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134-598: The Romans referred to the conflict as Bellum Batonianum ("Batonian War") after these two leaders with the same name; Velleius Paterculus called it the Pannonian and Dalmatian War because it involved both regions of Illyricum, and in English it has also been called the Great Illyrian Revolt , Pannonian–Dalmatian uprising , and Bato uprising . The four-year war lasted from AD 6 to AD 9 and witnessed

268-567: A military tribune in Rome's eastern provinces. In AD 2, he was with the army of Gaius Caesar , and personally witnessed the meeting between the young general and Phraates V of Parthia on the banks of the Euphrates . Two years later, Velleius was a cavalry prefect serving in the command of Tiberius in Germania , having already held the office of praefectus castrorum . He continued as

402-511: A triumph on October 28 of the same 39 BC. Wilkies argues that these operations were short-lived and conducted to keep the legions active, as opposed to leaving them idle in their winter quarters, as well as intended to punish the alliance the Parthians had previously concluded with Brutus. According to other Latin writers, however, the operations were conducted against the Delmatae , and at

536-542: A (first) military campaign. It seems that these populations formed a compact group in the far southwestern part of Illyricum . Some of them survived later as communities of the Conventus iuridicus of Narona . They were therefore settled between the Narenta and Drilon rivers. In a later effort, he also defeated Carni and Taurisci , who were located north of Aquileia; then Interphrurini , Docleatae (near

670-526: A Caesarian, repulsed Quintus Octavius, a Pompeian. The Dalmatians routed Aulus Gabinius , a Caesarian who had been ordered by Caesar to join Cornificius in Illyricum. The Dalmatians later asked Caesar for a pardon. Caesar demanded a tribute and hostages as compensation, which was standard practice, and sent Publius Vatinius with three legions to enforce this. After Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC,

804-766: A badly damaged manuscript at Murbach Abbey in Alsace in 1515. Although corrupt and since lost, this formed the basis for the editio princeps published by Beatus Rhenanus in 1520, and a later copy acquired by Orelli . On the sources see [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Velleius Paterculus, Marcus ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Octavian%27s military campaigns in Illyricum Octavian's military campaigns in Illyricum (35-33 B.C.) constitute

938-544: A campaign against the tribes, conquered the Breuci, and won over the others without a battle. Bato the Daesitiate subsequently withdrew from Pannonia, occupied the passes leading to Dalmatia, and ravaged the lands beyond. In Pannonia there was some brigandage. Velleius Paterculus wrote that the harsh winter brought rewards because in the following summer all of Pannonia sought peace. Therefore, a bad winter probably also played

1072-512: A certain Volas ran with him; only these four men, and a few other armed men. And when he was about to cross the bridge, the other legionaries, overcome with shame, rushed after him into the midst of the battle. So the [fourth] bridge also collapsed, because the weight [of the combatants] exceeded its capacity, and the men on it fell to the ground, one on top of the other. Some were killed, others were carried away with broken bones." And though Octavian

1206-498: A constant launching of projectiles from the top of the walls (whose throwing artillery had been obtained from Brutus 's earlier retreat after the siege of Mutina in 43 B.C.), the city's defenders were able to raise new walls before the outer circle crumbled under the blows of the legions. The Romans, once past the first circle of walls, burned it and rushed against the new line of fortification, this time erecting two different siege ramps, from which they then threw four bridges toward

1340-530: A contributory factor. According to Dio, Bato the Breucian overthrew Pinnes , the king of the Breuci. He became suspicious of his subject tribes and demanded hostages from the Pannonian garrisons. Bato the Daesitiate defeated him in battle and pinned him in a stronghold. He was handed over to Bato the Daesitiate and was executed. After this many Pannonians broke with the rebels. Marcus Plautius Silvanus conducted

1474-465: A corresponding force of auxiliaries, amid great difficulties of every kind and the utmost scarcity of supplies." Suetonius' claim about fifteen legions is known to be incorrect. At one point there were ten legions assembled in Illyricum, but five of them were sent back because this would have created an oversized army. On three occasions the three legions from the Roman province of Moesia were involved in

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1608-415: A courtly annalist rather than a historian. His knowledge is superficial, his blunders, numerous, his chronology inconsistent. He labours at portrait-painting, but his portraits are daubs... The repetitions, redundancies, and slovenliness of expression which disfigure the work may be partly due to the haste with which (as the author frequently reminds us) it was written. Some blemishes of style, particularly

1742-542: A defensive position in the natural fortifications. In Velleius Paterculus’ version, the second rebel force confronted the legions which Caecina Severus and Marcus Plautius Silvanus were bringing to Illyricum (from Moesia and the Roman province of Asia , three and two legions respectively). They surrounded the five legions, their auxiliary troops, and the Thracian cavalry and almost inflicted a fatal defeat. The Thracian cavalry

1876-458: A detachment to a point where the place could be ascended via a long route. Once it had been taken, the enemy could not enter the fortress and fled. They were later found hiding in the forest and were killed. Tiberius then negotiated the terms of capitulation. Germanicus turned his attention to the last holdouts in Arduba, a strongly fortified town with a river around its base. Within the town, there

2010-575: A few references by other authors, though there is no information about the causes. The Roman sources had little interest in events in Illyria from the campaigns of Augustus in 35–33 BC to 16 BC. Cassius Dio wrote that in that year the governor of Illyria for 17–16 BC, Publius Silius Nerva , went to fight in the Italian Alps because there were no troops there. Some Pannonians and Noricans entered Istria and pillaged it. Silius Nerva quickly brought

2144-721: A fleet of populations allied with the Romans ( Taurisci and Norici ) was also used, which sailed along the Drava to the Danube and then up the Sava. It was placed under the leadership of a certain Menodorus (Menas). During the preparations for the military campaign it is known from Cassius Dio that, when some of the soldiers who had been discharged mutinied, since they had not received their severance pay , and asked to return to service in

2278-559: A general named Verzo, who first occupied the city of the Liburnians, Promona , and fortified it, even though it was in an extremely strong place because of the nature where it stood. It was in fact a mountain stronghold, surrounded on all sides by hills. Most of the Dalmatian forces were located within the city, although some detachments were placed to guard the surrounding hills, watching the Romans from high positions. Octavian, who

