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138-568: Although many of the Turkic peoples share historical, cultural and linguistic roots, the rise of a pan-Turkic political movement is a phenomenon of the 19th and 20th centuries. Ottoman poet Ziya Gökalp defined pan-Turkism as a cultural, academic, and philosophical and political concept advocating the unity of Turkic peoples. Ideologically, it was premised on social Darwinism . Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as Pseudo-Turkology . In research literature, "pan-Turkism"

276-631: A Hitler -style haircut. Alparslan Türkeş , a leading pan-Turkist, took a pro-Hitler position during the war and developed close connections with Nazi leaders in Germany. Several pan-Turkic groups in Europe apparently had ties to Nazi Germany (or its supporters) at the start of the war, if not earlier. The Turco-Tatars in Romania cooperated with the Iron Guard , a Romanian fascist organisation. Although

414-459: A constitutionalist broad opposition-movement in the late Ottoman Empire against the absolutist régime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II ( r.  1876–1909 ). The most powerful organization of the movement, and the most conflated, was the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, founded in 1889), though its goals, strategies, and membership continuously morphed throughout Abdul Hamid's reign. By

552-536: A proto-Turkic language and was developed by the Turkish president Mustafa Kemal Atatürk during the 1930s. Kairat Zakiryanov considers the Japanese and Kazakh gene pools to be identical. Several Turkish academics (Şevket Koçsoy, Özkan İzgi, Emel Esin) claim that Zhou dynasty were of Turkic origins. Philip L. Kohl notes that the above-mentioned theories are nothing more than "incredible myths". Nevertheless,

690-519: A "cult of nationalism and modernization". His nationalist ideals espoused a de-identification with Ottoman Turkey's nearby Arab neighbors, instead advocating for a super-national Turkish (or pan- Turkic ) identity with "a territorial Northeast-orientation [to] Turkic peoples". Mehmet Ziya was born in Diyarbakır of the Ottoman Empire on 23 March 1876 to Muhammad Tefvik Bey and Zeliha Hanım. He

828-462: A 1936 publication, sociologist Niyazi Berkes described Gökalp as "the real founder of Turkish sociology , since he was not a mere translator or interpreter of foreign sociology". Gökalp's work was particularly influential in shaping the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ; his influence figured prominently in the development of Kemalism , and its legacy in the modern Republic of Turkey . Influenced by contemporary European thought, particularly by

966-461: A Young Turk party was identified in situations where an amorphous "Old Turk" faction was being confronted. The Young Ottomans , the liberal and Islamist opposition movement to Fuad and Aali Pasha 's regime, were also known as Jeunes Turcs , though they called themselves Yeni Osmanlılar , or New Ottomans. Historiographically, the group which became definitively known as the Young Turks was

1104-508: A base for the desired strong government. After the CUP took power in the 1913 coup and Mahmud Şevket Pasha 's assassination, it embarked on a series of reforms in order to increase centralization in the Empire, an effort that had been ongoing since the last century's Tanzimat reforms under sultan Mahmud II . Many of the original Young Turks rejected this idea, especially those that had formed

1242-493: A campaign for the ethnic awakening of Iranian Azeris. It may be due to these ideas that Elchibey was elected president in the new country's first presidential election in 1992. He and his government has been widely described as pursuing Pan-Turkic and anti-Iranian policies. Other than the pan-Turkist leadership, nationalist intellectuals and Azerbaijani media also stipulated the question of " Southern Azerbaijan " in their main political agenda's. In 1995-1996, according to one survey of

1380-476: A cautious approach at the government level, but pan-Turkists were angered by the Turkish government's inaction because they believed that it was wasting a golden opportunity to achieve the goals of pan-Turkism. Pan-Turkism is often perceived as being a new form of Turkish imperial ambition. Some view the young Turk leaders who believed that they could reclaim the prestige of the Ottoman Empire by espousing

1518-730: A coalition with the Activists and founded the Committee of Progress and Union (CPU). This unsuccessful attempt to bridge the divide amongst the Young Turks instead deepened the rivalry between Sabahaddin's group and Rıza's CPU. The 20th century began with Abdul Hamid II's rule secure and his opposition scattered and divided. The Second Congress of Ottoman Opposition took place in Paris, France, on 22 December, 1907. Opposition leaders including Ahmed Rıza , Sabahaddin Bey , and Khachatur Malumian of

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1656-524: A consciousness about the cultural unity of all Turkic peoples of the world." In 1923, Ziya Gökalp , famous poet and theorician of Turkism ideology, wrote his book The Principles of Turkism and idealized the unity of Turkic peoples by calling Turan as a goal of Turkism. A significant early exponent of pan-Turkism was Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Ottoman Minister of War and acting commander-in-chief during World War I . He later became

1794-627: A few prominent peoples in history, such as Jews , Chinese people , Armenians , Greeks , Persians , and Scandinavians are considered non-Turkic by Adzhi. Philologist Mirfatyh Zakiev , former chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Tatar ASSR , has published hundreds of "scientific" works on the subject, suggesting Turkic origins of the Sumerian , Greek , Icelandic , Etruscan and Minoan languages. Zakiev contends that "proto-Turkish

1932-422: A frequent contributor to pan-Turkic journals) took place in the second half of 1941 and the early months of 1942. The Turkish officials included General Ali Fuad Erdem and Nuri Pasha (Killigil), brother of Enver Pasha. Pan-Turkists were not supported by the Turkish government during this time and on 19 May 1944, İsmet İnönü made a speech in which he condemned Pan-Turkism as "a dangerous and sick demonstration of

2070-509: A genuine personality only as he becomes a genuine representative of his culture". He believed that a modern state must become homogeneous in terms of culture, religion, and national identity. This conception of national identity was augmented by his belief in the primacy of Turkishness, as a unifying virtue. In a 1911 article, he suggested that "Turks are the ' supermen ' imagined by the German philosopher Nietzsche ". His major sociological work

2208-488: A heterodox group of secular liberal intellectuals and revolutionaries, united by their opposition to the absolutist regime of Abdul Hamid and desire to reinstate the constitution. Despite the name Young Turks , members were diverse in their religious and ethnic origins, with many Albanians, Arabs, Armenians, Circassians, Greeks, Kurds, and Jews being members. To organize the opposition, forward-thinking medical students Ibrahim Temo , Abdullah Cevdet and others formed

2346-904: A leader of the Basmachi movement (1916–1934) against Russian and Soviet rule in Central Asia . During World War II , the Nazis founded a Turkestan Legion which was primarily composed of soldiers who hoped to establish an independent Central Asian state after the war. The German intrigue bore no fruit. When the Turkish Republic was established under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923, interest in Pan-Turkism declined, because Atatürk promoted Turkish nationalism within Turkey. The Pan-Turkist movements gained some momentum in

