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105-733: Burma has been called an anthropologist's paradise. Various groups of people migrated south into the Irrawaddy – Chindwin , Sittang and Salween valleys from the China – Tibet region in the latter part of the first millennium, the Mon followed by the Tibeto-Burman and Tai -Shan races. The main groups were the Mon, Bamar , Shan and Rakhine , establishing their own kingdoms, and the first three groups vying for supremacy. The Bamar under Anawrahta in

210-654: A Bamar-dominant nation state approximately within its current boundaries. Although the Arakan and Monlands were under Bamar administration, the Shanlands and the Trans-Salween states of the Karen and Karenni were never under direct control but only under Burmese suzerainty. The British fought three wars with Burma in 1824, 1852 and 1885, culminating in the loss of Burmese sovereignty and independence. They established

315-768: A Buddhist Kachin whose father was killed in the fight against British annexation at the turn of the century, and who himself raised Kachin levies and fought with the Burma National Army (BNA) in World War II, also the Chin leader Vamthu Mawng, and the Sawbwa of the Pa-O substate of Hsihseng (Hsahtung or Thaton) Sao Khun Kyi. In November 1946, a Supreme Council of the United Hills Peoples was formed at

420-818: A Karen who was later removed and replaced by Ne Win on January 31, 1949. They soon outnumbered the Karen Rifles and Union Military Police (UMP), and were subsequently used against the Karen National Defence Organisation (KNDO), a paramilitary force formed in July 1947 by the Karen National Union (KNU), and the Karen UMP units. History repeated itself when the KNU was judged to be a separatist movement as an 'imperialist plot' at

525-743: A colonial administration 'at least possible cost' according to Lord Dufferin . A distinction between the hills and the plains also developed that evolved during the arduous annexation process and became formalised into Ministerial Burma, formerly Burma Proper, and the Frontier Areas. During the annexation process there was armed resistance not just from the Bamar but from the Shan, Chin and Kachin. The Shan and Karreni Saophas or Sawbwa s, and Kachin Duwa s were left to continue their feudatory rule in their areas;

630-474: A considerable amount of passenger and goods traffic moves by river. As the Irrawaddy Delta is one of the world's major rice-growing areas, one of the most important goods transported is rice. Teak logs – Myanmar is one of the world's top exporters – are floated down the river as large rafts. Before it is transported, teak has to be seasoned, because otherwise it won't float. This happens by girdling ,

735-619: A major mud wedge with a distal depocenter, up to 60 m in thickness, has been deposited seaward in the Gulf of Martaban, extending to ~130 m water depth into the Martaban Depression. Further, 2) There is no evidence showing that modern sediment has accumulated or is transported into the Martaban Canyon; 3) There is a mud drape/blanket wrapping around the narrow western Myanmar Shelf in the eastern Bay of Bengal. The thickness of

840-732: A narrow valley between forest-covered mountain ranges—the ridge of the Arakan Mountains to the west and that of the Pegu Yoma Mountains to the east. The delta of the Irrawaddy begins about 93 kilometres (58 mi) above Hinthada (Henzada) and about 290 kilometres (180 mi) from its curved base, which faces the Andaman Sea. The westernmost distributary of the delta is the Pathein (Bassein) River, while

945-416: A practice where a deep circular cut through bark and sapwood is made into the heartwood. Other major goods that are transported from the nation's heartlands to Yangon for export are other foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton, and local commodities. Commercial transportation on the Irrawaddy is maintained for about 1,300 kilometres (810 mi): from Hinthada to Bhamo (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) throughout

1050-535: A rebellion also in the 1960s. The Kayan insurgency in the Shan substate of Mong Pai was triggered by the first 'demonetization' declaring the 100 and 50 kyat notes illegal in 1964 which wiped out the savings of hill farmers as well as the rest of the country. The Shan rebellion was partially caused by the CIA who armed them in cooperation with the Chinese Kuomintang forces that fought with General Stilwell in

1155-597: A special division. The Mon and Rakhine again were not even considered separately. One Mon group contested unsuccessfully at the elections which they claimed were rigged, but another boycotted; the Mon after independence threw in their lot with the Karen and joined the rebellion. The Regional Autonomy Enquiry Commission in October 1948, though now expanded to include six Karens, six Mons, five Arakanese, seven Burmans and four others, did not report until February 1949, by which time

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1260-612: Is a separate river, tributary to the Yangon . After Rudyard Kipling 's poem, the river is sometimes referred to as ' The Road to Mandalay '. The Irrawaddy River bisects Myanmar from north to south and empties through the nine-armed Irrawaddy Delta into the Indian Ocean. The Irrawaddy River arises by the confluence of the N'mai (Nam Gio) and Mali Rivers in Kachin State . Both the N'mai and Mali Rivers find their sources in

1365-632: Is derived from Pali . Irāvatī or Airāvatī ( Erāvatī in Pali) is the name of the elephant mount of Sakka and Indra in Hinduism. Saka is an important deva in Buddhism and elephants were often a symbol for water and were used as the name for several other rivers, such as the Achiravati . It can also be based on Iravati , who birthed the mythological elephant. The Irrawaddy gives its name to