2412-549: A great victory. The next day the Metulans sent messengers to Octavian, offering him fifty hostages of his choice and promising to accept a garrison in the city, allowing them to quarter on the highest part of the hill, while they would be content with the other side. "When the garrison came in and ordered them to lay down their arms, they were very angry. They sent their wives and children quietly into their council chamber, accompanied by their guards, who had orders to set fire to

2546-584: A historian Velleius is entitled to no mean rank; in his narrative he displays impartiality and love of truth, and in his estimate of the characters of the leading actors in Roman history he generally exhibits both discrimination and judgment. A more critical view appears in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica : The author is a vain and shallow courtier, and destitute of real historical insight, although generally trustworthy in his statements of individual facts. He may be regarded as

2680-562: A large deployment of Roman forces in the province, with whole armies operating across the western Balkans and fighting on more than one front. In AD 8, the Breuci of the Sava valley surrendered, but it took a winter blockade and another season of fighting before the surrender in Dalmatia in AD 9. The Roman historian Suetonius described the uprising as the most difficult conflict faced by Rome since

2814-460: A last stand. The Dalmatians marched on Salona (in Dalmatia, on the Adriatic coast) but there Bato was defeated and wounded. He sent other men forward who ravaged the coast down to Apollonia . They were defeated in one battle, but won another. Tiberius came from Germania, fearing an invasion of Italy, and sent Valerius Messallinus ahead. Even though Bato was not well, he engaged Tiberius. Tiberius

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2948-526: A long way from the theater of Octavian's military campaigns), again according to Appian, were overcome by fear and surrendered. Others, on the other hand, who had previously revolted, such as the Meliteni of Melita and the Corcyreni of Corcyra Melaina , who inhabited the islands and practiced piracy, were attacked and subdued by the fleet that came from Sicily, while the young men were put to death and

3082-450: A parapet of the wall fell, the inhabitants panicked, abandoning that part of the wall and fleeing to the citadel, where they eventually surrendered. At Raetinum the inhabitants set a slow-burning fire. When the Romans entered the town they did not notice it and then found themselves surrounded by the flames and pelted from the wall of the citadel, most of them dying in the trap. The people in the citadel had to escape to subterranean chambers in

3216-507: A part. The Pannonians laid down their arms at the River Bathinus . Bato was captured and Pinnes surrendered. In AD 9, the war was restricted to Dalmatia. Velleius Paterculus wrote that Augustus gave the chief command of all Roman forces to Marcus Aemilius Lepidus . In the summer, Lepidus made his way to Tiberius through areas which had not been affected by the war, and was attacked by fresh local forces. Lepidus defeated them, ravaged

3350-418: A senior member of Tiberius' staff until the future emperor's return to Rome in AD 12. While serving under Tiberius, Velleius was also elected quaestor , an important step on the cursus honorum , filling that office in AD 7. Before his death in AD 14, the emperor Augustus designated Velleius and his brother, Magius Celer, for the praetorship . The emperor died before the comitia could be held, and so

3484-451: A sizable veteran contingent who were helpless in this remote area. They seized and pillaged Macedonia, creating general panic in Rome. Augustus , also alarmed, ordered a general levy, and recalled veterans. Rich families were ordered to supply freedmen in proportion to their income, which had not been done since the aftermath of the Battle of Cannae two centuries earlier. Augustus warned that

3618-473: A sudden uprising, losing many men, the Romans had succeeded the next day in completely suppressing the revolt. Octavian then moved his army toward Dalmatia, another country of the Illyrians, bordering Taulantia . Octavian was now intent on turning his attention further south, against the powerful tribe of the Delmatae , accompanied or perhaps preceded by the trusted Agrippa. And it does not appear that he

3752-523: Is intact. It is particularly useful as the only connected narrative of events during this period; the portions of Livy's history dealing with the late Republic have been lost, and are known only from a brief epitome, while other historians covered only portions of the span. The period from the death of Caesar to that of Augustus is especially detailed. Velleius' subject matter consists largely of historical highlights and character portraits, omitting subtler if equally important details. He draws upon

3886-418: Is no evidence that the historian survived his friend's downfall by any great length of time, it seems likely that he shared his fate. The original title of Velleius' history is uncertain. The editio princeps on title page styles it P. Vellei Paterculi Historiae Romanae duo volumina ad M. Vinicium cos. ("Publius Velleius Paterculus' two volumes of Roman History to the consul Marcus Vinicius"), but this

4020-569: Is sometimes described as having been fought by the Daesitiatae and the Breuci only, Cassius Dio identified the forces led by Bato the Daesitiate as Dalmatian, indicating a broader composition. According to Velleius Paterculus, the population of the tribes which rebelled was more than 800,000, and they fielded 200,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. Modern scholars cannot be certain of how trustworthy this information is, as ancient historians tended to exaggerate figures. Velleius Paterculus also wrote that

4154-441: Is thought to have been dead. The Gaius Velleius Paterculus referred to may be the same man who was consul in AD 60, and a Lucius Velleius Paterculus was consul in the following year; but it is not apparent how either of them were related to the historian. Our remaining information comes from Velleius' own brief description of his life, included in his history. He was born into a noble Campanian family about 19 BC, although

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4288-449: The oppidum and two hills that were still in the enemy's possession with a vallum seven and a half kilometers long. When Testimus, another Dalmatian commander, led a new army to help the besieged, the Romans went to him and drove him back toward the mountains, as he tried to find a gap in the ring road before it was completed, to enter Promona. And when the besieged made a sortie in aid of reinforcements, they were not only repelled, but

4422-707: The Danube , Serdica in Thrace , all the way to Byzantium (the future Constantinople ). Hence, if the entire area south of the Danube was to be secured, the Empire had to put in place a vast strategic plan contemplating the conquest of the whole of Illyricum, far more decisive than the conquest of Germania Magna . Based on Gonzales' assumptions, the legions involved were almost certainly Legio XIII Gemina , XIV Gemina , and XV Apollinaris , all of which had been formed earlier by Caesar (XIII, XIV, and XV). In addition,

4556-410: The Delmatae . However, the majority of the future provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia were subdued by Tiberius during his Pannonian War (12–9 BC) and Pannonian-Dalmatian Rebellion (AD 6–9). These conflicts were initiated by preparations for war against Maroboduus , particularly through the recruitment of soldiers in Illyricum. Suetonius tells us that Octavian: "[...] during the war in Dalmatia he