2484-434: A means of unifying a population socially, and even "religion as society's worship of itself". Durkheim's assertion that the life of the group was more important than the life of the individual, this was a concept readily adopted by Gökalp. A well-known newspaper columnist and political figure, Gökalp was a primary ideologue of the Committee of Union and Progress . His views of "nation", and the ways in which they have informed

2622-466: A more feasible (and popular) political strategy. In 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress came to power in Ottoman Turkey, and the empire adopted a nationalistic ideology. This contrasted with its largely Muslim ideology which dated back to the 16th century, when the sultan was the caliph of his Muslim lands. Leaders who espoused Pan-Turkism fled from Russia and moved to Istanbul , where

2760-468: A nation as linguistically and culturally unified. Finally, merely to believe one was a part of a nation, this was not enough, either; one cannot choose to belong to the nation, in his view, as membership in the nation is involuntary. His 1923 The Principles of Turkism , published just a year prior to his death, outlines the expansive nationalist identity he had long popularized in his teachings and poetry. The nationalism he espouses entails "a nation [that]

2898-405: A new religion while calling it Islam". Positivism , with its claim of being a religion of science, deeply impressed the Young Turks, who believed it could be more easily reconciled with Islam than could popular materialistic theories. The name of the society, Committee of Union and Progress, was inspired by leading positivist Auguste Comte 's motto Order and Progress . Positivism also served as

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3036-489: A physical realization of Turanism, rather than a mere ideological pan-Turkist kinship. Some readings of Gökalp contend, to the contrary, that his Turanism and pan-Turkism were linguistic and cultural models, ideals from which a post-Ottoman identity could be derived, rather than a militant call for the physical expansion of the Republic of Turkey. Although he often held quite different ideas, Arab nationalist Sati al-Husri

3174-511: A reaction to early pan-Turkist claims over Iran's Azerbaijan region have been dubbed traitors to the "Azerbaijani nation" within the pan-Turkist media of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Ahmad Kazemi, the author of the book Security in South Caucasus , told Iran's Strategic Council on Foreign Relations in a 2021 interview that "Azerbaijan is seeking to establish the so-called pan-Turkish illusionary Zangezur corridor in south of Armenia under

3312-645: A rebellion among the Russian Armenians against the tsarist army in the event of a Caucasian Front. The Armenians were perceived to be subversive elements (a fifth column ) that would take the Russian side in the war. In order to eliminate this threat, the Ottoman government embarked on a large-scale deportation of Armenians from Eastern Anatolia. Around 300,000 Armenians were forced to move southwards to Urfa and then westwards to Aintab and Marash . In

3450-436: A secret organization named the Committee of Ottoman Union , which grew in size and included exiles, civil servants, and army officers. In 1894, Ahmed Rıza joined Ottoman Union, and requested it change its name to Order and Progress to reflect his Positivism . They compromised with Union and Progress. Rıza being based in Paris, the organization was organized around Meşveret and its French supplemental. The CUP became

3588-457: A series of policies involving the disarming of Christians and preventing them from buying property, Muslim settlements in Christian territories, and the complete Ottomanization of all Turkish subjects, either by persuasion or by the force of arms. By 1913, the CUP banned all other political parties, creating a one party state. The Ottoman Parliament became a rubber stamp and real policy debate

3726-407: A strong pan-Turkic movement arose; the Turkish pan-Turkic movement grew and transformed itself into a nationalistic, ethnically oriented movement which sought to replace the caliphate with a state. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire , some of them tried to replace the multi-cultural and multi-ethnic empire with a Turkish commonwealth, the advocates of this idea were influenced by the nationalism of

3864-649: A truly organized movement with the CUP as an organizational umbrella. They recruited individuals hoping for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire. In 1906, the Ottoman Freedom Society was established in Thessalonica by Mehmed Talaat . The OFS actively recruited members from the Third Army base, among them Major Ismail Enver . In September 1907, OFS announced they would be working with other organizations under

4002-651: Is Murad Adzhi , who insists that two hundred thousand years ago, "an advanced people of Turkic blood" were living in the Altai Mountains . These tall and blond Turks are supposed to have founded the world's first state, Idel-Ural , 35,000 years ago, and to have migrated as far as the Americas . According to theories like the Turkish History Thesis , promoted by pseudo-scholars, the Turkic peoples are supposed to have migrated from Central Asia to

4140-415: Is mixed, with 11 characters which were borrowed from the ancient Turkic alphabet. Foss calls this view historical revisionism : "Turkish writings have been tendentious: history has been viewed as performing a useful service, proving or supporting a point of view, and so it is treated as something flexible which can be manipulated at will". He concludes, "The notion, which seems well established in Turkey, that

4278-698: Is not a racial or ethnic or geographic or political or volitional group but one composed of individuals who share a common language, religion, morality, and aesthetics, that is to say, who have received the same education". He proceeds to lay out the three echelons of pan-Turkist identity that he envisions: The second stage was "Oghuzism", and the final stage would be the " Turanism " that he and other nationalist poets had been promoting since before World War I. While this broad conception of "Turkishness", of pan-Turkism, often embraced what Gökalp perceived to be ethnic commonality, he did not disparage other races, as some of his pan-Turkist successors later did. Stating that

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4416-417: Is quoted on the front page of the 1 August 1926 The Los Angeles Examiner as denouncing the Young Turks and especially the CUP (the "Young Turk Party"): These left-overs from the former [Committee of Union and Progress] Young Turk Party, who should have been made to account for the millions of our Christian subjects who were ruthlessly driven en masse from their homes and massacred, have been restive under

4554-626: Is the starting point of the Indo-European languages ". Not only peoples and cultures, but also prominent individuals, such as Saint George , Peter the Great , Mikhail Kutuzov and Fyodor Dostoevsky , are proclaimed to have been "of Turkic origin". As such the Turkic peoples are supposed to have once been the "benevolent conquerors" of the peoples of most of Eurasia, who thus owe them "a huge cultural debt". The pseudoscientific Sun Language Theory states that all human languages are descendants of

4692-528: Is the teacher at Yeni Hayat ("New Life"), where Eastern and Western ideals meet and form a "new Turkish World". His poetry departs from his more serious sociological works, though it too harnesses nationalist sentiment: "Run, take the standard and let it be planted once again in Plevna / Night and day, let the waters of the Danube run red with blood...." Perhaps his most famous poem was his 1911 Turan , which

4830-565: Is used to describe the political, cultural and ethnic unity of all Turkic people . "Turkism" began to be used with the prefix "pan-" (from the Greek πᾶν, pan = all). Proponents use the latter as a point of comparison, since "Turkic" is a linguistic, ethnic and cultural distinction rather than a citizenship description. This differentiates it from "Turkish", which is the term which is officially used in reference to citizens of Turkey. Pan-Turkic ideas and reunification movements have become popular since