1470-600: Is involved, Kansai Electric Power Company . Due to its location and size, construction of the Myitsone Dam has raised significant ecological and sociological concerns. According to the Irrawaddy Myitsone Dam Multipurpose Water Utilizing Project study, the maximum water level of the reservoir will be 290 metres. This makes for a flood zone of 766 km , compromising 47 villages. Other consequences of

1575-465: Is made up of fanlike marshes with oxbow lakes , islands, and meandering streams . Birds of the delta are both winter visitors and passage migrants including great cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo ), a wide variety of Anatidae , Eurasian coot ( Fulica atra ), about thirty species of migratory shorebirds , the whiskered tern ( Chlidonias hybrida ), the Caspian tern ( Hydroprogne caspia ), and

1680-460: Is no longer under construction at the convergence of these rivers. The town of Bhamo , about 240 kilometres (150 mi) south of the Mali and N'mai river confluence, is the northernmost city reachable by boat all year round although during the monsoons most of the river cannot be used by boats. The city of Myitkyina lies 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of the confluence and can be reached during

1785-746: Is one of the Kachin Baptist Convention (KBC) churches in Myitkyina. Japanese forces captured the town and nearby airbase during World War II in 1942. In August 1944, Myitkyina was recaptured by the Allied forces under General Joseph Stilwell after a prolonged siege and heavy fighting between Nationalist Chinese divisions, the Chindits , and Merrill's Marauders of the Northern Combat Area Command and

1890-637: Is the capital city of Kachin State in Myanmar (Burma), located 1,480 kilometers (920 mi) from Yangon , and 785 kilometers (488 mi) from Mandalay [1] . In Burmese it means "near the big river", and Myitkyina is on the west bank of the Ayeyarwady River , just below 40 kilometers (25 mi) from Myit-son (Burmese for confluence ) of its two headstreams (the Mali and N'mai rivers). It

1995-534: Is the largest river in Myanmar . Originating from the confluence of the N'mai and Mali rivers, it flows from north to south before emptying through the Irrawaddy Delta in the Ayeyarwady Region into the Andaman Sea. Its drainage basin of about 404,000 square kilometres (156,000 sq mi) covers 61% of the land area of Burma , and contains five of its largest cities. As early as

2100-453: Is the most important for plant life, is atmospheric humidity . This is always high, except in the winter in certain localities. Humidity usually does not fall below 75% and is 90% or more for long periods during summer. Another feature is the prevalent southerly summer winds which erode the soil of the basin. The natural habitats of this central zone have been much altered for farming and there are few protected areas. The predominant trees of

2205-672: Is the national language of Myanmar. Foreigners are now free to visit Myitkyina without prior government permission. Major religions are Theravada Buddhism , Christianity (Roman Catholic and Baptist are major denominations), and other religions such as animism and Islam . Myitkyina is the business center of Kachin State, with many natural resources like jade , gold , amber and teak , as well as wood and agricultural products. As per government data, almost US$ 2 billion in jade were exported yearly in 2010 and 2011. Now, due to fighting between Kachin Independence Army rebels and

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2310-480: Is the northernmost river port and railway terminus in Myanmar. The city is served by Myitkyina Airport . Myitkyina has been an important trading town between China and Myanmar since ancient times. American Baptist missionary George J. Geis and his wife arrived in Myitkyina in the late 1890s and in 1900 they requested permission to build a mansion in the town. The building was named Geis Memorial Church . It

2415-770: The Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) gave speeches as the Burman majority representatives, and a message from the British Governor of Burma was read out which reiterated the White Paper policy that no decisions would be made on the Frontier Areas and their peoples without their full consent. The Chin delegates expressed their sense of insecurity stemming from their heavy economic dependence on Burma Proper, hence their weak bargaining position. The Kachins were critical of U Nu's diatribe against

2520-603: The Bay of Bengal and South-East Asia. Along the north–south course of the Irrawaddy River, a number of notably different ecoregions can be distinguished. The streams of the Nmai and Mali that form the Irrawaddy originate in high and remote mountains near the border with Tibet . This part of Myanmar, which extends north from Myitkyina and the Irrawaddy confluence, lies entirely outside the tropics. Rain falls at all seasons of

2625-588: The Buddhist Bamar, Mon, Rakhine, Shan and the plains Karen. Once they had benefited from a Christian education, Karen migration to towns in Lower Burma and the Tenasserim also increased. Burman leaders would blame the ' divide and rule ' policy of Western imperialists and the 'servile streak' in the ethnic minorities who would look up to them; U Nu , the first prime minister of independent Burma,

2730-654: The Burmese Communist rebellion that started in March 1948 centred on their stronghold of Pyinmana . The situation went from bad to worse when U Nu raised the Sitwundan auxiliary troops in order to reduce the government's heavy dependence on ethnic troops, and not least in anticipation of a Karen insurrection. They were put under the command of Maj. Gen. Ne Win and not the Army Chief of Staff Gen. Smith Dun,