4690-638: The Odrysian Kingdom in Thrace , an ally of the Romans) which had been sent ahead against them by Caecina Severus, the governor of Moesia. They then fought hard against Severus, who later went back to Moesia because the Dacians and Sarmatians had crossed the Danube and were ravaging it. Tiberius and Valerius Messallinus lingered in Siscia ( Sisak , in present-day central Croatia , the headquarters of

4824-736: The Punic Wars two centuries earlier. Bato the Breucian betrayed Pinnes which later became the Ruler of the Breucians by the Romans. Illyricum had seen some fighting during the Great Roman Civil War between Julius Caesar and the forces of the Senate led by Pompey several decades earlier. The Romans who lived in some of the coastal towns supported Caesar, while the native peoples largely supported Pompey. Quintus Cornificius,

4958-657: The Alps against the Rhaeti and Vindelici . In 13 BC, Augustus gave Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , his most important ally, the supreme command in Illyricum. Agrippa found a negotiated solution; however, he died suddenly and the treaty was ignored. Command was then given to Tiberius , who finally defeated the Illyrians. Roman military operations in Illyricum might have started by the time of Marcus Vinicius ' governorship in 14–13 BC. The Pannonian War led to Illyricum being redesignated an imperial province. The Great Illyrian Revolt of AD 6–9

5092-400: The Breucian , their army commander, and Pinnes , their king. The primary sources of this information are Cassius Dio and Velleius Paterculus . The latter participated in the war but supplied limited information. Suetonius also gave a description of the war: "the most serious of all foreign wars since those with Carthage, which [Tiberius] carried on for three years with fifteen legions and

5226-582: The Colapis River, during the eight-day march to reach the Sava River. Once he reached Segesta (a city very well defended by strong walls and surrounded by the two rivers), a strategic location of paramount importance for an advance eastward and convenient for a war against the Dacians and Bastarnae , Octavian sent the Segestans his terms of peace, asking them to have a garrison stationed in

5360-507: The Daesitiate went east to the other Bato and made an alliance with him. This contrasts with the picture given by Velleius Paterculus, in which the rebellion seemed to have a plan and the Dalmatians and the Breuci seemed to have acted in concert from the beginning. In Dio's account the two Batos occupied Mount Alma (Mount Fruška Gora , Serbia, just north of Sirmium); here they were defeated by the Thracian cavalry of Rhoemetalces (the king of

5494-568: The Dalmatian cities of Sunodium and Setovia . He then moved upon the Derbani, who sued for peace. He also destroyed the settlements on the islands of Melite ( Mljet ) and Melaina Corcyra ( Korčula ), and deprived the Liburnians of their ships, because all were involved in piracy. Octavian's lieutenants conducted various other operations in the region. Octavian temporarily restored Roman authority in Dalmatia and pushed into southern Pannonia, which had never before been reached by Roman armies. In 27 BC,

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5628-553: The Dalmatians ignored these demands and routed five of Vatinius' cohorts . With the disruptions caused by further Roman civil wars in the years following, Dalmatian piracy in the Adriatic Sea became a problem again. In 35 BC, the Iapydes , the northernmost tribe of Dalmatia, carried out raids into northeastern Italy. They attacked Aquileia , and plundered Tergestus ( Trieste ). From 35 to 33 BC Octavian (who would soon become

5762-513: The Elder placed in southeastern Dalmatia near the coast, between the Narenta and Drilon rivers). Some, however, were not reached because Octavian did not enjoy good health, so much so that no hostages or any treaties could be obtained from them. It seems, however, that they were not subdued until later. Thus the entire country of the Adriatic coast of the Illyrians was subdued. Not only therefore

5896-576: The Illyrian coast: at Pola and Iader , while new settlers went to increase the presence of Roman citizens in the old Caesarian colonies of Salona , Narona and Epidaurum . New disagreements with Mark Antony forced Octavian to suspend his military action, and the Dalmatian-Pannonian campaigns could only be resumed with Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 13 BC and, after the latter's death, with his stepson Tiberius in 12-9 BC. However,

6030-424: The Roman army). The Dalmatians overran the territory of the Roman allies and drew many more tribes into the revolt. Tiberius marched on them, but they avoided pitched battles and kept moving around, causing great devastation. In the winter the rebels invaded Macedonia again. Cassius Dio wrote that they did so again even though he had not mentioned a previous invasion of Macedonia. Modern scholars know about this through

6164-467: The Roman colonies, and those on the history of the organization of the Roman provinces, and in some of the character portraits of the great figures of Roman history. Velleius' treatise was not intended as a careful and comprehensive study of history. The author acknowledged as much, and stated his desire to write a more detailed work, which he indicated would give a fuller account of the Civil War , and

6298-638: The Roman force sent against him, more rebels joined him. Then the Breuci, the largest tribe in southern Pannonia, led by a commander also named Bato , marched on Sirmium . Aulus Caecina Severus , the governor of the neighbouring province of Moesia (in modern Serbia, south of the River Sava and west of the River Danube ) quickly advanced against them and defeated them near the River Dravus ( Drava ), but suffered many casualties. Hoping to renew

6432-420: The Romans ( Taurisci and Norici ) was also used, which sailed along the Drava to the Danube, then up the Sava until it reached the Pannonian city by river. It had been placed under the leadership of a certain Menodorus (Menas) and was used in combination with Roman infantry. During the clashes, Menas, formerly a freedman of Sextus Pompey , was killed. Appian relates that "the Romans had previously attacked

6566-849: The Romans judged military worthiness), Tiberius' counter-insurgency campaign and its accompanying scorched earth strategy turned out to be effective. After the aforementioned battle, Aulus Caecina Severus and Marcus Plautius Silvanus joined Tiberius and a huge army was assembled. Velleius Paterculus reported that they brought five legions (three from Moesia and two from the province of Asia, respectively). Tiberius had five legions (three in Pannonia and two in Dalmatia). The legions were not at full strength as Velleius Paterculus mentioned that there were seventy cohorts (ten legions at full complement would have had 100 cohorts ). There were fourteen troops of cavalry, as well as 10,000 reservists, many volunteers, and