4968-641: The Armistice of Mudros was signed aboard a British battleship in the Aegean Sea. On November 2, Enver, Talaat and Cemal fled from Istanbul into exile. Following the war, the Freedom and Accord Party regained control over the Ottoman government and conducting a purge of Unionists. Freedom and Accord rule was short-lived, and with Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) stirring up nationalist sentiment in Anatolia ,

5106-791: The Caucasus and Anatolia. During the existence of the Azerbaijan SSR of the Soviet Union , pan-Turkist political elites of Baku who were loyal to the Communist cause invented a national history based on the existence of an Azeri nation-state that dominated the areas to the north and south of the Aras river , which was supposedly torn apart by an Iranian - Russian conspiracy in the Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828. This "imagined community"

5244-526: The Dashnak Committee were in attendance. The goal was to unite all the Young Turks and minority nationalist movements, in order to bring about a revolution to reinstate the constitution. They decided to put their differences aside and signed an alliance, declaring that Abdul Hamid had to be deposed and the regime replaced with a representative and constitutional government by any means necessary, without foreign interference. The Young Turks became

5382-619: The Hamidian massacres . In August 1896, cabinet ministers aligned with the CUP conspired a coup d'état to overthrow the sultan, but the plot was leaked to the palace before its execution. Prominent statesmen were exiled to Ottoman Tripolitania and Acre . The year after, Unionist cadets of the Military Academy schemed to assassinate the Minister of Military Schools, and this plot was also leaked to authorities. In became known as

5520-669: The October Revolution , the Bolsheviks’ attitude to Turkism differed significantly from the Russian Empire’s. At the 10th Congress of Bolshevik Communist Party in 1921, the party "condemned pan-Turkism as a slope to bourgeois-democratic nationalism", however unofficially pan-Turkism was supported and promoted. The emergence of a pan-Turkism scare in Soviet propaganda made it one of the “most frightening” political labels in

5658-743: The Scythians , and all civilizations on the territory of the Ottoman Empire , such as Sumer , ancient Egypt , ancient Greece , and the Byzantine Empire , were of Turkic origin. Konstantin Sheiko and Stephen Brown explain the reemergence of such pseudo-history as a form of national therapy, helping its proponents cope with the failures of the past. Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Turkey Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) Uzbekistan Ziya G%C3%B6kalp Mehmet Ziya Gökalp (born Mehmed Ziya , 23 March 1876 – 25 October 1924)

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5796-618: The Turkic peoples in old ages were both feminists and democrats, he said that the Pan-Turkism movement and feminism were born together. He based its origins by referring to Shamanism . He described his anti-war attitude on the grounds that the gods of Turkic mythology were also the gods of peace and tranquility. For Gökalp the end of the Ottoman Empire marked the end of Pan-Islamism for Turks, who then should concentrate on nationalism but without rejecting their Islamic heritage, which

5934-593: The Young Turks . Leaders like Mustafa Kemal Atatürk acknowledged that such a goal was impossible, replacing pan-Turkic idealism with a form of nationalism which aimed to preserve the existence of an Anatolian nucleus. The Türk Yurdu Dergisi ( Journal of the Turkish Homeland ) was founded in 1911 by Akçura . This was the most important Turkist publication of the time, "in which, along with other Turkic exiles from Russia, [Akçura] attempted to instill

6072-730: The collapse of the Soviet Union in Central Asian and other Turkic countries. In 1804, the Tatar theologian Ghabdennasir Qursawi wrote a treatise calling for the modernization of Islam. Qursawi was a Jadid (from the Arabic word jadid , "new"). The Jadids encouraged critical thinking, supported education and advocated the equality of the sexes, advocated tolerance of other faiths, advocated Turkic cultural unity, and advocated openness to Europe’s cultural legacy. The Jadid movement

6210-620: The " Sacrifices of the Şeref " (Şeref Kurbanları ) the largest single crackdown of the Hamidian era resulted in more than 630 high-profile arrests and exiles. Under pressure from Yıldız Palace, French authorities banned Meşveret , though not the French supplemental, and deported Rıza and his Unionists in 1896. After settling in Brussels , the Belgian government was also pressured to deport

6348-431: The 1890s, the Young Turks were mainly a loose and contentious network of exiled intelligentsia who made a living by selling their newspapers to secret subscribers. Included in the opposition movement was a mosaic of ideologies, represented by democrats, liberals, decentralists, secularists , social Darwinists , technocrats, constitutional monarchists, and nationalists, to name a few. Despite being called "the Young Turks",

6486-462: The 1895 massacres of Diyarbekir . However the violence worsened after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution , despite Assyrian hopes that the new government would stop promoting anti-Christian Islamism. The Sayfo occurred concurrently with and was closely related to the Armenian genocide. Motives for killing included a perceived lack of loyalty among some Assyrian communities to the Ottoman Empire and

6624-448: The 1940s, due to the support which it received from Nazi Germany , which sought to use Pan-Turkism as leverage in order to undermine Russian influence in an effort to acquire the resources of Central Asia during the course of World War II . The development of pan-Turkist and anti-Soviet ideology, in some circles, was influenced by Nazi propaganda during this period. Some sources claim that Nihal Atsız advocated Nazi doctrines and adopted

6762-525: The Armenians were a wandering tribe without a home, who never had a state of their own, is of course entirely without any foundation in fact. The logical consequence of the commonly expressed view of the Armenians is that they have no place in Turkey, and they never did. The result would be the same if the viewpoint were expressed first, and the history were written to order. In a sense, something like this seems to have happened, for most Turks who grew up under

6900-597: The Azerbaijani press, the question of Iranian Azeris was covered more than any other topic by state-controlled and independent outlets in the young republic of Azerbaijan. Since 1918, political elites with Pan-Turkist-oriented sentiments in the area that comprises the present-day Azerbaijan Republic have depended on the concept of ethnic nationalism in order to create an anti-Iranian sense of ethnicity amongst Iranian Azeris. Iranian Azerbaijani intellectuals who have promoted Iranian cultural and national identity and put forth

7038-633: The Balkans, started implementing policies, beginning in 1897, which brought on the last stages of the Balkanization process. By 1903, there were discussions on establishing administrative control by Russian and Austrian advisory boards in the Macedonian provinces. Abdul Hamid was forced to accept this reform package , although for quite a while he was able to subvert its implementation. However, eventually, signs were showing that this policy game

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7176-556: The CUP "government of the Ottoman Empire began a systematic genocide of its Armenian citizens and unarmed Christian minority population. More than a million Armenians were exterminated through direct killing, starvation, torture, and forced death marches." The genocide of Assyrian civilians began during the Ottoman occupation of Azerbaijan from January to May 1915, during which massacres were committed by Ottoman forces and pro-Ottoman Kurds . Previously, many Assyrians were killed in