2835-648: The Ledo Road , was constructed by the British. The city is home to Myitkyina University, a Christian theological seminary , a college for teachers, a training school for nurses, a college for the study of computers and other rare type of colleges affiliated with several seminaries in the United States and Asia, notably Kachin Theological College and Seminary(KTCS)-Nawng Nang. It is also home to

2940-560: The Sittaung River plain to the east of the delta was described in November 1877 as covering 300 square kilometres (100 sq mi) and containing millions of birds. Immense colonies still bred in the area in 1910, but the birds had disappeared completely by 1939. Small numbers were regularly reported in the delta in the 1940s, but no breeding sites were located. As of 2010 , no pelicans have been recorded, and it may well be that

3045-400: The [1] shows a 38% decrease in discharge compared to where the river enters the delta. it also silted up around 278 tons of sand every year. Variation between high and low water levels is also great. At Mandalay and Prome , a range of 9.66 to 11.37 metres (31.7–37.3 ft) has been measured between low-water level and flood level respectively. Because of the monsoonal character of

3150-477: The basin , the average population density is 79 people/km . For these people, the river supply amounts to 18,614 m per person per year. Collectively, the modern Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) and Thanlwin (Salween) rivers deliver >600 Mt/yr of sediment to the sea. Most recent study shows: 1) There is little modern sediment accumulating on the shelf immediately off the Ayeyarwady River mouths. In contrast,

3255-481: The brown-headed gull ( Larus brunnicephalus ), which is very common. One of the most numerous wintering shorebird is the lesser sand plover ( Charadrius mongolus ), which occurs in flocks of many thousands along the outer coast of the delta. The wood sandpiper ( Tringa glareola ) and red junglefowl ( Gallus gallus ) are also abundant. In the late 19th century, the spot-billed pelican ( Pelecanus philippensis ) nested in huge numbers in south Myanmar. One colony on

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3360-399: The stone loach Malihkaia aligera in 2017), and it is likely that undescribed species remain. Among the most well-known species in the river is the Irrawaddy dolphin ( Orcaella brevirostris ), a euryhaline species of oceanic dolphin with a high and rounded forehead, lacking a beak. It is found in discontinuous sub-populations near sea coasts and in estuaries and rivers in parts of

3465-467: The 'interim Burmese government' in order to achieve independence speedily, and agreeing in principle the formation of a 'Union of Burma'. The British were left in no doubt that Aung San and the Burman dominated AFPFL were able to mediate with the leaders of the hills peoples. Sao Shwe Thaik was appointed Counsellor to the Governor, with Sinwa Nawng and Vumthu Mawng as his deputies. Aung San's assurance on

3570-490: The 11th century, Bayinnaung in the 16th century, and Alaungpaya in the 18th century unified and expanded their kingdoms establishing the first, second and third Burmese Empires respectively, whilst the Shan were ascendent during the 14th and the 15th centuries. The ancient Mon kingdom in the south was finally overwhelmed by the Bamar into submission only in the mid-18th century, and the Arakan annexed subsequently, establishing

3675-466: The Andaman Sea through the Irrawaddy Delta. This ecoregion consists of mangroves and freshwater swamp forests. It is an extremely fertile area because of the river-borne silt deposited in the delta. The upper and central portions of the delta are almost entirely under cultivation , principally for rice. The southern portion of the ecoregion transitions into the Burmese Coast mangroves and

3780-726: The British Governor's disapproval. The Karen Goodwill Mission to London in August 1946 likewise failed to receive any encouragement for their separatist demands from the British government. H. N. C. Stevenson, the director of the FAA, criticised by both the Burma Office and the AFPFL, lamented the lost opportunities, and the lack of economic data or coordination between the Frontier Areas and Ministerial Burma. He stated,"I believe that

3885-473: The British and sceptical of Burman sincerity as regards equal rights. The Karens wanted a separate state that included the Tenasserim seaboard. The one positive outcome was the formation of a United Burma Cultural Society with Sao Shwe Thaik as chairman and U Saw as secretary. Relations later improved between the hill peoples and the AFPFL through contacts such as the Sama Duwa Sinwa Nawng,

3990-591: The British during the Anglo-Burmese Wars , and Karen troops had played a major part in the suppression of rebellions in Lower Burma in 1886 and again in the Saya San rebellion of 1930-32. American , British and other European missionaries had also succeeded in converting the hills peoples to Christianity , the Karen in particular, and also the Kachin and Chin, whereas they made very little headway among

4095-685: The British, and consequently suffered at the hands of the Burma Independence Army (BIA) under Gen. Aung San and the Imperial Japanese Army. Villages were destroyed and massacres committed in their areas, and among the victims were Saw Pe Tha, a pre-war cabinet minister, and his family. In March 1946, the Saophas or Chaofa (Sawbwa in Burmese) of the Shan states sponsored a conference at Panglong in order to discuss

4200-466: The China – India route. By the twelfth century, a well-developed network of canals made for flourishing rice cultivation. Later, the river became a key economic tool of Imperial British interests, who set up trading ports along its shores. Today, the Irrawaddy is still the country's most important commercial waterway. Despite Mandalay's position as the chief rail and highway focus in northern Myanmar,

