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73-487: Casas Grandes is one of the largest and most complex Mogollon culture sites in the region. Settlement began after 1130 AD, and the larger buildings developed into multi-storied dwellings after 1350 AD. The community was abandoned approximately in 1450 AD. Casas Grandes is regarded as one of the most significant Mogollon archaeological zones in the northwestern Mexico region, linking it to other sites in Arizona and New Mexico in

146-409: A meter or more downwards. This means that the burrowed mud is a productive habitat , providing food and shelter for a wide range of mud-dwellers and other animals that forage in and over the mud. Mud can pose problems for motor traffic when moisture is present, because every vehicle function that changes direction or speed relies on friction between the tires and the road surface, so

219-401: A collection of 20 or more clusters of houses, each with a plaza and enclosing wall. These single-story adobe dwellings shared a unified water system. Evidence indicates that Paquimé possessed an intricate water management system comprising underground drain networks, reservoirs , channels for water distribution to the residences, and a sewage system. After being burned about 1340, Casas Grandes

292-517: A commercial analysis—e.g. 21-0-0-24 which would contain 21% nitrogen and 24% sulfate. Inorganic fertilizers are generally less expensive and have higher concentrations of nutrients than organic fertilizers. Also, since nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium generally must be in the inorganic forms to be taken up by plants, inorganic fertilizers are generally immediately bioavailable to plants without modification. However, studies suggest that chemical fertilizers have adverse health impacts on humans including

365-491: A layer of mud on the surface of the road or tires can cause the vehicle to hydroplane . People and cars can also become stuck in mud, as in quicksand . Heavy rainfall , snowmelt , or high levels of groundwater may trigger a movement of soil or sediments , possibly causing mudslides , landslides , avalanches , or sinkholes . Mudslides in volcanic terrain (called lahars ) occur after eruptions as rain remobilizes loose ash deposits. Mudslides are also common in

438-452: A limiting factor on plant growth. Peer-reviewed and published scientific studies have shown that increasing CO 2 is highly effective at promoting plant growth up to levels over 300 ppm. Further increases in CO 2 can, to a very small degree, continue to increase net photosynthetic output. Soil depletion occurs when the components which contribute to fertility are removed and not replaced, and

511-500: A mixture of subsoil and water possibly with the addition of stones, gravel , straw , lime , and/or bitumen . This material was used a variety of ways to build walls , floors and even roofs . For thousands of years it was common in most parts of the world to build walls using mudbricks or the wattle and daub , rammed earth or cob techniques and cover the surfaces with earthen plaster. Mud can be made into mud bricks, also called adobe , by mixing mud with water, placing

584-507: A new home. The language the inhabitants of Casas Grandes spoke is unknown. Given the Mesoamerican influence on Casas Grandes, Nahuatl was probably widely spoken but it was not the primary language of the people. Fertile soil Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to sustain agricultural plant growth , i.e. to provide plant habitat and result in sustained and consistent yields of high quality. It also refers to

657-487: A number of decisions that depleted the soils, including: allowing herd animals to wander freely, not replenishing soils with manure, and a sequence of events that led to erosion. William Cronon wrote that "...the long-term effect was to put those soils in jeopardy. The removal of the forest, the increase in destructive floods, the soil compaction and close-cropping wrought by grazing animals, ploughing—all served to increase erosion." Cronon continues, explaining, “Where mowing

730-471: A period of years or quickly. The Spanish explorer Francisco de Ibarra found the site of Casa Grandes in 1565. The Indians nearby, non-agricultural nomads, probably Suma or Jano, told him that a war with village dwellers, the Opata , four days journey west had caused the abandonment of Casas Grandes and that the inhabitants had moved six days journey north. This story suggests the people of Casas Grandes joined

803-419: A required shape and heating them to high temperatures in a kiln which removes all the water from the clay , which induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing their strength and hardening and setting their shape. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing. Prior to some shaping processes, clay must be prepared. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout

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876-418: A subject, the traditional or conventional images or symbols associated with a subject and especially a religious or legendary subject, including art. In the case with the ruins found at Casas Grandes, iconography has proven to be particularly important in understanding gender differences, especially in regards to trade, daily tasks, and religious rituals. Effigies (small figurines) were found through excavation of

949-521: A well-drained flat roof may be protected with a well-prepared ( puddled ) and properly maintained dried mud coating, viable as the mud will expand when moistened and so become more water resistant. Adobe mudbricks were commonly used by the Pueblo Indians to build their homes and other necessary structures. In some countries there are entire cities made of mud brick houses. Cow dung and biomass are added to regulate indoor climate. Mud that

1022-476: A white or reddish surface, with ornamentation in blue, red, brown, or black. In the past it was sometimes considered to be of better manufacture than the contemporary pottery in the area. Effigy bowls and vessels were often formed in the shape of a painted human figure. Casas Grandes pottery was traded among prehistoric peoples as far north as present-day New Mexico and Arizona and throughout northern Mexico. The archaeologist Stephen Lekson has noted that Paquimé

1095-458: Is irrigated with low pH / acidic water , the useful salts (Ca, Mg, K, P, S, etc.) are removed by draining water from the acidic soil and in addition unwanted aluminium and manganese salts to the plants are dissolved from the soil impeding plant growth. When soil is irrigated with high salinity water or sufficient water is not draining out from the irrigated soil, the soil would convert into saline soil or lose its fertility. Saline water enhance

1168-407: Is a stage in the process of refinement of the materials , since larger particles will settle from the liquid . Mud can provide a home for numerous types of animals, including varieties of worms , frogs , snails , clams , and crayfish . Other animals, such as hippopotamuses , pigs , rhinoceroses , water buffalo and elephants , bathe in mud in order to cool off and protect themselves from

1241-422: Is aligned on roughly the same longitudinal axis as Chaco Canyon and Aztec Ruins , with an error of only a few kilometres/miles. Chaco reached its cultural peak first, then Aztec and Paquimé. The similarities among these sites may indicate that their ruling elites also had a ceremonial connection. Lekson proposed that ruling elites, once removed from their prior positions at Chaco, re-established their hegemony over

1314-454: Is because soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation generally result in a decline in quality with respect to one or more of the aspects indicated above. Soil fertility and quality of land have been impacted by the effects of colonialism and slavery both in the U.S. and globally. The introduction of harmful land practices such as intensive and non-prescribed burnings and deforestation by colonists created long-lasting negative results to

1387-542: Is becoming increasingly harder to find and its reserves are starting to be depleted due to the excessive use as a fertilizer. The widespread use of phosphorus in fertilizers has led to pollution and eutrophication . Recently the term peak phosphorus has been coined, due to the limited occurrence of rock phosphate in the world. A wide variety of materials have been described as soil conditioners due to their ability to improve soil quality , including biochar , offering multiple soil health benefits. Food waste compost

1460-406: Is contained within the eponymous modern municipio (municipality) of Casas Grandes . The valley and region have been inhabited by aboriginal groups for millennia. Between 1130 and 1300 AD, the area's inhabitants started gathering in small settlements within this expansive fertile valley. The most extensive identified settlement is now recognized as Paquimé or Casas Grandes . It originated as

1533-513: Is eroded or depleted of its original organic material. The Dust Bowl in the Great Plains of North America is a great example of this with about one-half of the original topsoil of the great plains having disappeared since the beginning of agricultural production there in the 1880s. Outside of the context of colonialism topsoil depletion can historically be attributed to many past civilizations' collapses. As historian David Silkenat explains,

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1606-520: Is generally a chocolate or cornstarch-based sludge used more for visual appeal than actual taste. However, it does not contain real mud. A mud bath is a bath of mud, commonly from areas where hot spring water can combine with volcanic ash . Mud baths have existed for thousands of years, and can be found now in high-end spas . Mud wallows are a common source of entertainment for children . Mud wallows can be any shape, size, depth and some can have water as well as mud. Usually wallows are shallow dips in

