designed to travel by any such vehicles, and be stored in a wide variety of places. There are many similarities in the requirements for long-term storage and long-distance transportation of unit loads. Factors considered in unit load systems-based design include: Often a few inexpensive additions to the packaging can stabilize or stiffen a critical part and give good unit-load performance at

1003-450: Is due to the variety of characteristics apparent in different timbers, including density, grain, pore size, growth and fibre pattern, flexibility and ability to be steam bent. For example, the interlocked grain of elm wood ( Ulmus spp.) makes it suitable for the making of chair seats where the driving in of legs and other components can cause splitting in other woods. There is a correlation between density and calories/volume. This makes

1062-421: Is easy on a wide, strong, flat floor: concrete is excellent. The greatest investment needed for economical pallet use is in the construction of commercial or industrial buildings. Ability to pass through standard doors and buildings make handling more convenient. For this reason, some modern pallet standards are designed to pass through standard doorways, for example the europallet (800 mm × 1,200 mm) and

1121-529: Is from gymnosperm trees). Hardwoods are produced by angiosperm trees that reproduce by flowers, and have broad leaves. Many species are deciduous. Those of temperate regions lose their leaves every autumn as temperatures fall and are dormant in the winter, but those of tropical regions may shed their leaves in response to seasonal or sporadic periods of drought. Hardwood from deciduous species, such as oak, normally shows annual growth rings , but these may be absent in some tropical hardwoods . Hardwoods have

1180-554: Is generally harder than that of softwoods, but there are significant exceptions. In both groups there is an enormous variation in actual wood hardness, with the range in density in hardwoods completely including that of softwoods; some hardwoods ( e.g. , balsa ) are softer than most softwoods, while yew is an example of a hard softwood. The structural polymers of hardwoods are cellulose , hemicellulose , and lignin . The constituents of hardwood lignin differs from those included in softwood. Sinapyl alcohol and coniferyl alcohol are

1239-417: Is impervious to most acids, and toxic chemicals clean from them more easily. Some plastic pallets can collapse from plastic creep if used to store heavy loads for long periods. Plastic pallets cannot easily be repaired, and can be ten times as expensive as hardwood, so they are often used by logistics service providers who can profit from their durability and stackability. The large supply chains have increased

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1298-422: Is important. New designs of ecopallets have been made from just two flat pieces of corrugated board (no glue/staples) and weigh just 4.5 kg (9.9 lb), offering dramatic freight savings. Ecopallets are also ISPM 15 exempt, negating fumigation and barrier "slip" sheets. They are cleaner, safer, and provide a cost-saving eco-friendly alternative to other pallet materials. Some engineered corrugated pallets offer

1357-449: Is responsible for developing ISO Standard 6780: Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling—Principal dimensions and tolerances as well as sixteen other standards related to pallet construction and testing. The National Wood Pallet and Container Association (NWPCA) is a trade organization based in the United States representing the interests of wood pallet and container manufacturers. The U.S. Department of Defense, Department of

1416-453: Is rich in phenolic compounds, such as stilbenes , lignans , norlignans, tannins , flavonoids . Hardwoods are employed in a large range of applications, including fuel , tools , construction , boat building , furniture making, musical instruments , flooring , cooking , barrels , and manufacture of charcoal . Solid hardwood joinery tends to be expensive compared to softwood. In the past, tropical hardwoods were easily available, but

1475-625: Is routine for small ports and noncontainer transports. Weatherproofness could be optional. It is sometimes valuable, and the baggies are cheap. High, standardized stacking could be optional as well. It is expensive, but sometimes valuable for rackless and military customers. Hardwood Hardwood is wood from angiosperm trees . These are usually found in broad-leaved temperate and tropical forests . In temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous , but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen . Hardwood (which comes from angiosperm trees) contrasts with softwood (which

1534-462: The COVID-19 pandemic , due to increases in the prices of supplies and labor. Although pallets come in all sizes and configurations, all pallets fall into two very broad categories: "stringer" and "block" pallets. Various software packages exist to assist the pallet maker in designing an appropriate pallet for a specific load and evaluating wood options to reduce costs. Stringer pallets are one of

1593-638: The International Plant Protection Convention (abbreviated IPPC), most pallets shipped across national borders must be made of materials that are incapable of being a carrier of invasive species of insects and plant diseases . The standards for these pallets are specified in ISPM 15 . Pallets made of raw, untreated wood are not compliant with ISPM 15. To be compliant the pallets (or other wood packaging material) must meet debarked standards, and must be treated by either of