6700-518: The Romans pursued them until they entered the city with them, where they killed a third. The rest took refuge in the Citadel, at whose gates a Roman cohort was placed to guard them. On the fourth night the barbarians made another sortie, succeeding in repelling the Roman cohort. Octavian, coming to the aid of his men, succeeded in driving back the enemy and, on the following day, received their surrender. The cohort that had abandoned its position would be

6834-493: The Romans to deal with the Illyrian rebels, although Vatinius was granted the triumph de Illyrico on July 31, 42 BC. In 40 BCE, following the defeat of Caesar's assassins and the creation of a second triumvirate , Octavian and Antony divided the Illyrian area with the pact of Brindisi. Octavian received the northern part and the entire Roman West (apart from proconsular Africa , left to Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ), and Antony

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6968-542: The Romans, given that they had previously served in Roman-trained auxiliary military units. However, they did not have a regular army and relied largely upon guerrilla tactics, avoiding pitched battles. There were only three major battles in the area of Sirmium ( Sremska Mitrovica , in modern Serbia ), in nearby northern Moesia, and a number of minor battles in Dalmatia. Much of the Roman war effort instead involved counter-insurgency operations. In AD 6, Tiberius

7102-405: The Segestans made frequent assaults, trying to destroy them with torches by throwing them from the top of the walls. And when the besieged received outside aid from other Pannonians, Octavian renewed his efforts to reinforce the defenses, destroying part of this relief force and putting the remainder to flight, so much so that they desisted from new aid in the future. A fleet of peoples allied with

7236-497: The Thracian cavalry. There had not been such a large army gathered in a single location since the time of the Roman civil wars. Tiberius decided to escort the newly arrived armies back because the army was too large to be manageable. He then returned to Siscia at the beginning of a very hard winter. In AD 8, the Dalmatians and the Pannonians, ravaged by famine and disease, wanted to sue for peace but were prevented from doing so by

7370-437: The army into three divisions to avoid a mutiny. He put Marcus Plautius Silvanus and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in charge of two of them and led the third against Bato, taking Germanicus with him. The other two divisions easily defeated their enemies. Tiberius chased the fugitive Bato around the country, and finally besieged him at Adetrium, near Salona. This was on a rock and was surrounded by steep ravines. Tiberius held on until Bato

7504-405: The bare bones with real flesh, and in endowing his compendium with more than a mere shadow of vitality, thanks to his own enthusiastic interest in the human side of the great characters of history... [I]t has certain excellences of its own in the treatment of special subjects, especially the chapters on literary history, in which the author has a genuine if not very critical interest, the chapters on

7638-410: The building if things went wrong. So in desperation, they decided to attack the Romans. And because they launched the attack from a lower position against the Romans, who were on higher ground, they were completely overwhelmed. Then the guards set fire to the council hall, and many women killed first their children and then themselves. Others, holding their still-living children in their arms, jumped into

7772-416: The bulk of the enemy army and sent a second army to take possession of the newly occupied enemy fortifications on the hilltops. Dismay, confusion, and terror fell upon the barbarians, for they believed they were being attacked from all sides. Especially those who were still holding out on the hills, alarmed by the fear of being cut off from their water supply, fled to the city of Promona. Octavian surrounded

7906-464: The campaigns of his patron, Tiberius, but there is no reason to believe that he ever did so. His history does not seem to have been widely known in antiquity. According to the scholiast, he was read by Lucan ; the Chronica of Sulpicius Severus seems to have been modeled on Velleius' history; and he is mentioned by Priscian, but this seems to be the extent of his influence prior to the discovery of

8040-558: The capital of the Iapodes, which was located on a high and steep mountain, backed between two ridges with a narrow valley in between. Some 3,000 belligerent and well-armed young men were holed up there, who could easily have held back the Romans, who had surrounded the walls. Octavian gave orders to raise a siege ramp, which the Metulians tried hard to disrupt. Thus it was that, thanks to constant assaults carried both by day and night, and

8174-540: The chain of mountains of the Great Chapel . In fact, as soon as the Roman armies penetrated into enemy territory, the indigenous peoples took refuge in the nearby forests. The Moentini of Monetium ( Brinje ), the Avendeatae of Avendo ( Crkvina , near Otočac ), two tribes of the Iapodes, surrendered as soon as Octavian approached their territories. The Arupini of Arupium ( Prozor ), on the other hand, who were

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8308-511: The city and to have as a guarantee of their good conduct one hundred hostages. He could then quietly use the city as a base of operations in his war against the Dacians. He also demanded as many food supplies as they were able to provide. While the leaders of the city agreed to his demands, the common people, on the other hand, were furious to consider handing over hostages to the Romans, perhaps because they were not their own children but those of

8442-588: The city of Doclea ), Naresii (from the Narenta River valley) and Glintidiones , peoples who inhabited the southern part of Illyricum, south of the Delmatae . From these peoples he obtained the tributes they had previously been unwilling to pay. Once these peoples had been conquered, the Hippasini (a name completely unknown and whose whereabouts are unknown) and the Bessi (a population of Thrace ,

8576-555: The clumsy and involved structure of his sentences, may perhaps be ascribed to insufficient literary training. The inflated rhetoric, the straining after effect by means of hyperbole, antithesis and epigram, mark the degenerate taste of the Silver Age, of which Paterculus is the earliest example. In his introduction to Velleius Paterculus, Frederick W. Shipley takes a middle ground: A compendium of Roman history, hastily compiled by an army officer... could hardly be expected to rise to

8710-581: The coast, who had lost their capital Setovia, thanks to the legate Titus Statilius Taurus . They returned to him the vexilla they had taken from Gabinius in 48 B.C., which were placed in the Portico of Octavia , as well as sending 700 of their sons as hostages. — Augustus, Res Gestae , 29) After subduing the Dalmatians, Octavian proceeded with his advance against the Derbani (who demanded peace by offering Rome hostages and to pay tribute as in

8844-485: The confluence of Sava and Colapis), the capital of the Pannonian Segestans. The Posenians, newly subdued and belonging to one of the communities of the Iapodes, rebelled, but the Roman legate named Marcus Helvius (whom Syme relates to the poet Helvius Cinna ), sent against them, succeeded in nipping the revolt in the bud. Meanwhile, Octavian devastated the Pannonian territory, which was located along