1679-400: Is mostly clay, or a mixture of clay and sand may be used for ceramics , of which one form is the common fired brick . Fired brick are more durable but consume much more energy to produce. Stabilized mud (earth, soil) is mud which has had a binder such as cement or bitumen added. Examples are mudcrete , landcrete, and soil cement . Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of

1752-677: Is reasoned they represent cultural groups related and linked to the Mogollon culture. Early ethnologist Hubert Howe Bancroft , in his The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America (1874), had alleged that they are related to the modern-day Hopi People , referred as "Moqui" during his period. Contemporary scholars have not precisely identified the descendants of the Casas Grandes people. Iconography can be simply defined as pictorial or material relating to or illustrating

1825-507: Is that Casas Grandes was established by the elites of the Ancestral Puebloans from the north who were leaving Chaco Canyon and other areas during their decline. The third theory is that Casas Grandes is purely a local creation, a community that grew over time to dominate its region and adopted some religious and social customs from the civilizations of Mesoamerica. There is common academic agreement that trading existed between

1898-421: Is the element in soil that is most often lacking. Nitrogen and potassium are also needed in substantial amounts. For this reason these three elements are always identified on a commercial fertilizer analysis. For example, a 10-10-15 fertilizer has 10 percent nitrogen, 10 percent available phosphorus (P 2 O 5 ) and 15 percent water-soluble potassium (K 2 O). Sulfur is the fourth element that may be identified in

1971-661: Is the presence of a row of macaw pens in the center of the site. Archaeologists concluded that the community had imported an initial population of scarlet macaws from Mesoamerica and raised them as their feathers were considered sacred and important in Mesoamerican rituals. A major collection of Casas Grandes pottery is currently held by the Museum of Peoples and Cultures at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah . Stanford University in California also holds pottery artifacts from

2044-784: The Pueblos on the Rio Grande in New Mexico. Other theories are that the Casas Grandes people migrated west to Sonora and joined or became the Opata whom the Spaniards found in the mid 16th century living in "statelets," small but well-organized city states. It is also possible that Casas Grandes was abandoned because opportunities were greater elsewhere. Other communities in the Southwest are known to have been abandoned in favor of

2117-447: The sun . Submerged mud can be home to larvae of various insects . Mud plays an important role in the marine ecosystem . The activities of burrowing animals and fish have a dramatic churning effect on muddy seabeds . This allows the exchange and cycling of oxygen , nutrients , and minerals between water and sediment . Below the surface, the burrows of some species form intricate lattice-like networks and may penetrate

2190-523: The turgor pressure or osmotic pressure requirement which impedes the off take of water and nutrients by the plant roots. Top soil loss takes place in alkali soils due to erosion by rain water surface flows or drainage as they form colloids (fine mud) in contact with water. Plants absorb water-soluble inorganic salts only from the soil for their growth. Soil as such does not lose fertility just by growing crops but it lose its fertility due to accumulation of unwanted and depletion of wanted inorganic salts from

2263-441: The western United States during El Niño years due to prolonged rainfall. Geophagia is the practice of eating earth or soil-like substances, also known as geophagy, and is practiced by some non-human primates and by humans in some cultures. In other human cultures it is considered an eating disorder and classed as Pica . Mississippi mud pie is a chocolate based dessert pie. Children's recipes for "mud" also exist, which

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2336-521: The Amazon was strongly influenced by the formation of Dark Earth. As a result, Amazonian societies benefitted from the dark earth in terms of agricultural success and enhanced food production. Soil analyses have been completed on the modern and ancient Kuikuro Indigenous Territory in the Upper Xingu River basin in southeastern Amazonia through archaeological and ethnographic research to determine

2409-728: The Amazonian regions of South America, particularly the size of the communities and the depth of interactions with the environment, are continually debated. Central to the debate is the influence of Dark Earth. Dark Earth is a type of soil found in the Amazon that has a darker color, higher organic carbon content, and higher fertility than soil in other regions of South America which makes it highly coveted even today. Dark Earth deposits have been found, through ethnographic and archaeological studies, to have been created through ancient Indigenous practices by intentional soil management. Ethnoarchaeologist Morgan Schmidt outlines how this carbon-rich soil