7314-654: The CUP ruled the Empire in a dictatorship, which brought the Empire into World War I in October 1914. The genocides of 1915 to 1917 against Ottoman Christians were masterminded within the CUP, principally by Enver Pasha , Talat Pasha , Bahaeddin Şakir , and others. The term Young Turk is now used to characterize an insurgent trying to take control of a situation or of an organization by force or political maneuver, and various groups in different countries have been designated "Young Turks" because of their rebellious or revolutionary nature. The term "Young Turks" comes from

7452-695: The CUP, through highly secret diplomatic negotiations, led the Ottoman Empire to ally itself with Germany. The conflicts at the Caucasus Campaign , the Persian Campaign , and the Gallipoli Campaign affected places where Armenians lived in significant numbers. Before the declaration of war at the Armenian congress at Erzurum , Unionist emissaries asked Ottoman Armenians to facilitate the conquest of Transcaucasia by inciting

7590-504: The Committee of Union and Progress in 1908. He died on 25 October 1924 in Istanbul , where he went to rest after a short illness in 1924. Gökalp's work, in the context of the decline of the Ottoman Empire , was instrumental in the development of Turkish national identity, which he himself referred to even then as Turkishness . He believed that a nation must have a "shared consciousness" in order to survive, that "the individual becomes

7728-400: The Empire soon collapsed. A guiding principle for the Young Turks was the transformation of their society into one in which religion played no consequential role, a stark contrast from the theocracy that had ruled the Ottoman Empire since its inception. However, the Young Turks soon recognized the difficulty of spreading this idea among the deeply religious Ottoman peasantry and even much of

7866-742: The Empire's problems such as separatism from non-Muslim minorities such as the Armenians , alienating himself from the CUP. The First Congress of Ottoman Opposition was held on 4 February 1902, at the house of Germain Antoin Lefevre-Pontalis a member of the Institut de France . The opposition was performed in compliance with the French government. Closed to the public, there were 47 delegates present. It included Rıza's Unionists, Sabahaddin's supporters, Armenian Dashnaks and Vergazmiya Hunchaks , and other Greek and Bulgarian groups. It

8004-519: The Freedom and Accord Party against the CUP. Other opposition parties against the CUP like Prince Sabahaddin's Private Enterprise and Decentralization League  [ tr ] and the Arab Ottoman Party for Administrative Decentralization , both of which made opposition to the CUP's centralization their main agenda. The Young Turks wished to modernize the Empire's communications and transportation networks without putting themselves in

8142-597: The French Jeunes Turcs , which international observers tagged various Ottoman reformers of the 19th century. Historian Roderic Davison states that there was not a consistent ideological application of the term; statesmen which wished to resurrect the Janissary corp and derebeys , conservative reformers of Mahmud II , and pro-Western reformers of Abdul Mejid , are all referred to as the party of Jeunes Turcuie by different observers. Davison concludes that

8280-576: The Germans about his plan to establish independent states which would be allies (not satellites ) of Turkey. These states would be formed by the Turkic-speaking populations which lived in Crimea , Azerbaijan , Central Asia , northwestern Iran , and northern Iraq . Nuri Pasha offered to assist Nazi Germany's propaganda efforts on behalf of this cause. However, Turkey's government also feared for

8418-418: The Hamidian era, repeatedly ending in failure. In 1906, the Paris-based CUP fused with the Macedonia-based Ottoman Freedom Society under its own banner. The Macedonian Unionists prevailed against Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution . With this revolution, the Young Turks helped to establish the Second Constitutional Era in the same year, ushering in an era of multi-party democracy for

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8556-412: The Jadid movement disbanded. After they joined the Wäisi movement , the Jadids advocated national liberation. After 1907, many supporters of Turkic unity immigrated to the Ottoman Empire. The newspaper Türk in Cairo was published by exiles from the Ottoman Empire after the suspension of the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and the persecution of liberal intellectuals. It was the first publication to use

8694-726: The Middle East in the Neolithic . The Hittites , Sumerians , Babylonians , and ancient Egyptians are here classified as being of Turkic origin. The Kurgan cultures of the early Bronze Age up to more recent times are also typically ascribed to Turkic peoples by pan-Turkic pseudoscholars, such as Ismail Miziev . Non-Turkic peoples typically classified as Turkic, Turkish, Proto-Turkish or Turanian include Huns , Scythians , Sakas , Cimmerians , Medes , Parthians , Pannonian Avars , Caucasian Albanians , and various ethnic minorities in Turkic countries, such as Kurds . Adzhi also considers Alans , Goths , Burgundians , Saxons , Alemanni , Angles , Lombards , and many Russians as Turks. Only

8832-402: The Republic were educated to believe in the ultimate priority of Turks in all parts of history, and ignore the Armenians all together; they had been clearly consigned to oblivion." Kâzım Karabekir said The aim of all Turks is to unite with the Turkic borders. History is affording us today the last opportunity. In order for the Islamic world not to be forever fragmented it is necessary that

8970-418: The Republican rule. […] They have hitherto lived on plunder, robbery and bribery and become inimical to any idea, or suggestion to enlist in useful labor and earn their living by the honest sweat of their brow… Under the cloak of the [Progressive Republican Party] opposition party, this element, who forced our country into the Great War against the will of the people, who caused the shedding of rivers of blood of

9108-411: The Tanzimat with ethnically non-Turkish members participating at the outset, the Young Turks embraced the official state ideology: Ottomanism . However, Ottoman patriotism failed to strike root during the First Constitutional Era and the following years. Many ethnically non-Turkish Ottoman intellectuals rejected the idea because of its exclusive use of Turkish symbols. Turkish nationalists gradually gained

9246-419: The Turco-Tatar and Caucasian regions of the USSR who had previously been prisoners of war of the Germans joined them and fought against the Soviets, the members of these Tatar military units generally fought as guerrillas in the hope that they would be able to secure the independence of their homelands and establish a pan-Turkic union. The units, which were reinforced, numbered several hundred thousand. Turkey took

9384-436: The Turkish government's archives which date back to the World War II years have not been declassified, the level of contact can be ascertained from German archives. A ten-year Turco-German treaty of friendship was signed in Ankara on 18 January 1941. Official and semi-official meetings between German ambassador Franz von Papen and other German officials and Turkish officials, including General H. E. Erkilet (of Tatar origin and

9522-480: The Turkish youth to satisfy the criminal ambition of Enver Pasha, has, in a cowardly fashion, intrigued against my life, as well as the lives of the members of my cabinet. Historian Uğur Ümit Üngör , in his book The Making of Modern Turkey : Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia , has claimed that the "Republican People's Party, which was founded by Mustafa Kemal, was the successor of CUP and continued ethnic cleansing policies of its predecessor in Eastern Anatolia until