8978-496: The country as possible at once. In Dio's opinion, at this time they did not accomplish anything worthy of note, except for Germanicus defeating the Mazaei, a Dalmatian tribe. In an earlier passage he noted that in this year the country was ravaged and that the rebels did not defend it. They withdrew to mountain fortresses from which they launched raids whenever they could. Therefore, even though there were no spectacular battles (by which

9112-437: The country of the Segestans twice [in 119 B.C. and on another occasion], but having never obtained hostages or anything else, the Segestans became very arrogant." The city finally fell after 30 long days of hard siege, so much so that Octavian admired their courage. Once this important stronghold was captured, Octavian left 25 cohorts there under the orders of Gaius Fufius Geminus, and returned to Rome. The conquest of Siscia

9246-457: The death of Caesar in 44 BC to the death of Augustus in AD 14. Few details of Velleius' life are known with certainty; even his praenomen is uncertain. Priscian , the only ancient author to mention it, calls him "Marcus", but the title page of the editio princeps , printed in 1520, calls him "Publius", probably due to confusion with a Publius Velleius mentioned in Tacitus . Elsewhere,

9380-484: The emperor Augustus) undertook military campaigns in the region. He defeated the Iapydes and then pushed into southern Pannonia, where he seized the city of Segesta (which later, as a Roman town, was called Siscia ). He then turned on the Dalmatians and captured Promona (to the northeast of modern Drniš , Croatia ) on the coast, the main city of the Liburnians, which had been seized by the Dalmatians. After that he took

9514-429: The end of the war weapons, flocks, and lands were confiscated from them, and Pollio was given the victorious title of Delmaticus . Moreover, Wilkes does not believe that Pollio could have fought against the Delmatae , as they were too far from the province of Macedonia, which belonged to Mark Antony 's sphere of influence; much closer was Illyricum, which belonged to Octavian . While Syme believed that Illyricum

9648-465: The events can be found in: Velleius Paterculus Marcus Velleius Paterculus ( / v ɛ ˈ l iː ə s , - ˈ l eɪ ə s / ; c.  19 BC  – c.  AD 31 ) was a Roman historian , soldier and senator. His Roman history, written in a highly rhetorical style, covered the period from the end of the Trojan War to AD 30, but is most useful for the period from

9782-441: The execution of his work, Velleius has shown great skill and judgment, and has adopted the only plan by which an historical abridgement can be rendered either interesting or instructive. He does not attempt to give a consecutive account of all the events of history; he omits entirely a vast number of facts, and seizes only upon a few of the more prominent occurrences, which he describes at sufficient length to leave them impressed upon

9916-439: The few Illyrian fortresses were perched on hilltops. The rest of the Iapodes returned, therefore, to take refuge in the forests, abandoning their main city, whose name was Terponus, which Octavian occupied shortly afterwards but did not burn it, hoping that they would surrender. And so they did shortly thereafter. After conquering Terponus, the Roman army continued in the direction of Metulum (present-day Cakovac near Ogulin ),

10050-499: The fields, and burnt houses, later reaching Tiberius. This campaign ended the war. Two Dalmatian tribes, the Pirustae and Daesitiatae, who had been almost unconquerable because of their mountain strongholds, the narrow passes in which they lived, and their fighting spirit, were almost exterminated. Cassius Dio, instead, wrote that Tiberius returned to Rome. Germanicus was unable to take the well-fortified Splonum by storm. However, when

10184-468: The fighting and on one occasion two legions from the Roman province of Asia were also involved. Through most of the war it was the five legions stationed in Illyricum (three in Pannonia and two in Dalmatia) which were engaged in this war, which covered a very large area. In addition, there were irregular emergency units levied in Italy. The rebels had an efficient military organisation which paralleled that of

10318-484: The fire. The nearby towns surrendered voluntarily. Germanicus rejoined Tiberius, and sent Gaius Vibius Postumus to subdue the other districts. Bato promised to surrender if he and his followers would be pardoned. Tiberius agreed and then asked him why his people had rebelled. According to Cassius Dio, he replied: "You Romans are to blame for this; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." The Romans, aside from committing atrocities during

10452-520: The first attempt by the future emperor Augustus to occupy the Illyrian area , shortly after achieving a definitive victory over Sextus Pompey and before the final and decisive clash with his fellow triumvir , Mark Antony . In the course of the Illyrian War, Octavian conquered (in addition to some less serious foes) the Iapodes , parts of Pannonia around Segestica/Siscia , as well as

10586-537: The first settlement between Octavian and the Roman Senate formalised Octavian's absolute rule, bestowing the title of Augustus on him and making him the first Roman emperor . It also made arrangements about the provinces of the empire. Most provinces remained senatorial provinces, whose governors were chosen by the Senate from among the senators, while the frontier provinces became imperial provinces, whose governors were appointed by Augustus. The province of Illyricum

10720-403: The flames. Thus all the young men of Metulum died in battle, while most of the non-combatants died in the fire." Not only was the city completely destroyed by its own inhabitants, but the other Iapodes also preferred to surrender. And while a Roman contingent was left with them, the bulk of the army continued following the upper Colapis valley in the direction of Segesta (the future Siscia , at

10854-440: The flanks of the road the rest of the legions were traveling. And when his soldiers tried to move the logs brought down by the enemy, the Iapodes suddenly jumped out of the bush and engaged in battle, wounding several legionaries. Eventually the Romans prevailed, killing many of the enemies, partly thanks to the arrival of reinforcements from the heights, those whom Octavian had taken care to have occupied earlier, and who had followed

10988-451: The former suffect consul Titus Statilius Taurus , and military tribune Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus (certainly in 35 B.C.). Appian relates that Octavian initially advanced against the Iapodes , via a steep and difficult road, especially since the enemy had obstructed its path, cutting down numerous trees. The route of march that Wilkes hypothesizes is the one that led from Tergeste to Senia ( Senj ), and then penetrated through

11122-469: The future and silence them. However, since they continued to be insubordinate, he had them all gathered together as if they had been summoned for some other purpose, surrounded them with the rest of the army, took away their weapons, and dismissed them permanently. In this way they understood the determination and strength of their commander. Eventually their continued pleas and requests for forgiveness caused Octavian to pardon them and reintegrate them back into