4305-419: The Himalayan glaciers of Upper Burma near 28° N. The eastern branch of the two, N'mai, is the largest and rises in the Languela Glacier north of Putao . It is unnavigable because of the strong current whereas the smaller western branch, the Mali River, is navigable, despite a few rapids . Therefore, the Mali River is still called by the same name as the main river by locals. The controversial Myitsone Dam

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4410-439: The Indo-Burma and South Central China biodiversity hotspots . The Mali and N'mai River confluence region falls within the Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rainforests , added to the WWF list of outstanding examples of biodiverse regions. The location of the Myitsone Dam, located less than 100 km from a fault line where the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates meet, raised concerns about its earthquake resistance. Earthquakes in

4515-512: The Irrawaddy dolphin ( Orcaella brevirostris ), which is found in the lower reaches of the river and known to help fishers who practice cast-net fishing . Though called the Irrawaddy dolphin, it has been also found in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean . During the Age of Discovery , the Irrawaddy was also known to European explorers as the Pegu as the main river of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom , itself known as Pegu after its capital, now romanized as Bago . The modern Pegu or Bago River

4620-426: The KNDO whose ranks now swelled from the defection of the Karen Rifles; he then went on to lead the Pawng Yawng rebellion before going into exile to China in 1950, only to make a comeback in 1968 as a Communist commander. It was not just the Karen and Mon that rose up in rebellion, soon after independence in early 1949. The Rakhine led by the veteran monk U Seinda started an insurrection as early as 1946 followed by

4725-404: The Kachin rebelled, triggered by the former Marxist U Nu's declaration of Buddhism as state religion, and the Shan rebellion, triggered by Gen. Ne Win 's coup d'etat of March 1962, took off. In fact it was the Shan Federal Movement, led by Sao Shwe Thaik and aspiring to a 'loose' federation with Burma, but seen by army hardliners as a separatist movement insisting on the government honouring

4830-445: The Karen population) and the Mon shared the Irrawaddy Delta of Lower Burma. The draining of the marshes for rice cultivation drew Burman migration into British Burma even before the final annexation of Upper Burma . The Bamar however were virtually excluded from military service, and even as late as 1939 there were only 432 Burmans in the army compared with 1448 Karens, 886 Chins and 881 Kachins. Karen villagers had acted as guides for

4935-453: The Karen rebellion had already broken out. The Karen had repeated their controversial demand to include Karen majority areas of the Irrawaddy Delta in the independent Karen state as well as a joint Mon–Karen independent state in the areas of the Tenasserim where they could not stake an exclusive claim. Communal relations turned sour when the AFPFL government deployed Karen and Kachin troops, which proved to be ruthlessly efficient, in suppressing

5040-401: The Karenni states were never even included within the borders of British Burma. In parliament , seats were reserved for the Karen, immigrant Chinese , Indian and Anglo-Burmese minorities, an arrangement bitterly opposed by many Burmese politicians. The Mon of Lower Burma and the Rakhine included in Ministerial Burma had no representation at all even though the plains Karen (the majority of

5145-404: The Left Unity talks in July/August 1948 between the AFPFL and the PVO ( Pyithu yèbaw or People's Volunteer Organisation, a paramilitary force formed earlier by Aung San from BIA veterans) and their allies the Communists. A gun-running plot had been uncovered involving an Anglo-Burmese officer, Capt. Vivian, who was convicted and jailed but later escaped with the Karen; he was linked to U Saw who

5250-411: The Myitsone Dam construction will alter the hydrological characteristics of the river, e.g. preventing sediment from enriching riverbanks downstream, where it usually enriches the riverside food-producing plains. This can affect fertility as far downstream as the Irrawaddy Delta , the major rice-producing area of Myanmar. Ecological concerns focus on the inundation of an area that is the border of

5355-497: The Rakhine Mujahid in December 1947 in northern Arakan along the border of modern Bangladesh , migrants and their descendants from East Bengal . The Karenni revolt however was precipitated by a Baptist - Catholic split in its leadership in August 1948, when the veteran leader Bee Tu Re was brutally murdered, and as a result the Kyebogyi Sawbwa Sao Shwe took up arms against the AFPFL-backed Kantarawaddy Sawbwa Sao Wunna , both ex-Force 136 and erstwhile comrades-in-arms, and Sao Shwe

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5460-492: The South-East Asian region, with most going to China. Other countries targeted for power export are Thailand , India and Bangladesh . The largest of the seven, the Myitsone Dam , is located at the confluence of the Mali and N'Mai Rivers at the creation of the Irrawaddy. Although the China Power Investment Corporation is project manager of the Confluence Region Hydropower Projects. ParConfluence Region Hydropower Projects, several companies have been or are currently involved in

5565-484: The War against Japan and remained in the region. The latter were removed by the USA after being ordered by the UN and flew some of the Kuomintang to Formosa. Aung San was assassinated with several members of his cabinet, including Sao Sarm Htun , the Saopha of Mong Pawng and a signatory of the Agreement, and a Karen member Mahn Ba Khaing , on July 19, 1947, just months after Panglong and before independence; July 19 has been commemorated since as ' Martyrs' Day '. U Saw