9660-445: The Turks would return to their ancestral ethnic norms. By Islamization, they declare their loyalty to their religion, Islam. Moreover, the author argues that their nationality and their religion would not prevent the Turks to be a part of the Western civilization ." Alp Eren Topal, a scholar from Bilkent University , while trying to showcase the originality of Gökalp, and not as someone who only "repeated" European ideas, also talks of

9798-451: The USSR. The most widespread accusation used in the repression of educated Tatars and other Turkic peoples during the 1930s was that of pan-Turkism. Pan-Turkists like Reha Oğuz Türkkan have openly claimed that pre-Columbian civilizations were Turkic civilizations and they have also claimed that modern-day Native Americans are Turkic peoples, and activities which Turkish lobbying groups have conducted in order to draw Native Americans into

9936-483: The Young Turks remained in the CUP. The groups' power struggle continued until 1913, after the CUP took over following Mahmud Shevket Pasha 's assassination. They brought the Ottoman Empire into World War I on the side of the Central Powers during the war. During the parliamentary recess of this era, the Young Turks held their first open congress at Salonica, on September–October 1911. There, they proclaimed

10074-574: The belief that current Armenia was ruled by Turkic tribes and states from the Late Middle Ages to the Treaty of Turkmenchay which was signed after the 1826–1828 Russo-Persian War . The concept has been sanctioned by the government of Azerbaijan and its current president, Ilham Aliyev , who has said that Armenia is part of ancient Turkic, Azerbaijani land. Turkish and Azerbaijani historians have said that Armenians are alien, not indigenous, in

10212-611: The campaign against Karabagh be not allowed to abate. As a matter of fact drive the point home in Azeri circles that the campaign should be pursued with greater determination and severity. Western Azerbaijan is a term used in the Republic of Azerbaijan to refer to Armenia . According to the Whole Azerbaijan theory, modern Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh were once inhabited by the Azerbaijanis . Its claims are based on

10350-608: The cultivation of a national identity; a pan-Turkish empire would abandon the Balkans and Eastern Europe in favor of Central Asia . The first publication of "Three Types of Policy" had a negative reaction, but it became more influential by its third publication in 1911 in Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire had lost its African territory to the Kingdom of Italy and it would soon lose the Balkans. Pan-Turkish nationalism consequently became

10488-449: The day when their "brothers" from the "north" would come and liberate them. Works that belonged to this genre, as the historian and political scientist Zaur Gasimov explains, "were examples of blatant Azerbaijani nationalism stigmatizing the “division” of the nation along the river Araxes, as well as denunciations of economic and cultural exploitation of Iranian Azerbaijanis, etc." Gasimov adds: "an important by-product of this literary genre

10626-612: The desire to appropriate their land. At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference , the Assyro-Chaldean delegation said that its losses were 250,000 (about half the prewar population); they later revised their estimate to 275,000 dead at the Lausanne Conference of 1922–1923 . At the end of the War, with the collapse of Bulgaria and Germany's capitulation , Talaat Pasha and the CUP ministry resigned on October 13, 1918, and

10764-443: The development of the modern Turkish state, have made for a controversial legacy. Many historians and sociologists have suggested that his brand of nationalism contributed to the Armenian genocide . His conception of nation was of a "social solidarity" that necessitated "cultural unity". "Geographic nationalism", in which everyone living under one political system was a part of the nation, was unacceptable to Gökalp, who conceived of

10902-594: The displaced died of exposure, hunger, and disease, or were victims of banditry and forced labor. Early on, the Dashnaks had perceived the CUP as allies; the 1909 Adana massacre had been rooted in reactionary backlash against the revolution. But during World War I, the CUP's increasing nationalism began to lead them to participate in genocide. In 2005, the International Association of Genocide Scholars affirmed that scholarly evidence revealed

11040-465: The elite. The Young Turks thus began suggesting that Islam itself was materialistic. As compared with later efforts by Muslim intellectuals, such as the attempt to reconcile Islam and socialism, this was an extremely difficult endeavor. Although some former members of the CUP continued to make efforts in this field after the revolution of 1908, they were severely denounced by the ulema , who accused them of "trying to change Islam into another form and create

11178-482: The eponymous 1902 congress, was founded by Prince Sabahaddin and Ismail Kemal in the name of the majority mandate. However the organization was contentious and a coup plot in 1903 went no where. They later founded the Private Enterprise and Decentralization League , which called for a more decentralized and federalized Ottoman state in opposition to Rıza's centralist vision. After the congress, Rıza formed

11316-499: The ethnic designation as its title. Yusuf Akçura published "Three Types of Policy" ( Üç tarz-ı siyaset ) anonymously in 1904, the earliest manifesto of a pan-Turkic nationalism. Akçura argued that the supra-ethnic union espoused by the Ottomans was unrealistic. The Pan-Islamic model had advantages, but Muslim populations were under colonial rule which would oppose unification. He concluded that an ethnic Turkish nation would require

11454-580: The exact connection between Native Americans and other Turkic peoples remains disputed. The idea has also been discussed in the francophone world, noting that as victors in the First World War, England and France "dismembered the Arab portion" of the Ottoman Empire and shared it amongst themselves, further alienating Turkey. The loss of the Arabian oil fields limited Turkey becoming a petroleum power on

11592-694: The first CUP office in Diyarbakır in July 1908. In September 1909 he moved to Selanik , where he became a member of the CUP Central Committee in 1910. There he cofounded a literary and cultural journal, Genç Kalemler . While residing in Salonika, Talaat Pasha was often a guest in his house, where they delved into political discussions. It was also during his stay in Selanik that he began using

11730-531: The first time in the country's history. However, in the wake of events which proved disastrous for the Ottoman Empire as a body-politic (such as the 31 March Incident of April 1909, the 1912 coup , and the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913) the country fell under the domination of a radicalized CUP following the 1913 Raid on the Sublime Porte . With the strength of the constitution and of parliament broken,

11868-461: The founding of nostalgic literary works, known as the "literature of longing"; examples amongst this genre are, for instance, Foggy Tabriz by Mammed Said Ordubadi , and The Coming Day by Mirza Ibrahimov . As a rule, works belonging to the "literature of longing" genre were characterized by depicting the life of Iranian Azeris as a misery due to suppression by the "Fars" (Persians), and by narrating fictional stories about Iranian Azeris waiting for

12006-415: The genius of the nation". For popularizing pan-Turkism and Turanism , Gökalp has been viewed alternately as being racist and expansionist, and anti-racist and anti-expansionist. These opposite readings of his legacy are not easily divisible into proponents and detractors, as nationalist elements in Turkey (such as the " Nationalist Movement Party ") have appropriated his work to contend that he supported