11256-499: The gorge. As he advanced, he cut down trees, captured and burned every oppidum he found on his way, until he reached Setovia . The city was besieged by the Romans, however, attracting a new army of Dalmatians who had come to the rescue, but were unable to penetrate inside the city. During the siege, Octavian was struck by a stone in the knee and was injured for several days. When he recovered, he returned to Rome to serve as consul along with Lucius Volcatius Tullus (33 B.C.E.) and left

11390-430: The historical writings of Cato the Elder , Quintus Hortensius , Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus , Cornelius Nepos , and Livy , most of which have been lost. He also devotes some attention to Greek and Roman literature, and records unique details about Lucius Afranius and Lucius Pomponius , but he curiously omits any mention of important literary figures such as Plautus , Horace , and Propertius . According to Velleius,

11524-478: The interior territories of present-day Bosnia or the lower Sava valley. In fact, in the north the Roman armies did not advance beyond the stronghold of Siscia , while in the south they did not cross the Dinaric Alps , operating not far from the Adriatic coast. At the end of the third Illyrian campaign, Octavian left a legionary garrison at Siscia . In 32 BC, a number of colonies were founded along

11658-418: The level either of great history or great literature. And yet, taken for what it is, a rapid sketch of some ten centuries of history, it is, in spite of its many defects... the most successful and most readable of all the abridgements of Roman history which have come down to us. Abridgements are usually little more than skeletons; but Velleius has succeeded, in spite of the brief compass of his work, in clothing

11792-499: The main column of their comrades closely down the valley. From there Octavian divided his army into several marching columns (one to cover the central valley and two to parallel the surrounding heights), and advanced eastward in the direction of the Colapis River and across the Dinaric Alps (in the area of Mala Kapela , Plješivica ). The region he was crossing was thickly forested and mountainous, with rare clearings, while

11926-493: The most numerous and fearsome warriors among the Iapodes, when the Roman armies approached, fled into the forests abandoning their towns and villages. However, Octavian avoided burning those places, hoping that they would surrender so that they could reoccupy them, which eventually happened. Before surrendering, however, they prepared to ambush the army, which was advancing into their territory. Octavian, who had expected such behavior, sent contingents to occupy some peaks that lay on

12060-433: The night. Germanicus then seized Seretium and then the other places fell easily. However, other Dalmatians revolted. Cassius Dio also wrote that there was famine in Italy largely due to the war. However, most of the grain was imported from Egypt , the province of Africa , Sicily , and Sardinia . Therefore, it is unclear how the war in Illyricum caused famine in Italy. Augustus sent Tiberius back to Dalmatia. Tiberius split

12194-411: The notables. And when the Roman garrison was approaching, unable to bear the sight of them, they furiously closed the gates and positioned themselves on the walls, ready to defend them. Octavian immediately gave orders to build a bridge across the river and surround the enemy oppidum with a ditch and a palisade, and having blocked them within the fortifications, he had two siege ramps erected. Against these

12328-448: The other bridges by striking them with their long spears. And the fact that they managed to bring down one, then a second, so that when the third bridge collapsed, the Romans were in absolute panic. No one dared to cross the fourth bridge until Augustus jumped down from the tower and, after scolding his soldiers, grabbed a shield and headed for the bridge. "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Hieron, two of his generals, his bodyguard, Lucius, and

12462-844: The past), before fighting. Similarly, other tribes upon his arrival offered him hostages as a guarantee of the pacts signed with them, such as the Docleti (whose capital was Doclea , north of Podgorica ), the Glintidioni , the Naresi , the Interfrurini , the Cambei , the Cinambri , the Taulanti , and the Meromenni (the latter seven tribes were part of the group of small peoples Pliny

12596-534: The peak of perfection in any literary field is arrived at quickly by the first arrivals. However, this was not an original insight, but a standard view of his time. Velleius' style is characterized by the showy rhetoric, hyperbole, and exaggerated figures of speech that were typical of Silver Age Latin . Modern appraisals of his approach and its results vary considerably. In the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology , William Smith writes, In

12730-459: The people of Taulanti. And the legates who had moved northward subdued part of the Carni and Taurisci people (in the area of Vrhnika ), and reached the oppidum of Emona . Octavian, having returned to Dalmatia in the spring of 33 B.C.E., having surrendered the office of consul after only a day to Lucius Autronius Paetus , received the submission and payment of tribute from the Delmatae of

12864-663: The peoples who had rebelled against Rome, but also those who had never before been under its rule. So it was that Octavian achieved a triumph over the Illyrians (who for Cassius Dio and Livy were both the Pannonians , the Delmatae , and the Iapodes ), which he could celebrate only later, along with that for the victory he achieved against Antony at Actium . According to some modern historians such as Ronald Syme , Johannes Kromayer, or Wilkes, this first war did not involve

12998-523: The period from the aftermath of the Trojan War to the destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War , in 146 BC. The volume is missing several portions, including the beginning, and a section following the eighth chapter, which deals with the founding of Rome. The second book, which continues the history from the age of the Gracchi to the consulship of Marcus Vinicius, in AD 30,

13132-577: The place of his birth is unknown. He was a great-great-great-grandson of Minatus Magius of Aeculanum in Samnium , who received the Roman franchise for his actions during the Social War . Several of his ancestors in subsequent generations held important magistracies or military commands, including his uncle, Capito, who was a member of the Roman Senate . As a young man, Velleius served as

13266-462: The ranks of Octavian 's army, he gathered them into a single legion, so that they would be separated from the others and it would be difficult for them to engage the other legionary units in case they wanted to rebel again. By doing so, this unit could be disbanded with great speed. In fact, when they no longer proved as disciplined as before, he sent some of the older ones as colonists to Gaul , thinking that this reward would give them good hope for

13400-459: The ranks of his army, partly because he needed useful soldiers at least for so many different tasks, fearing that Antony, with whom he was now at loggerheads, would appropriate them. Appian of Alexandria recounts that Octavian subdued numerous populations of the Illyrian area such as the Oxyaei , Perthoneatae , Bathiatae , Taulantii , Cambaei , Cinambri , Meromenni , and Pyrissaei in