2482-526: The Middle East for example, many countries find it difficult to grow produce because of droughts, lack of soil, and lack of irrigation. The Middle East has three countries that indicate a decline in crop production, the highest rates of productivity decline are found in hilly and dryland areas. Many countries in Africa also undergo a depletion of fertile soil. In regions of dry climate like Sudan and

2555-493: The United States, and demonstrating the extent of the Mogollon sphere of influence. The Casas Grandes complex is situated in a broad, fertile valley along the Casas Grandes or San Miguel River, approximately 56 kilometres (35 mi) south of Janos and 240 kilometres (150 mi) northwest of the state capital, Chihuahua . The settlement depended on irrigation to sustain its agricultural activities. The archaeological zone

2628-580: The angles stand 12 to 15 metres (40 to 50 ft) high, and indicate an original elevation of up to six or seven stories. Ruins about 140 metres (450 ft) from the main grouping consist of a series of rooms ranged round a square court, seven rooms to each side with a larger apartment at each corner. The settlement featured T-shaped doorways and stone disks at the bottom of ceiling support columns, both distinctive of Puebloan architecture. Casas Grandes had ballcourts, though they were relatively small compared to other major sites. The ballcourts at Paquime are in

2701-775: The area at Aztec and later Paquime. This idea, though, remains controversial and is not as widely accepted as often reported (cf. Lekson 2009). It has been proposed, and more widely accepted, that the origins of Paquime can be found in its connection with the Mogollon culture . At the time of the Spanish Conquest , the district of Casas Grandes was studded with artificial mounds, from which looters took numerous stone axes, metates or corn-grinders, and earthenware pottery vessels of various kinds. Before significant archaeological investigation, sizable portions of buildings from pre-Columbian times were extant about 800 metres from

2774-492: The area directly controlled by Casas Grandes was relatively small, extending out about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the city. The population may have been about 2,500 in Casas Grandes with perhaps 10,000 people living within its area of control. Specialized craft activities included the production of copper bells and ornaments, extensive pottery , and beads from marine molluscs . These crafts were probably distributed by an extensive trading network. Casas Grandes pottery has

2847-434: The body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging . Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, it is shaped by a variety of techniques. After shaping it is dried and then fired. In ceramics , the making of liquid mud (called slip )

2920-734: The classic "I" shape of those found Mesoamerica, and not the oval-shaped ones found in association with the Hohokam culture in south and central Arizona. A 2,300-kilogram (5,000 lb) iron meteorite was found in one of the rooms, carefully wrapped in linen. The meteorite is displayed in the Janet Annenberg Hooker Hall of Geology, Gems and Minerals at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History . Excavations in one compound produced eggshell fragments, bird skeletons, and traces of wooden perches. Additionally, there

2993-622: The conditions which support soil's fertility are not maintained. This leads to poor crop yields. In agriculture, depletion can be due to excessively intense cultivation and inadequate soil management . Depletion may occur through a variety of other effects, including overtillage (which damages soil structure), underuse of nutrient inputs which leads to mining of the soil nutrient bank, and salinization of soil. Soil fertility can be severely challenged when land-use changes rapidly. For example, in Colonial New England , colonists made

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3066-499: The countries that make up the Sahara Desert , droughts and soil degradation is common. Cash crops such as teas, maize, and beans require a variety of nutrients in order to grow healthy. Soil fertility has declined in the farming regions of Africa and the use of artificial and natural fertilizers has been used to regain the nutrients of ground soil. The details of Indigenous societies prior to European colonization in 1492 within

3139-480: The cultures of Mesoamerica, Aridoamerica, and the American southwest, though not on a large or planned scale. As no system like the pochteca existed in the north, the architectural remains throughout yet share a commonality of knowledge from north to south, that included such ancient population centers such as at Snaketown . Casas Grandes was abandoned in about 1450. It is unclear whether it was abandoned slowly over

3212-495: The development of chronic disease from the toxins. As for the environment, over-reliance on inorganic fertilizers disrupts the natural nutrient balance in the soil, resulting in lower soil quality, loss of organic matter, and higher chances for erosion in the soil. Additionally, the water-soluble nitrogen in inorganic fertilizers does not provide for the long-term needs of the plant and creates water pollution. Slow-release fertilizers may reduce leaching loss of nutrients and may make