1652-748: The United States alone. Organizations using standard pallets for loading and unloading can have much lower costs for handling and storage, with faster material movement than businesses that do not. The exceptions are establishments that move small items such as jewelry or large items such as cars. But even they can be improved. For instance, the distributors of costume jewelry normally use pallets in their warehouses and car manufacturers use pallets to move components and spare parts. Pallets make it easier to move heavy stacks. Loads with pallets under them can be hauled by forklift trucks of different sizes, or even by hand-pumped and hand-drawn pallet jacks. Movement

1711-424: The 1st millennium B.C. The development of the forklift and the needs of World War II logistics operations led to substantial use of pallets. References to the early modern pallets types are slim with a string of patents showing parts of the development. The earliest may be a U.S. patent on a skid from 1924 describing Howard T. Hallowell's "Lift Truck Platform". In the late 1930s, pallets became more commonplace with

1770-665: The Navy, Naval Sea Systems Command maintains MIL-STD-1660, the standard description of palletized unit loads for the U.S. Military and some allies. DOD Unit loads generally use 40 in × 48 in (1,016 mm × 1,219 mm) pallets, are less than 4,000 lb (1,814 kg), weatherproof, and stack 16 ft (4.88 m) high. They often use steel pallets, steel straps with notched seals, outdoor plywood, and plastic film. The standard describes tests for stacking, transport, sling, forklift and pallet jack, impact, drop tests, tip, water-retention, and disassembly. In addition to

1829-727: The U.S. and Europe, spurred by the adoption of the ISPM 15. A full comparison of wood vs plastic can be made by a life cycle analysis . Plastic pallets can cost 10 times as much as hardwood pallets and even more expensive compared to cheap expendable softwood pallets. RFID chips can be molded into the pallets to monitor locations and track inventory. There are six main types of plastic processes that are used to manufacture pallets: Paper pallets , also referred to as "ecopallets", are often used for light loads, but engineered paper pallets are increasingly used for loads that compare with wood. Paper pallets are also used where recycling and easy disposal

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1888-478: The U.S. military 35 in × 45.5 in (890 mm × 1,160 mm). The lack of a single international standard for pallets causes substantial continuing expense in international trade. A single standard is difficult because of the wide variety of needs a standard pallet would have to satisfy: passing doorways, fitting in standard containers, and bringing low labor costs. For example, organizations already handling large pallets often see no reason to pay

1947-897: The absence of splinters, sanitization, and recyclability. Disadvantages include a higher initial price, significant weight, low friction, and susceptibility to rusting (in the case of carbon steel). Metal is primarily used in captive or closed loop environments where durability and product protection are key performance requirements. Metal units today are increasingly price competitive and lighter in weight. Primary industries that use metal pallets include automotive, pharmaceutical, lawn tractors, motorcycles, and tires. Aluminum pallets are stronger than wood or plastic, lighter than steel, and resist weather, rotting, plastic creep and corrosion. They are sometimes used for air-freight, long-term outdoor or at-sea storage, or military transport. Wooden pallets typically consist of three or four stringers that support several deckboards, on top of which goods are placed. In

2006-495: The bottom edges of a pallet have bottom boards oriented in both directions. For example, it may not need to turn a pallet to rack it, and operation is less sensitive to pallet orientation. The least expensive way to improve a pallet is usually to specify better nails. With non-wood pallets, a controlled coefficient of friction is often helpful to prevent the pallet from slipping from forks and racks. Stiffer pallets are more durable, and are handled more easily by automated equipment. If

2065-461: The design of each of these components: their interactions have more recently been studied. When packaging, pallet, and handling systems are designed separately at different locations by different teams, the result might be inefficient unit load systems. The consequences of independent component-based design in the supply chain can include: Systems-based design is a proven process of unit load component cost optimization based on an understanding of how

2124-639: The end of the trip. These pallets are simple stringer pallets, and able to be lifted from two sides. Slightly more complex, hardwood block pallets, plastic pallets and metal pallets can be lifted from all four sides. These costlier pallets usually require a deposit and are returned to the sender or resold as used. Many "four way" pallets are color-coded according to the loads they can bear, and other attributes. Wood pallets can pose serious bio-hazard risks as they are susceptible to bacterial and chemical contamination, such as E. coli problems in food and produce transportation, and even insect infestation, and thus

2183-402: The end of their journey. By combining sustainability with unit load science, they not only create the optimal unit load, but also reduce the amount of packaging material used to transport that load, maximizing the materials that can be recycled and minimizing what goes into a landfill. Unit loads move via an unpredictable combination of many types of vehicles and storage areas, and the exact set