13534-428: The rebels could reach Rome in ten days if drastic action was not taken. He assigned command of the war to Tiberius. The Roman army was organized into several divisions to evade the united forces of the rebels. Outposts were placed to prevent them from breaking through to Rome, as well as to disrupt their supply lines. In Cassius Dio's version, at first, Bato the Daesitiate had very few followers. However, once he defeated

13668-404: The rebels knew Roman military tactics and spoke Latin. The rebels divided their forces into three parts. One was to invade Italy, which was not far from Nauportus (a Roman fort in present-day Slovenia ); one had already entered the Roman province of Macedonia (present-day Greece ); and the third fought in their home territories. They executed their plan swiftly, massacring Roman civilians and

13802-435: The rebels, who had no hope of being spared by the Romans and so continued to resist. Tiberius had pursued a policy of scorched earth to starve the Pannonians. Cassius Dio also noted that there were grain shortages in Rome the previous year and that later in this year the famine abated. It is not known how widespread this famine was and whether it touched other Mediterranean areas, including Dalmatia and Pannonia, and thus had been

13936-413: The recollection of his hearers. He also exhibits great tact in the manner in which he passes from one subject to another; his reflections are striking and apposite; and his style, which is a close imitation of Sallust's , is characterized by clearness, conciseness, and energy, but at the same time exhibits some of the faults of writers of his age in a fondness for strange and out-of-the-way expressions. As

14070-769: The rest of the population sold as slaves. He finally had all the ships surrendered by the Liburnians so as to prevent them from practicing piracy again in the future. The first campaign moved from the city of Aquileia, where the " headquarters " of some legions were located, and from the Liburnian port of Senia , then crossed the Velebit and entered the plain of the Lika River . Octavian led experienced military people with him, such as his fraternal friend Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , trusted legate Gaius Fufius Geminus,

14204-454: The roads so as to leave no trace of their movements. They headed, therefore, for Synodion (Sunodium), which was at the edge of the forest where Aulus Gabinius ' army had been trapped by the Dalmatians in a long, deep gorge between two mountains (the Čikola valley). They prepared to ambush Octavian's army, but once they arrived, he burned the oppidum and sent soldiers along the tops of the surrounding mountains on both sides as he passed through

14338-464: The same volume calls him Gaius . Some modern writers use the latter name, based on an inscription found on a milestone at El Harrouch in Algeria , once part of Roman Numidia ; but the inscription identifies this Gaius Velleius Paterculus as legatus Augusti , an office that the historian is not known to have held, and it is thought to date from the reigns of Claudius or Nero , by which time he

14472-616: The situation under control. At the same time there was a small rebellion in Dalmatia. The Dentheletae , together with the Scordisci , who lived in present-day Serbia at the confluence of the Rivers Savus (Sava), Dravus ( Drava ), and Danube , attacked the Roman province of Macedonia . A civil war broke out in Thrace . In 15 BC the Romans conquered the Scordisci and annexed Noricum and conducted other operations in other parts of

14606-450: The southern part with Macedonia, along with the entire Roman East. The demarcation line was placed where the old Illyrian capital of Scodra was located. In 39 BC, Gaius Asinius Pollio , to whom Antony had entrusted the government of the province of Macedon as proconsul , penetrated the territory of the Parthians, leading a military campaign that brought the Romans final victory in the area around Dyrrachium , so much so that it earned him

14740-435: The struggle soon because many Romans had fallen, the Breuci called on their allies to join them. Cassius Dio did not specify whether Severus broke a siege of the city or prevented the enemy from reaching it. The Drava was to the northwest of Sirmium and the Romans from Moesia must have come from the east or the south. Thus, if Caecina Severus did break a siege of Sirmium, he would have pursued the retreating Breuci until they made

14874-516: The subject of decimation , meaning that one man out of every ten was randomly killed. The lot fell on two centurions among the others. As a further punishment, the survivors were ordered to eat barley instead of wheat for the rest of the summer. Once Promona was taken, Testimus preferred to disband his army and had it scattered in all directions. According to Appian of Alexandria , the Romans were thus unable to pursue them for long, as they had divided themselves into small bands, keeping well away from

15008-438: The task of carrying out the war to Titus Statilius Taurus . Strabo adds that, before returning to Italy, he also took possession of the city of Ninia ( Knin on the river Titus ) with a secondary military column. At the same time, a Roman fleet, which had departed from southern Italy, faced the Liburnian pirates admirably, subduing the inhabitants of the islands of Melite ( Mljet ) and Corcyra Nigra ( Korčula ) as well as

15142-441: The top of the enemy walls. For the purpose of distracting their attention, Octavian sent some of his troops to the rear of the city, while he ordered the others to cross the bridges to the apex of the walls. To observe the result, he climbed to the top of a high tower. Thus it was that he observed some of the barbarians running down the parapet to counter the Romans who were crossing the bridge, while others, unseen, tried to weaken

15276-410: The two brothers were formally elected under Tiberius, serving their year of office in AD 15. Few other particulars of Velleius' life are known; he dedicated his history to Marcus Vinicius , and from his description of events during the latter's consulship in AD 30, Velleius must still have been alive that year. But Velleius was among the friends of Sejanus , whom he praises in his writing, and as there

15410-591: The war, split Illyrian tribes into different groups from the ones they had previously composed. The administrative civitates of the Osseriates , Colapiani , and Varciani were probably created from the Breuci . Other members of tribes were probably sold as slaves or deported to different locations, such as the Azali . Detailed and critical commentaries of the sources is given in: Useful historical narratives of

15544-539: The writing of Velleius Paterculus (as noted above). They were defeated by Rhoemetalces and his brother Rhascyporis. Dio did not mention any action by the Romans there. Therefore, it is unknown how the Roman governor of this province dealt with the situation; it is also unknown how the previous invasion was dealt with. It might have involved raids, rather than an occupation. Cassius Dio wrote that in AD 7, Augustus sent Tiberius' nephew Germanicus to Illyricum because Tiberius’ lack of activity made him suspicious that Tiberius

15678-543: Was a shortage of grain. Velleius Paterculus wrote that the rebel forces in Pannonia who faced Tiberius were not happy with the size of their forces. They were worn down and brought to the verge of famine (presumably due to ravaging), could not withstand his offensives, and avoided pitched battles. They went to the Claudian Mountains (a mountain range in Pannonia, in Varaždin County in northern Croatia) and took