5670-468: The besieged elements of the 33rd Imperial Japanese Army under General Masaki Honda . The town was strategically important not only because of its rail and water links to the rest of Burma, but also because it was on the planned route of the Ledo Road . Myitkyina has a borderline tropical monsoon climate ( Köppen Am ) bordering upon both a tropical savanna climate ( Aw ) and a humid subtropical climate ( Cwa ). Temperatures are very warm throughout

5775-400: The city air is often quite smoky. Burning can start earlier at the weekend. The air quality in Myitkyina in the evenings can be poor, which can make being outside unpleasant. Sometimes, due to atmospheric pressure, the air will still be smoky in the morning. The only time of year that this does not happen is during the monsoon season, when it is reported that the air is fresh. As the capital of

5880-442: The coasts of the Rakhine State and Tanintharyi Region . On the Chindwin River , transportation is carried on by steam or diesel vessels throughout the year up to Homalin —about 640 km from its confluence with the Irrawaddy. Seasonal navigation is carried on into Tamanthi , which is 57 miles (92 km) by river above Homalin. The Chindwin valley has no railroad and relies heavily on river transport. Chauk , downstream from

5985-514: The conference which resurfaced in the Constituent Assembly , and the consequent inadequacies of the Constitution promulgated on September 24, 1947, were to emerge soon after independence, and in fact in the Arakan the veteran monk U Seinda had already started a rebellion in May 1947. The Karen had isolated themselves further by boycotting both the EC and the elections to the Constituent Assembly, notwithstanding seats reserved for them, though persistent in their demand for an independent state similar to

6090-433: The confluence in the oil-field district, is a petroleum port. It is linked to Yangon by road and rail. Hinthada , near the apex of the delta, is the rail junction for lines leading to Kyangin and Bassein (Pathein). A ferry operates between Hinthada on the west bank and the railway station at Tharrawaw on the east bank. Myanmar's military junta signed an agreement with China Power Investment Corporation in May 2007 for

6195-426: The construction of seven hydroelectric dams along the Irrawaddy, Mali , and N'Mai River in Kachin State. The total planned output of all seven plants will be 15,160 MWs of electricity, making it the largest hydropower project in Myanmar, surpassing the 7100 MW Tasang Dam in Shan State. The following data is available for the dam locations: The power generated by the dams will be transmitted to other countries in

6300-460: The construction of seven hydroelectric dams , yielding a total of 13,360 MW, in the N'mai and Mali Rivers, including the 3600 MW Myitsone Dam at the confluence of both rivers. Environmental organisations have raised concerns about the project's ecological impact on the river's biodiverse ecosystems . Animals potentially impacted include the endangered Irrawaddy dolphin and the critically endangered Ganges shark . The name "Irrawaddy"

6405-415: The country with numbers as high as 10,000 animals, but in the last decade numbers have dwindled, partly due to transferring the animals to logging camps. Other species reported to be present include the leopard , Bengal tiger , crab-eating macaque , wild dog , and otters ( Panthera pardus, P. tigris, Cuon alpinus , and Lutra species). The saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ) can be found in

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6510-434: The day, "If Burma receives one kyat, you will also get one kyat", has often been quoted by ethnic nationalists since. Thanks to the Panglong Agreement, the Union of Burma came into being after independence on January 4, 1948, and February 12 has been celebrated since as 'Union Day'. The spirit of Panglong is often invoked, although many today feel that another Panglong is long overdue. The debate certainly needs to move on from

6615-451: The drier patches are the thorny Terminalia oliveri and the hardwood dahat teak ( Tectona hamiltoniana ) with stands of Indaing ( Dipterocarpus tuberculatus ) which is cut for timber. The wildlife includes many birds, small mammals and reptiles such as the huge Burmese python . However, most of the large animals including the tiger have been hunted out or seen their habitats disappear. The Irrawaddy River and its tributaries flow into

6720-401: The dry season. Between Myitkyina and Mandalay , the Irrawaddy flows through three well-marked defiles : This sheet of lava is the Singu Plateau , a volcanic field from the Holocene . This field consists of magma from the fissure vents and covers an area of about 62 square kilometres (24 sq mi). The plateau is also known as Letha Taung. Leaving this plateau at Kyaukmyaung ,

6825-452: The easternmost stream is the Yangon River, on the left bank of which stands Myanmar's former capital city, Yangon (Rangoon). Because the Yangon River is only a minor channel, the flow of water is insufficient to prevent Yangon Harbour from silting up, and dredging is necessary. The relief of the delta's landscape is low but not flat. The soils consist of fine silt, which is replenished continuously by fertile alluvium carried downstream by

6930-418: The fish in the Irrawaddy river basin currently exists, but in 1996 it was estimated that there are about 200 species. In 2008, it was estimated that the Irrawaddy ecoregion is home to 119–195 species of fish found nowhere else in the world ( endemic ). Several new species of fish have been described from the Irrawaddy river basin in recent years (for example, the cyprinid Danio htamanthinus in 2016 and