12144-539: The group a couple years later. The Belgian parliament denounced the decision and held a demonstration supporting the Young Turks against Hamidian tyranny. A congress in December 1896 saw Murat elected as chairman over Rıza and the headquarters moved to Geneva, sparking a schism between Rıza's supporters in Paris and Murat's supporters in Geneva. After the Ottoman Empire's triumph over Greece in 1897 Sultan Abdul Hamid used

12282-523: The group was of an ethnically diverse background; in addition to Turks, Albanian, Aromenian , Arab, Armenian, Azeri, Circassian, Greek, Kurdish, and Jewish members were plentiful. Besides membership in outlawed political committees, other avenues of opposition existed in the ulama , Sufi lodges , and masonic lodges . By and large, Young Turks favored taking power away from Yıldız Palace in favour of constitutional governance. Many coup d'état attempts associated with Young Turk networks occurred during

12420-519: The hands of European bankers. Europeans already owned much of the country's railroad system, and since 1881, the administration of the defaulted Ottoman foreign debt had been in European hands. During the World War I, the empire under the CUP was "virtually an economic colony on the verge of total collapse." Regarding nationalism , the Young Turks underwent a gradual transformation. Beginning with

12558-678: The idea of giving up absolute power, Abdul Hamid was forced on July 24, 1908, to restore the constitution, beginning the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. After the revolution, the Young Turks formalized their differences in ideology by forming political clubs. Two main parties formed: more liberal and pro-decentralization Young Turks formed the Liberty Party and later the Freedom and Accord Party . The Turkish nationalist and pro-centralization wing among

12696-451: The inclusion of Persian and Arabic language, the Quran and mathematics, physics and some European languages in the curriculum. Additionally, he participated in the drafting of the 1924 constitution . Ziya Gökalp was the owner of land which included 5 villages in the northeast of Diyarbakır. Ziya Gökalp was married, and his daughter was named Hürriyet as a reference to the revolution of

12834-441: The latest times" going on to say that the Turkish Republic was "facing efforts hostile to the existence of the Republic" and those who advocate these ideas "will only bring trouble and disaster". Nihal Atsız and other prominent pan-Turkist leaders were tried and sentenced to imprisonment for conspiring against the government. Zeki Velidi Togan was sentenced to ten years imprisonment and four years in internal exile, Reha Oğuz Türkkan

12972-484: The moment meant unity was hard to come by. Ahmet Rıza advocated for a Turkish nationalist and secularist agenda. Even though he denounced revolution, he had a more conservative and Islamist rival in Mehmet Murat Bey of Mizan fame. Rıza also had to deal with the " Activist " faction of the CUP that did push for a revolution. Other CUP branches often acted autonomously with their own ideological currents, to

13110-599: The much-neglected influence of Sufism on the thinker: being "a big influence throughout his education and growth", he lauded its "military" lexicon and came to admire the solidarity found in the Sufi orders , "particularly the Naqshbandiyya ", which not only had spiritual influence, but also a role in the modernization of the Ottoman Empire, while he also appreciated the metaphysics of medieval Andalusian thinker Ibn 'Arabi , saying that his idealism , as system of thought,

13248-603: The opposition to Sultan Abdul Hamid II which surfaced after 1889, the Committee of Union and Progress being its standard bearer. Inspired by the Young Italy political movement, the Young Turks had their origins in secret societies of "progressive medical university students and military cadets," namely the Young Ottomans , driven underground along with all political dissent after the Constitution of 1876

13386-661: The pan-Turkist ideology as racist and chauvinistic . Clive Foss, professor of ancient history at the University of Massachusetts Boston , critically notes that in 1982: The Armenian File in the Light of History , Cemal Anadol writes that the Iranian Scythians and Parthians are Turks. According to Anadol, the Armenians welcomed the Turks into the region; their language is a mixture with no roots and their alphabet

13524-628: The penname Gökalp and his future role within the CUP was to be determined. In 1912, he moved back to Constantinople, as did the CUP. Gökalp was one of the regular contributors of the political magazine İslam Mecmuası from 1914 to 1918 and the military journal Harp Mecmuası between 1915 and 1918. After World War I , he was arrested for his involvement in the Committee of Union and Progress and exiled to Malta for two years between 1919 and 1921. While exiled on Malta, he continued to write and consolidate his ideas and drafted his Principles of Turkism , published in 1923. He returned to Turkey in

13662-465: The point where the committee resembled more of an umbrella organization. Meşveret (Rıza) called for the reinstatement of the constitution but without revolution, as well as a more centralized Turkish-dominated Ottoman Empire sovereign of European influence . The CUP supported Kâmil Pasha 's call for responsible government to return to the Sublime Porte during the diplomatic crisis caused by

13800-482: The political landscape of the Republic of Turkey , which emerged from the ruins of the Ottoman Empire around the time of his death. His influence resonated in diverse ways. For instance, his Principles of Turkism had contended that Ottoman classical music was Byzantine in origin; this led to the state briefly banning Ottoman classical music from the radio in the 1930s, because Turkish folk music alone "represented

13938-628: The preeminent faction of the Young Turks once as absorbed other opposition groups and established contact with exiled intelligentsia, Freemasons, and cabinet ministers, to the point where European observers started calling them the "Young Turk Party". The society attempted several coup attempts against the government, much to the anti-revolutionary in Rıza's chagrin. Due to the danger in speaking out against absolutism, Young Turk activity shifted abroad. Turkish colonies were established in Paris, London, Geneva, Bucharest, and Cairo. The several ideological currents in

14076-409: The prestige he gained from the victory to coax the exiled Young Turks network back into his fold. After expelling Rıza from the CUP, Murat defected to the government, including Cevdet and Sükuti . A wave of extraditions, more amnesties, and buy-outs, weakened an opposition organization already operating in exile. With trials organized in 1897 and 1899 against enemies of Abdul Hamid II, the Ottoman Empire

14214-478: The pretext of creating connectivity in the region", arguing that "this corridor is not compatible with any of the present geopolitical and historical realities of the region". In Tsarist Russian circles , pan-Turkism was considered a political, irredentist and aggressive idea. Turkic peoples in Russia were threatened by Turkish expansion, and I. Gasprinsky and his followers were accused of being Turkish spies. After

14352-542: The promotion of these theories have "taken on large-scale proportions" in countries such as Turkey and Azerbaijan . Often associated with Greek , Assyrian and Armenian genocide denial , pan-Turkic pseudoscience has received extensive state and state-backed non-governmental support, and is taught all the way from elementary school to the highest level of universities in such countries. Turkish and Azerbaijani students are imbued with textbooks which make "absurdly inflated" claims which state that all Eurasian nomads , including