3285-618: The eastern side as lending toward the Puebloan peoples of North America and the west as referencing the cultures to the south in Mesoamerica. This visual motif is prevalent throughout the other sites sharing the same longitudinal line, indicating that they were built by a common group. The homes at Paquimé were circular and semi-circular pit houses and coursed-adobe room blocks built around plazas. The living spaces varied in size from closet -sized to extensive courtyards . Walls at many of

3358-463: The environment naturally intersect in complex and powerful ways, leaving lasting effects from the period of emancipation through modern-day reckonings with racial justice…the land too fell victim to the slave owner’s lash”. One of the most widespread occurrences of soil depletion as of 2008 is in tropical zones where nutrient content of soils is low. The depletion of soil has affected the state of plant life and crops in agriculture in many countries. In

3431-414: The environment. Soil fertility and depletion have different origins and consequences in various parts of the world. The intentional creation of dark earth in the Amazon promotes the important relationship between indigenous communities and their land. In African and Middle Eastern regions, humans and the environment are also altered due to soil depletion. Bioavailable phosphorus (available to soil life)

3504-562: The goals of Southern plantation and slave owners, instead of measuring productivity based on outputs per acre, were to maximize the amount of labor that could be extracted from the enslaved workforce. The landscape was seen as disposable, and the African slaves were seen as expendable. Once these Southern farmers forced slaves to leach soils and engage in mass deforestation, they would discard the land and move towards more fertile prospects. The forced slave practices created extensive destruction on

3577-503: The human relation to the soil. The “results demonstrate the intentional creation of dark earth, highlighting how Indigenous knowledge can provide strategies for sustainable rainforest management”. In Egypt, earthworms of the Nile River Valley contributed to the significant fertility of the soils. As a result, Cleopatra declared the earthworm and sacred animal to recognize the animal’s positive impact. No one, including farmers,

3650-438: The intensity, seasonality, and frequency of the burns, the conservation of biodiversity and the overall health of the soil can be negatively impacted by fire. In addition to soil erosion through using too much or too little fire, colonial agriculture also resulted in topsoil depletion. Topsoil depletion occurs when the nutrient-rich organic topsoil , which takes hundreds to thousands of years to build up under natural conditions,

3723-448: The land. The environmental impact included draining swamps, clearing forests for monocropping and fuel steamships, and introducing invasive species, all leading to fragile ecosystems. In the aftermath, these ecosystems left hillsides eroded, rivers clogged with sterile soil, and extinction of native species. Silkenat summarizes this phenomenon of the relationship between enslavement and soil, “Although typically treated separately, slavery and

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3796-536: The mixture into moulds and then allowing it to dry in open air . Straw is sometimes used as a binder within the bricks , as it makes them a composite . When the brick would otherwise break, the straw will redistribute the force throughout the brick, decreasing the chance of breakage . Such buildings must be protected from groundwater , usually by building upon a masonry, fired brick, rock or rubble foundation, and also from wind-driven rain in damp climates , usually by deep roof overhangs. In extremely dry climates

3869-421: The modern community. The ruins were built of sun-dried blocks of mud and gravel , about 56 centimetres (22 in) thick, and of irregular length, generally about 1 metre (3 ft), probably formed and dried in place. The thick walls seem to have been plastered both inside and outside. A principal structure extended 240 metres (800 ft) from north to south, and 76 metres (250 ft) east to west. It

3942-492: The north led to the common agreement that the site is part of the Mogollon culture sphere of influence. Three other theories compete to explain its existence. The archaeologist Charles C. Di Peso advanced the theory that Casas Grandes was a backwater until about 1200 CE when pochteca (traders) from the Aztec empire or other Mesoamerican states to the south turned it into a major trading center. A diametrically opposed theory

4015-417: The nutrients in microbial biomass , a process often called immobilization . The balance between immobilization and mineralization processes depends on the balance and availability of major nutrients and organic carbon to soil microorganisms. Natural processes such as lightning strikes may fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to (NO 2 ). Denitrification may occur under anaerobic conditions (flooding) in