7035-463: The future of the Shan states after independence. It was led by the Saopha of Yawnghwe Sao Shwe Thaik , and the Kachin, Chin and Karen representatives were also invited. They realised that Burma would soon gain independence from the British, and that the Frontier Areas faced a real risk of remaining a British dominion since the hill tracts were deemed backward and not yet ready for self-determination. The pre-war prime minister U Saw and Thakin Nu from

7140-647: The government, most businesses in the region have gone down. Myitkyina Airport is the main airport serving the city. It connects the cities of Putao , Mandalay , Yangon and also Lashio on Mondays. It takes almost 24 hours to travel between Mandalay and Myitkyina by train. Mandalay–Myitkyina Railway has been used for 100 years. This railway is a major means of transportation for both farmers and traders to deliver goods (before 2021 military coup). It also connects Laiza , Bhamo , China , and Sumprabum by car and can go to Mandalay, Yangon, Lashio, and Magwe By Bus Station. The Myitkyina-Tanai- India road, also known as

7245-429: The instigation of the AFPFL, and Sao Shwe Thaik was elected as president. The minority leaders however continued to lobby London and the Frontier Areas Administration (FAA) directly at the same time the AFPFL was in almost continuous consultation with the British authorities for independence. The Karen National Associations (KNA), founded in 1881, had argued at the 1917 Montagu–Chelmsford hearings in India that Burma

7350-409: The inundation include loss of farmland, loss of spawning habitat as fish can not swim upstream anymore. The Kachin Development Networking Group, a network of civil society groups and development organisations in Kachin State warn this will lead to a loss of income for fishermen. They report locals are also worried about the flooding of cultural sites in the flood zone. As with other large dam projects,

7455-439: The kind their cousins, the Karenni, had enjoyed under their own Sawbwas; their future was as a result left unsettled, deferred till after independence. The Kachin had to make concessions in their representation in parliament in exchange for the inclusion of Myitkyina and Bhamo , towns with Shan and Burman majorities, in the new state, although in the hills the Duwa s would continue their rule. The Chin ended up with no state, only

7560-644: The late Chairman of the Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO) and former headmaster of Myitkyina Baptist Mission High School , was the nephew of one of the Kachin signatories Lawdan ''Duwa'' Zau La . Khun Kya Nu , a leader of the SSA and former Rangoon University student, is the son of one of the Shan delegates at Panglong, Kya Bu . Ayeyarwady River The Irrawaddy River ( Burmese : ဧရာဝတီမြစ် , pronounced [ʔèjàwədì mjɪʔ] , official romanisation: Ayeyarwady )

7665-570: The major Burmese race and the hill peoples, the Arakanese, the Shans and unite all these peoples into one nation with equal treatment unlike the present system which divides our people into "backward" and "administered" sections. All the natural barriers that make mutual associations and contacts shall be overcome, for instance, by construction of effective modern communications such as railways and roads. A significant breakthrough came when an agreement

7770-400: The mud deposit is up to 20 m nearshore and gradually thins to the slope at −300 m water depth, and likely escapes into the deep Andaman Trench; 4) The estimated total amount of Holocene sediments deposited offshore is ~1290 × 10 tons. If we assume this has mainly accumulated since the middle Holocene highstand (~6000 yr BP) like other major deltas, the historical annual mean depositional flux on

7875-562: The multiplication of and strengthening of the economic relations between the hills and the plains will be the shortest and most inexpensive route to a unified Burma." In Blueprint for a Free Burma , composed by the Japanese military but wrongfully attributed to Aung San, the question of minorities is addressed in similar vein: the essential prerequisite is the building of one unified nation. In concrete terms it means we must now bridge all gulfs now existing through British machinations between

7980-454: The northern tip of Myanmar – the Kachin State – they cut long north–south alluvial plains and relatively narrow upland valleys between the 2,000 to 3,000 metres (7,000–10,000 ft) mountain ridges. The rivers joining the Irrawaddy are, from north to south: As early as the sixth century, the Bamars were using the Irrawaddy to gain power in the region through trade and transport on

8085-525: The old black-and-white caricatures of 'imperialist stooges' and 'chauvinist oppressors' for any progress to be made. Even at the time, there was no representation from the Karen and Karenni, no consideration regarding the Mon and Rakhine as they fell within Ministerial Burma, and the Pa-O , Palaung and Wa were subsumed under the Shan states, although the Saopha of Tawngpeng Palaung substate

8190-519: The only way across the Irrawaddy was by ferry. The bridge was destroyed by the retreating British Army during World War II and was rebuilt in 1954 after Burmese independence and was the only bridge to span the Irrawaddy until recent times when a spate of bridge construction has been carried out by the government. Myitkyina Myitkyina ( Burmese : မြစ်ကြီးနားမြို့ ; MLCTS : mrac kri: na: mrui. , pronounced [mjɪʔtɕíná] ; (Eng; mitchinar ) Jinghpaw : Myitkyina , [mjìtkjí̠ná] )