2242-594: The following means under the supervision of an approved agency: Treated wood pallets must be stamped on two opposite sides, indicating either HT for heat treated or MB for methyl bromide treatment. Pallets made of non-wood materials such as steel , aluminum , plastic , or engineered wood products, such as plywood , oriented strand board , or corrugated fiberboard do not need IPPC approval, and are considered to be exempt from ISPM 15 regulations. Plastic pallets are often made of new HDPE or recycled PET (drink bottles). They are usually extremely durable, lasting for

2301-473: The globally accepted ISPM 15 wood packaging material regulations (before this time it was hardwood and more expensive). A number of different organizations and associations around the world work towards establishing and promulgating standards for pallets. Some strive to develop universal standards for pallet dimensions, types of material used in construction, performance standards, and testing procedures. Other organizations choose to focus on pallet standards for

2360-796: The globe. While no single dimensional standard governs pallet production, a few different sizes are widely used. The standard 48×40 North American pallet, or GMA pallet, has stringers of 48 inches and deckboards of 40 inches, and was standardized by the Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA). Lightweight plastic pallets can weigh as little as 3 to 15 pounds (1.4 to 6.8 kg), while heavier models may weigh up to 300 pounds (140 kg). Standard GMA pallets can hold up to 460 pounds (210 kg). Heavy duty International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) Pallets are approximately 44 inches (1,118 mm) wide by 48 inches (1,219 mm) long, have three wood stringers that are

2419-545: The hardwood significantly differs from the softwood, and mainly consists of triterpenoids , polyprenols and other higher terpenes. Triterpenoids commonly purified from hardwoods include cycloartenol , betulin and squalene . Hardwood polyterpenes are rubber , gutta percha , gutta-balatá and betulaprenols. Although in small quantities, hardwoods also contain mono- , sesqui- and diterpenes , such as α- and β-pinenes , 3-carene , β-myrcene , limonene , hinokitiol , δ-cadinene , α- and δ-cadinols , borneol . Hardwood

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2478-590: The higher handling cost of using smaller pallets that can fit through doors. Heavy-duty pallets are a form of reusable packaging and are designed to be used multiple times. Lightweight pallets are designed for a single use. In the EU, government legislation based on the Waste Framework Directive requires the reuse of packaging items in preference to recycling and disposal. Skids date back to Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia, at least as far back as

2537-602: The logistic path, including storage, ship, air, truck, forklift and sling (i.e. ship-to-ship and parachute). There are auxiliary standards for ship-to-ship transfers, and amphibious transfers. There are tests for stacking, transport, sling, forklift and pallet jack, impact, drop tests, tip, water-retention (i.e. weather), and safe disassembly. MIL-STD-1660 at first looks like overdesign to commercial unit-load designers. However, similar marking standards, safety, stability, volumetric efficiency, weight limits and impact resistance are routinely needed in commercial logistics. Sling handling

2596-417: The lowest cost. Stainless steel does not require a paint coating, and is preferred for such applications as clean room environments. Carbon steel units are expensive compared to wood, and stainless and aluminum cost about 2–3 times that of carbon steel. Long term costs, however, can be lower than wood. General advantages of metal pallets are high strength and stiffness, excellent durability, resistance to vermin,

2655-558: The main monomers of hardwood lignin. Hardwoods contain less amount of non-structural constituents, named extractives , than softwoods. These extractives are usually categorized into three broad groups: aliphatic compounds , terpenes and phenolic compounds . Aliphatic compounds found in hardwoods include fatty acids , fatty alcohols and their esters with glycerol , fatty alcohols (waxes) and sterols (steryl esters), hydrocarbons , such as alkanes , sterols , such as sitosterol , sitostanol and campesterol . The terpene content of

2714-402: The need for ISPM 15. Wooden pallet construction specifications can depend on the pallet's intended use: general, FDA, storage, chemical, export; the expected load weight; type of wood desired: recycled, hard, soft, kiln dried or combo (new and recycled); and even the type of fasteners desired to hold the pallet together: staples or nails. The price of wooden pallets reached a record high during

2773-399: The newer forklift types. George G. Raymond and William C. House filed for a patent in 1937 (granted US Patent 2178646 in 1939) for a pallet designed to complement a new pallet jack design; the essential features of both are still in common use today. A 1939 patent from Carl Clark shows a type of pallet with steel stringers. Wartime developments were often patented just after the war, so there is