15812-496: Was about to launch the second campaign against the Marcomanni in Germania . Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus , the governor of Illyricum, had planned to join him with most of his army, and ordered the local tribes to provide auxiliary contingents. However, when these troops gathered, they rebelled under the leadership of a Daesitiate tribal chieftain named Bato and defeated a Roman force sent against them. Although this war

15946-456: Was also in serious trouble under Brutus' attack. A large part of Vatinius's forces defected and sided with Brutus, who then laid siege to Gaius Antonius at Apollonia. The fact, however, that they had to defend themselves against the armies of the triumvirs , Mark Antony and Octavian , who wanted to avenge Caesar's death and were gathering the necessary forces for the decisive clash, which later took place at Philippi (42 B.C. BC), did not allow

16080-455: Was also wounded: in combat he was struck by a stone in the right knee, in another clash he was wounded in the leg and arms by the collapse of a bridge." When Caesar was killed ( Ides of March , 44 BC), the Dalmatians rebelled again, thinking that Roman power resided in the dictator who had just died, and they objected to paying tribute to the governor of Illyricum , Publius Vatinius . The latter, although he attempted to use force against them,

16214-471: Was attacked and suffered the annihilation of as many as five of his cohorts . At the same time, the senate of Rome determined to transfer its army, along with the province of Macedonia and Illyricum to one of Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus . Vatinius was, therefore, forced to fall back to Dyrrhachium , which was located in Macedonia, where the then governor, Gaius Antonius , brother of Mark ,

16348-432: Was constituted out of both Dalmatia and the newly conquered southern Pannonia, and, despite being a frontier province, was designated as a senatorial province. From 14 BC to 10 BC there were a series of rebellions in southern Pannonia and northern Dalmatia which Roman writers referred to as Bellum Pannonicum (the "Pannonian War"). What little is known about these events comes chiefly from brief accounts by Cassius Dio and

16482-500: Was forced to seek terms. However, Bato could not persuade his comrades to accept a truce. Tiberius advanced against the fortress, keeping part of his force in reserve and sending the rest forward in a square formation. The rugged terrain stretched the advancing troops. On seeing this, the Dalmatians lined up outside the wall at the top of the slope and hurled stones at them, separating the Romans further. Tiberius prevented his men from retreating by continuously sending reinforcements. He sent

16616-482: Was intentionally delaying the war so as to remain under arms as long as possible. Augustus seems to have been displeased with what he must have considered a passive strategy. However, Tiberius was very active and was conducting a war of attrition and counter-insurgency operations. This strategy later proved to be the right one. Germanicus was given a force of freemen and freedmen. Some of the latter were requisitioned from their masters, who were compensated. In Rome there

16750-482: Was more interested in the Dacians and Bastarnae. The Dalmatians, after the massacre of their five cohorts in the time of Aulus Gabinius and the taking away of their vexilla (48 B.C.), were elated with their success, so much so that they had not laid down their arms for ten years. And when Octavian advanced against them, they made an alliance among themselves to give each other mutual aid in war. They thus succeeded in gathering an army of more than 12,000 fighters under

16884-404: Was on the plain below in plain view, began to draw a wall around the entire city, but secretly sent some of his bravest men to search for a route to the hills around. So it was that, having taken the route through the woods, they reached the Dalmatian positions in the night and killed the guards as they slept, signaling their victorious action to the Roman commander. Meanwhile, Octavian laid siege to

17018-406: Was probably assigned the work by a copyist, or by one of the grammarians . The work is frequently referred to as a "compendium of Roman history," which has also been used as the title, as have the more abbreviated Historiae Romanae , or Roman History , or simply Historiae or History . The work consists of two books, and was apparently conceived as a universal history . The first covers

17152-503: Was routed and the allied cavalry fled. The legions suffered casualties, but they then rallied and won the day. Cassius Dio's version does not mention Plautius Silvanus; instead, the two Batos went to wait for the arrival of Caecina Severus. They attacked him unexpectedly when he was encamped near the Volcaean marshes, but Severus repulsed the attack. Following this battle the Roman army was divided into detachments to overrun as many parts of

17286-464: Was stronger in open battle, but he was defeated in an ambush. Velleius Paterculus wrote that Messallinus was surrounded by 20,000 men and had only one legion at only half its normal strength (roughly 2,500 men), yet he routed the enemy and was awarded a triumphal decoration (ornamenta triumphalia) and a place in the procession during Tiberius’ Pannonian triumph. Presumably Valerius Messallinus was then sent to defend Salona. According to Cassius Dio, Bato

17420-433: Was tension between rebel deserters who wanted to carry on the fight and the inhabitants who wanted peace, which eventually developed into violence. The women reportedly helped the deserters because, contrary to their men, they did not want to suffer servitude. The deserters were defeated and surrendered. The women took their children and threw themselves into the flames or the river below. Cassius Dio did not specify what caused

17554-465: Was the most important strategic region of the Roman Empire , Wilkes believes that it was necessary for Octavian to secure control of the road that connected northern Italy ( Gallia cisalpina ) with the middle/lower Danube , to the eastern frontier. This route passed through important (and future) Roman administrative/military centers such as Siscia and Sirmium on the Sava , Singidunum on

17688-466: Was the only occasion on which the different peoples in the province of Illyricum united against the Romans. The main tribes which contributed to the alliance were the Daesitiatae , Breuci , Dalmatae , Andizetes , Pannonians , Pirustae , Liburnians , and Iapydes (the latter two fighting under an unknown leader). The Dalmatians were led by Bato the Daesitiate , while the Breuci were led by Bato

17822-464: Was to be the prelude to an advance against the Bastarnae and Dacians , now orphaned by Burebista and divided by factional struggles. During the winter of 35-34 B.C.E., a rumor that turned out to be false informed Octavian that the Segestans had massacred the garrison left in their main city. Octavian, who was still in Rome, had to leave in a hurry. And although the garrison had been endangered by

17956-432: Was wounded in his right leg and both arms, he quickly climbed the tower and waved his arms to show that he was safe and sound, fearing that his men, frightened by his possible death, might retreat. Not wanting to give the enemy the impression that he was retreating, he decided to have new bridges built at once, ready for a new attack, so as to strike terror into the hearts of the inhabitants of Metulum, who thought they had won

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