8295-535: The other group with no electoral representation. A Federal Council of Shan Chiefs was formed in 1922 which gave the Shan and their Sawbwas an important channel for representation. The Burma Frontier Service boasted just 40 members employed in the administration of the entire Scheduled Areas at the outbreak of the World War II . When the Japanese invaded Burma in 1942, the Karen remained loyal to and fought with

8400-555: The preparation, construction and financing of the 3,600 MW Myitsone Dam. Asia World Company has a key position, amidst Burmese Suntac Technologies and state-run Myanmar Electrical Power Enterprise, a state-owned utility enterprise responsible for power generation, transmission and distribution Chinese involvement comes from China Power Investment Corporation , China Southern Power Grid , Yunnan Machinery Equipment Import & Export Company Changjiang Institute of Surveying, Planning, Design and Research. At least one Japanese company

8505-510: The rain, the highest point is recorded in August, the lowest in February. This variation in water level makes it necessary for ports along the river to have separate landing ports for low- and high-water. Still, low water levels have caused problems for ports along the river, as in the Bamaw – Mandalay – Pyay sectors, the shallowest point is as shallow as 60 centimetres (2.0 ft). Within

8610-596: The region, such as the 5.3 magnitude earthquake that struck near the Myanmar-China border on 20 August 2008, prompted Naw Lar, the coordinator of the KDNG dam research project, to ask the junta to reconsider its dam projects. The river flows through or past the following cities: Until the construction of the Ava (Innwa) Bridge, a 16 span rail and road cantilever bridge built by the British colonial government in 1934,

8715-582: The right to secession after 10 years provided for by the 1947 Constitution of Burma to both the Shan and the Karenni, which precipitated the coup. Ne Win had already stripped the Sawbwas of their feudal powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959 during his caretaker government . His 1962 coup put paid to the 1947 Constitution and what little remained of the Panglong spirit. The Chin launched

8820-468: The river follows a broad, open course through the central Dry Zone – the Bamar people's ancient cultural heartland – where large areas consist of alluvial flats. From Mandalay (the former capital of the kingdom of Myanmar), the river makes an abrupt westward turn before curving southwest to unite with the Chindwin River , after which it continues in a southwestern direction. It is probable that

8925-422: The river. As a result of heavy rainfall varying from 2,000 to 3,000 millimetres (79–118 in) a year in the delta, and the motion and sediment load of the river, the delta surface extends into the Andaman Sea at a rate of about 50 metres (160 ft) per year. Due to monsoonal rains, which occur between mid-May and mid-October, the volume of the Irrawaddy and its tributaries varies greatly throughout

9030-524: The shelf would be 215 Mt/yr, which is equivalent to ~35% of the modern Ayeyarwady-Thanlwin rivers derived sediments; 5) Unlike other large river systems in Asia, such as the Yangtze and Mekong, this study indicates a bi-directional transport and depositional pattern controlled by the local currents that are influenced by tides, and seasonally varying monsoons winds and waves. No complete and precise list of all

9135-447: The sixth century, the river was used for trade and transport, and an extensive network of irrigation canals was developed to support agriculture. The river is still of great importance as the largest commercial waterway of Myanmar. It also provides important ecosystem services to different communities and economic sectors, including agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. In 2007, Myanmar's military dictatorship signed an agreement for

9240-413: The southern part of the delta. The species was formerly abundant in coastal regions, but population numbers have decreased because of a combination of commercial skin hunting, habitat loss, drowning in fishing nets and over-collection of living animals to supply crocodile farms . It was at this river that a battle between a saltwater crocodile and a tiger was observed that ended with the reptile devouring

9345-472: The species is now extinct in Myanmar. Several species of large mammal occur in the delta, but their populations are small and scattered, with the possible exceptions of the Malayan sambar deer ( Cervus unicolor equinus ), Indian hog deer ( C. porcinus ), and wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), which have been reported from all Reserved Forests. Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) were once widespread throughout

9450-510: The state, it has government offices, and a greater population than other cities in the state. The city has a population of approximately 150,000, with a mix of Kachin , Shan , Bamar , Burmese Gorkha and some Chinese and Indians . The Kachin language is the common language among the Kachin . Some people can speak English and Nepali while the town's people mostly speak in Burmese which

9555-522: The tiger. Despite recent declines in the sea turtle populations, five species are known to nest in Myanmar at well known island and mainland beaches known as turtle-banks. These are the olive ridley sea turtle ( Lepidochelys olivacea ), the loggerhead sea turtle ( Caretta caretta ), the green sea turtle ( Chelonia mydas ), the hawksbill sea turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata ), and the leatherback sea turtle ( Dermochelys coriacea ). The Irrawaddy River has five major tributaries. As they flow through

9660-549: The upper Irrawaddy originally flowed south from Mandalay, discharging its water through the present Sittaung River to the Gulf of Martaban , and that its present westward course is geologically recent. Below its confluence with the Chindwin, the Irrawaddy continues to meander through the petroleum producing city of Yenangyaung , below which it flows generally southward. In its lower course, between Minbu and Pyay , it flows through