14490-449: The proto-Turks. The Sumerians and Scythians come immediately to mind. — Orhan Türkdoğan - Professor of Sociology at Gebze Technical University Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as Pseudo-Turkology . Though dismissed in serious scholarship, scholars promoting such theories, often known as Pseudo-Turkologists, have in recent times emerged among every Turkic nationality. A leading light among them

14628-588: The revolutionary underground in this period, abandoned his veterinary studies, and became a member of the underground revolutionary group, the Society of Union and Progress (CUP). The revolutionary currents of Constantinople at the time were extremely varied; the unpopularity of the Abdul Hamid II regime had by this time awakened diverse revolutionary sentiment in Constantinople. He inaugurated

14766-506: The service of the wider Turkic world agenda have drawn criticism and triggered accusations that the Turkish government is falsifying the history of Native Americans in the service of Turkish imperialist ambitions. According to an article by Polat Kaya which was published by the Turkish Cultural Foundation , the exact origins of Native Americans remain unclear and while they are widely believed to have migrated from Asia,

14904-489: The sociological view of Émile Durkheim , Gökalp rejected both the Ottomanism and Islamism in favor of Turkish nationalism . He advocated a Turkification of the Ottoman Empire, by promoting Turkish language and culture to all Ottoman citizenry. He found Greeks , Armenians and Jews to be a foreign body in the national Turkish state. His thought, which popularized Pan-Turkism and Turanism, has been described as

15042-472: The spring of 1921, but was not given back his chair at the University of Istanbul. He settled in his hometown of Diyarbakır where he taught sociology and psychology at a secondary school and teacher's seminary. He began publishing a small weekly newsletter, Küçük Mecmua , which slowly became influential and led to contributions in the major daily newspapers of Istanbul and Ankara. At the end of 1922, Gökalp

15180-465: The summer of 1917, Armenians were moved to the Konya region in central Anatolia. Through these measures, the CUP leaders aimed to eliminate the ostensible Armenian threat by deporting them from their ancestral lands and by dispersing them in small pockets of exiled communities. By the end of World War I, up to 1,200,000 Armenians were forcibly deported from their home vilayets . As a result, about half of

15318-827: The survival of the Turkic minorities in the USSR and it told von Papen that it could not join Germany until the USSR was crushed. The Turkish government may have been apprehensive about Soviet might, which kept the country out of the war. On a less-official level, Turkic emigrants from the Soviet Union played a crucial role in negotiations and contacts between Turkey and Germany; among them were prominent pan-Turkic activists like Zeki Velidi Togan , Mammed Amin Rasulzade , Mirza Bala, Ahmet Caferoĝlu, Sayid Shamil and Ayaz İshaki . Several Tatar military units which consisted of Turkic speakers from

15456-627: The umbrella of the CUP. In reality, the leadership of the OFS would exert significant control over the CUP. Finally, in 1908 in the Young Turk Revolution , pro-CUP officers marched on Istanbul, forcing Abdulhamid to restore the constitution. An attempted countercoup resulted in his deposition. In 1908, the Macedonian Question was facing the Ottoman Empire . Tsar Nicholas II and Franz Joseph , who were both interested in

15594-409: The upper hand in politics, and following the 1902 Congress, a stronger focus on nationalism developed. It was at this time that Ahmed Rıza chose to replace the term "Ottoman" with "Turk," shifting the focus from Ottoman nationalism to Turkish nationalism . Among the prominent leaders and ideologists were: In the aftermath of an assassination attempt by remaining Unionists, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ,

15732-458: The world stage; called "le panturquisme" in French, authors argue that it arose as a way of reclaiming some of the lost glory after the Ottoman defeat in the war and the loss of prestige in the region. There is no such thing as the Kurdish people or nation. They are merely carriers of Turkish culture and habits. The imagined region proposed as the new Kurdistan is the region that was settled by

15870-460: The year 1950. Thus, Turkey was transformed into an ethnically homogenous state." As to the fate of the Three Pashas , two of them, Talaat Pasha and Cemal Pasha , were assassinated by Armenian nationals shortly after the end of World War I while in exile in Europe during Operation Nemesis , a revenge operation against perpetrators of the Armenian genocide. Soghomon Tehlirian , whose family

16008-422: Was a Turkish sociologist , writer, poet, and politician. After the 1908 Young Turk Revolution that reinstated constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire , he adopted the pen name Gökalp ("celestial hero"), which he retained for the rest of his life. As a sociologist, Ziya Gökalp was influential in the negation of Islamism , pan-Islamism , and Ottomanism as ideological, cultural, and sociological identifiers. In

16146-824: Was abolished and the First Constitutional Era brought to a close by Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1878 after only two years. The Young Turks favored a reinstatement of the Ottoman Parliament and the 1876 constitution, written by the reformist Midhat Pasha . Despite working with the Young Ottomans to promulgate a constitution, Abdul Hamid II dissolved the parliament by 1878 and returned to an absolutist regime, marked by extensive use of secret police to silence dissent, and massacres against minorities . Constitutionalist opponents of his regime, came to be known as Young Turks. The Young Turks were

16284-411: Was also a prolific poet. His poetic work served to complement and popularize his sociological and nationalist views. In style and content, it revived a sense of pre- Islamic Turkish identity. The protagonist in his Kızılelma , the "ideal woman", suggests: "The people is like a garden, / we are supposed to be its gardeners! / First the bad shoots are to be cut / and then the scion is to be grafted." She

16422-458: Was an atheist. Diyarbakır was a "cultural frontier", having been ruled by Arabs and Persians until the 16th century, and featuring "conflicting national traditions" among the local populations of Turks, Kurds , and Armenians . This cultural environment has often been suggested to have informed his sense of national identity; later in his life, when political detractors suggested that he was of Kurdish extraction, Gökalp responded that while he

16560-465: Was an integral part of the Turkish identity, nor Western modernity, which he deemed necessary for Turks to compete with other major geopolitical powers, ultimately for Gökalp Turkification, Islamization and Westernization were all legitimate inter-connected phenomenons as "these three components of the Turkish nation were both complementary and distinct from each other", as Ahmet Seyhun writes before summarizing Gökalp's position: "By Turkifying their culture,

16698-685: Was certain of patrilineal Turkish racial heritage, this was insignificant: "I learned through my sociological studies that nationality is based solely on upbringing." Gökalp attempted suicide in early 1895 after an existential crisis caused by his discovery of materialism. Cevdet, who was a doctor, rescued him, which he would lament later as Gökalp became a Turkist ideologue. After attending primary and secondary education in Diyarbakır, he settled in Istanbul, in 1895. There, he attended veterinary school and became involved in underground revolutionary nationalist politics for which he served ten months in prison. He developed relationships with many figures of