2832-567: The original models of wooden pallets. They use a frame of three or more parallel pieces of timber (called stringers). The top deckboards are then affixed to the stringers to create the pallet structure. Stringer pallets can have a notch cut into them allowing "four-way" entry. Forklifts can lift a stringer pallet from all four directions, though lifting by the stringers is more secure. Stringer pallets can be made of both wood and plastic. Block pallets utilize both parallel and perpendicular stringers to better facilitate efficient handling. A block pallet

2891-676: The other standards it publishes, the European Committee for Standardization , also known as the Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN), produces standards for pallets. While the standards are voluntary in nature, many companies and organizations involved in transportation have adopted them. The major standard for pallets produced by CEN is ICS: 55.180.20 General purpose pallets Both wood and plastic pallets are possible fire hazards. The National Fire Protection Association requires that both types "shall be stored outside or in

2950-528: The pallet, packaging and material handling equipment interact during product distribution and storage to design the unit load component parts. A systems-based approach to unit load design uses software tools and lab testing to create a package that uses just the right amount of material to protect the product, make for safe handling and transportation and minimize the use of non-recyclable materials. Companies must now consider sustainability when determining how their packaging products will be reused or recycled at

3009-511: The right shape and size to be removed from transport and directly onto warehouse racking for storage. The Australian standard pallet dates back to World War II , while ISO containers date to the late 1950s. Although the pallet's dimensions pre-date the ISO containers, it requires less dunnage , is square, and leaves less wasted space than other pallets, including the GMA pallet. In 2010, Australia adopted

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3068-432: The size of an assemblage into which a number of individual items are combined for ease of storage and handling, for example a pallet load represents a unit load which can be moved easily with a pallet jack or forklift truck , or a container load represents a unit for shipping purposes. A unit load can be packed tightly into a warehouse rack, intermodal container , truck or boxcars , yet can be easily broken apart at

3127-439: The smooth, level surfaces needed for easy pallet movement. Since its invention in the twentieth century, its use has dramatically supplanted older forms of crating like the wooden box and the wooden barrel , as it works well with modern packaging like corrugated boxes and intermodal containers commonly used for bulk shipping. In 2020 about half a billion pallets are made each year and about two billion pallets are in use across

3186-417: The stresses on handling equipment. They are weatherproof, and stack 16 ft (4.877 m) high. They often use steel pallets, steel straps with notched seals, outdoor plywood, and plastic film. MIL-STD-1660 mandates that loads must never be less than the width of a pallet, while permitting some overhang. The markings are LOGMARS bar codes and standard inventory numbers. The standard describes major parts of

3245-550: The supply of some species, such as Burma teak and mahogany , is now becoming scarce due to over-exploitation. Cheaper "hardwood" doors, for instance, now consist of a thin veneer bonded to a core of softwood, plywood or medium-density fibreboard (MDF). Hardwoods may be used in a variety of objects, but are most frequently seen in furniture or musical instruments because of their density which adds to durability, appearance, and performance. Different species of hardwood lend themselves to different end uses or construction processes. This

3304-596: The use of plastic pallets as many organisations seek to reduce costs through waste, transport, and health and safety. Pallets and dollies can be combined (for example the Pally), eliminating pallet instability and the need for additional lifting equipment along with creating valuable space in busy operating environments. They also deliver significant time and cost savings by reducing supply chain handling. Plastics' reusability has contributed to an increase in usage of plastic pallets. Plastic pallets are produced and used widely in

3363-435: The value of the load, the expected hazards, and the distribution environment. This is a performance-based standard. Another standard for unit loads is MIL-STD-1660, a standard for ammunition unit loads. DOD unit loads generally use 40 in × 48 in (1,016 mm × 1,219 mm) pallets, which unfortunately do not pack efficiently into ISO containers. They weigh less than 4,000 lb (1,814 kg) to limit

3422-469: Was due to their being stored on wooden pallets that had been treated with the fungicide/pesticide 2,4,6-tribromophenol. This chemical can be degraded by molds to produce 2,4,6-tribromoanisole whose strong, musty odor caused consumers to complain. There is no acute or chronic health data on 2,4,6-tribromoanisole, but it is believed that the contaminated drugs caused nausea and other health effects in some people. Unit load The term unit load refers to

3481-661: Was reviewed and confirmed in 2014: ISO container Of the top pallets used in North America, the most commonly used by far is the Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA) pallet, which accounts for 30% of all new wood pallets produced in the United States. The ISO also recognizes the GMA pallet footprint as one of its six standard sizes. The Australian standard pallet is a pallet size commonly found in Australia but rarely found elsewhere. It

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