9765-504: The valley of the middle Irrawaddy and lower Chindwin. It lies within the 'dry zone' and consists almost entirely of plains covered with the teak -dominated Irrawaddy moist deciduous forests ecoregion , which surrounds dry forest patches in drier areas. The central basin receives little rain (ave 650mm per year) although it does flood quickly during the July–October storms. The one meteorological factor which does not vary greatly, and which

9870-451: The year, although the winter months from December to February are milder. There is a winter dry season from November to April and a summer wet season from May to October. The city residents dispose of the majority of their waste by burning it in small piles by the roadside. Most waste is disposed in this way, including plastics. Almost every block in the city has one small fire every evening. Burning usually starts late-afternoon, and by 6.00pm

9975-477: The year, but from Bhamo to Myitkyina (200 km) for only seven months. More than 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) of navigable waterways exist in the Irrawaddy delta, and there is a system of connecting canals. The Sittang is usable by smaller boats, but the Salween River , because of its rapids, is navigable for less than 160 kilometres (99 mi) from the sea. Small steamers and country boats also serve

10080-709: The year, but mostly in the summer. The valleys and lower hill ranges are covered with tropical and subtropical evergreen rainforest instead of monsoon (deciduous) forest. This region is characterised by subtropical and temperate forests of oak and pine are found at elevations above 900 metres (3,000 ft). This evergreen forest passes into sub-tropical pine forest at about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) feet. Above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft), are forests of rhododendrons , and that in turn into evergreen conifer forest above 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) feet. The Irrawaddy river basin covers an approximate area of 255 81 km (31 sq mi). The Central Basin consists of

10185-546: The year. In summer, the melting of the snow and glaciers in Northern Burma add to the volume. The average discharge near the head of the delta is between a high of 32,600 cubic metres (1,150,000 cu ft) and a low of 2,300 cubic metres (81,000 cu ft) per second. The discharge can be as high as 40,393 cubic meter per second in the rainy season. Over a year, the discharge averages 15,112 cubic metres (533,700 cu ft). Further North, at Sagaing ,

10290-585: Was among the signatories. The Frontier Areas Commission of Enquiry (FACE) was set up in April/May 1947 as a condition of the Aung San - Attlee Agreement of January 27, 1947, and although the Burmese independence movement was represented by just one united front, the AFPFL, there were 50 often conflicting groups from the hill tracts; the Delta Karen, Mon and Rakhine were still excluded. The shortcomings of

10395-578: Was convicted and hanged in May 1948 for his role in the crime. The Socialist leader Thakin Nu became the first Prime Minister of independent Burma as a direct consequence of Aung San's untimely death and the earlier expulsion of the Burmese Communists from the AFPFL. Sao Shwe Thaik was elected the first President of independent Burma (1948–52), arrested at the time of the 1962 coup when his youngest son

10500-483: Was in the frame for the assassination of Aung San and six other cabinet members in July 1947. Another plot led by Col. Cromarty-Tulloch, an ex- Force 136 adventurer, and a few other Britons and Anglo-Burmese officers, in the early days of the Karen insurrection, was also uncovered shortly after it started. Naw Seng , a commander of the Kachin Rifles , after being dispatched to suppress the Karen revolt, joined

10605-405: Was later aided by Tulloch. But it was not until 1949 when the Karen attacked Rangoon, triggered by the broken promise of independence. and after a brief battle both sides agreed to a cease fire and after receiving promises that the Burmese government would reconsider their requests, returned home. Nothing was done to implement these promises under Ne Win's interim Government. Then in the early 1960s

10710-560: Was later to accuse certain missionaries and writers of 'having deliberately sown the seeds of racial and religious conflict'. The ethnic minorities would, in turn, point the finger at Burman ' chauvinism ' and 'oppression'. The Frontier Areas or Scheduled Areas were divided into Part I or Excluded Areas such as the Kachin state with no right of election to parliament, and Part II or Partially Excluded Areas subdivided into two groups, one with electoral representation such as Myitkyina and Bhamo with Kachin minority and Shan/Burman majorities, and

10815-619: Was not "yet in a fit state for self-government " to the dismay of Burmese nationalists, but 3 years later, after submitting a criticism of the 1920 Craddock Reforms , won for themselves 5 (later 12) seats in the Legislative Council of 130 (later 132) members. Sao Shwe Thaik and Sawbwa of Mong Mit Sao Khin Maung travelled to London to argue for an independent Shan state at the Burma Round Table hearings in 1931, despite

10920-409: Was signed between the Shan, Kachin and Chin leaders, and Aung San as leader of the Governor's Executive Council at the second Panglong Conference on February 12, 1947. The Karens sent only four observers; also absent were the Mon and Arakanese representatives as they were not considered separately, but within Ministerial Burma. There were 23 signatories in all expressing their willingness to work with

11025-488: Was the one fatality, shot dead, in what was generally described as a 'bloodless' coup, and he himself died shortly afterwards in custody. His wife Mahadevi Sao Nang Hearn Kham and son Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe formed the Shan State Army (SSA) in 1964 taking the Shan rebellion that started in 1958 to a new phase. Sinwa Nawng and Vamthu Mawng both became cabinet ministers in the first AFPFL government. Brang Seng ,

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