16836-571: Was cherished, promoted and institutionalized in formal history books of the educational system of the Azerbaijan SSR and the post-Soviet Azerbaijan Republic . As the Soviet Union was a closed society, and its people were unaware of the actual realities regarding Iran and its Azeri citizens, the elites in Soviet Azerbaijan kept cherishing and promoting the idea of a "united Azerbaijan" in their activities. This romantic thought led to

16974-522: Was coming to an end. On May 13, 1908, the leadership of the CUP, with the newly gained power of its organization, was able to communicate to Sultan Abdul Hamid II the unveiled threat that "the [Ottoman] dynasty would be in danger" if he were not to bring back the Ottoman constitution that he had previously suspended since 1878. By June, Unionist officers of the Third Army mutinied and threatened to march on Constantinople. Although initially resistant to

17112-503: Was defined by the question of whether to invite foreign intervention for regime change in Constantinople to better minority rights; a majority which included Sabahaddin and his followers as well as the Armenians argued for foreign intervention, a minority which included Rıza's Unionists and the Activist Unionists were against violent change and especially foreign intervention. The Ottoman Freedom Lover's Committee, named after

17250-622: Was first published in Genç Kalemler and served to complement his Turanist intellectual output: "For the Turks, Fatherland means neither Turkey, nor Turkestan ; Fatherland is a large and eternal country-- Turan !" During the First World War, his Kızıl Destan ("Red Epic") called for destroying Russia in the interest of pan-Turkism. Ziya Gökalp has been characterized as "the father of Turkish nationalism", and even "the Grand Master of Turkism". His thought figured prominently in

17388-571: Was founded in 1843 in Kazan . Its aim was the implementation of a semi-secular modernization program and the implementation of an educational reform program, both programs would emphasize the national (rather than the religious) identity of the Turks. Before they founded their movement in 1843, the Jadids considered themselves Muslim subjects of the Russian Empire , a belief which they held until

17526-698: Was held within the CUP's Central Committee . On November 2, 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers. The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I became the scene of action. The combatants were the Ottoman Empire, with some assistance from the other Central Powers, against primarily the British and the Russians among the Allies . Rebuffed elsewhere by the major European powers,

17664-505: Was interested in differentiating Avrupalılık ("Europeanism", the mimicking of Western societies) and Modernlik ("Modernity", taking initiative); he was interested in Japan as a model in this, for what he perceived to be its having modernized without abandoning its innate cultural identity. Gökalp suggested that to subordinate "culture" (non-utilitarianism, altruism, public-spiritedness) to "civilization" (utilitarianism, egoism, individualism)

17802-615: Was invited to direct the department of publication and translation at the Ministry of Education . He was selected to serve as a member of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey until his death in 1924, and he served on the Committee for Education which reformed the school system, curriculum and textbooks according to his guidance. He emphasized that the education provided should include Turkism , Modernism and Islamism . Besides Turkish culture and language, he advocated for

17940-700: Was killed in the Armenian genocide, assassinated the exiled Talaat Pasha in Berlin and was subsequently acquitted on all charges by a German jury. Cemal Pasha was similarly killed by Stepan Dzaghikian , Bedros Der Boghosian , and Ardashes Kevorkian for " crimes against humanity " in Tbilisi , Georgia. Enver Pasha, was killed in fighting against the Red Army unit under the command of Hakob Melkumian near Baldzhuan in Tajikistan (then Turkistan). The following

18078-416: Was profoundly influenced by Gökalp. It is claimed that Mustafa Kemal Atatürk once said "Father of my meat and bones is Ali Riza Efendi and father of my thought is Ziya Gökalp". Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was put in jail for having recited a poem by Gökalp in 1997, the poem being considered to be "Islamist" in nature and thus threatening the country's secularism. Gökalp's opinion of the Armenian genocide

18216-551: Was sentenced to five years and ten months in prison and two years in exile, Nihal Atsız was sentenced to six years, six months and 15 days in prison and 3 years in exile. Others were sentenced to prison terms which only ranged from a few months to four years in length. But the defendants appealed the convictions and in October 1945, the sentences of all the convicted were abolished by the Military Court of Cassation. While Erkilet discussed military contingencies, Nuri Pasha told

18354-537: Was strongly articulated anti-Iranian rhetoric. Tolerance and even support of this anti-Iranian rhetoric by the communist authorities were obvious." Nationalist political elites in post-Soviet Azerbaijan, being the inheritors of this mentality created during the Soviet rule, forwarded this "mission" for achieving a "united Azerbaijan" as a political goal of utmost importance. Azerbaijani president Abulfaz Elchibey (1992–93) devoted his life to carrying out this mission, and he, in tandem with other pan-Turkist elites, went on

18492-548: Was superior to that of George Berkeley or Immanuel Kant – who, he says, recycled ideas already known to Ibn 'Arabi, but without taking them too far –, and, far from being " Gnosticism - mysticism or pantheism ", his ideas were pretty contemporary, resonating with those of moderns like Alfred Fouillée , Jean-Marie Guyau , Nietzsche , and William James , concluding that "in all its progression idealist philosophy has not surpassed 'Arabî’s absolute and perfect idealism". In addition to his sociological and political career, Gökalp

18630-502: Was that "there was no Armenian massacre, there was a Turkish-Armenian arrangement. They stabbed us in the back, we stabbed them back". This view was widely held among the Young Turks . The house where he was born has been converted into the Ziya Gökalp Museum in 1956. Young Turks The Young Turks ( Ottoman Turkish : ژون تركلر , romanized :  Jön Türkler , also كنج تركلر Genç Türkler ) formed as

18768-515: Was the second son of the family. He, specifically his maternal family, was of Kurdish origin by some sources. Ziya described his paternal family as Syrian Turkmen . His father was an Ottoman bureaucrat and responsible for publishing the Salname of Diyarbakır. He had a close relationship with his uncle, who would have liked to have seen Ziya marry his daughter. His uncle was religious and opposed Ziya's interactions with Abdullah Cevdet , who

18906-415: Was to doom a state to decline: "civilization destroyed societal solidarity and morality". Informed by his reading of Émile Durkheim , Gökalp concluded that Western liberalism, as a social system, was inferior to solidarism , because liberalism encouraged individualism, which in turn diminished the integrity of the state. Durkheim, whose work Gökalp himself translated into Turkish , perceived religion as

19044-469: Was under his secure control. Though moral was low, Ahmet Rıza, who returned to Paris, was the sole leader of the exiled Young Turks network. In 1899, members of the Ottoman dynasty Damat Mahmud Pasha and his sons Sabahaddin and Lütfullah fled to Europe to join the Young Turks. However, Prince Sabahaddin believed that embracing the Anglo-Saxon values of capitalism and liberalism would alleviate

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