4088-651: The nutrients that they provide available over a longer period of time. Soil fertility is a complex process that involves the constant cycling of nutrients between organic and inorganic forms. As plant material and animal wastes are decomposed by micro-organisms, they release inorganic nutrients to the soil solution, a process referred to as mineralization . Those nutrients may then undergo further transformations which may be aided or enabled by soil micro-organisms. Like plants, many micro-organisms require or preferentially use inorganic forms of nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium and will compete with plants for these nutrients, tying up

4161-450: The presence of denitrifying bacteria. Nutrient cations, including potassium and many micronutrients, are held in relatively strong bonds with the negatively charged portions of the soil in a process known as cation exchange . Phosphorus is a primary factor of soil fertility as it is an element of plant nutrients in the soil. It is essential for cell division and plant development, especially in seedlings and young plants. However, phosphorus

4234-517: The resultant layers are termed bay muds . Mud has also been used for centuries as a construction resource for mostly houses and also used as a binder. In the construction industry, mud is a semi-fluid material that can be used to coat, seal, or adhere materials. The term "mud" can be used for various semi-fluid materials used in construction including slurry , mortar , plaster , stucco , and concrete . Mud, cob , adobe , clay , and many other names are historically used synonymously to mean

4307-470: The site, thus the effigies show definite gender and sex differences between males and females in society. The similar characteristics of the effigies such as body positions, body proportions, activities, and facial decorations allow archaeologist to make assumptions of how gender differences were portrayed. Artisans of Casas Grandes depicted a wide range of behaviors and beliefs from rules about social behavior (sitting positions) to ritual activities (smoking) and

4380-636: The site. A group of 23 pottery vessels from the site was acquired by the British Museum in 1979. A new permanent exhibit, Without Borders: The Deep History of Paquimé, has also recently opened at the Amerind Museum . The remainder of the material culture recovered from Paquime is located in the care of INAH in Casas Grandes, Chihuahua and Chihuahua City, Chihuahua. Casas Grandes' ruins are similar to neighboring ruins near Gila and Salinas in New Mexico, as well as Arizona and Colorado . It

4453-608: The soil by improper irrigation and acid rain water (quantity and quality of water). The fertility of many soils which are not suitable for plant growth can be enhanced many times gradually by providing adequate irrigation water of suitable quality and good drainage from the soil. Mud Mud is loam , silt or clay mixed with water. It is usually formed after rainfall or near water sources. Ancient mud deposits hardened over geological time to form sedimentary rock such as shale or mudstone (generally called lutites ). When geological deposits of mud are formed in estuaries ,

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4526-509: The soil for the benefit of the human and non-human world. He continues that industrial agriculture disrupts the delicate balance of nature and irrevocably robs the soil of its fertility. Irrigation is a process by which crops are watered by man-made means, such as bringing in water from pipes, canals, or sprinklers. Irrigation is used when the natural rainfall patterns of a region are not sustainable enough to maintain crops. Ancient civilizations heavily relied on irrigation and today about 18% of

4599-400: The soil's ability to supply plant/crop nutrients in the right quantities and qualities over a sustained period of time. A fertile soil has the following properties: The following properties contribute to soil fertility in most situations: In lands used for agriculture and other human activities, maintenance of soil fertility typically requires the use of soil conservation practices. This

4672-418: The soil. This must be gotten into good condition first of all and then the reaction of the soil, the plant, animal, and man observed. Many diseases will then automatically disappear...Soil fertility is the basis of the public health system of the future...”. Howard connects the health crises of crops to the impacts of livestock and human health, ultimately spreading the message that humans must respect and restore

4745-712: The supernatural (horned/plumed serpents). Based on archaeologists' studies of the effigies found, the activities of women and men were both valued, and social differentiation was based more on individual status and class membership than sex and gender. Contrasting specific pictorial representations of the effigies include masculine identified features and activities such as sitting with their legs flexed to their bodies, decorated with pound signs and horned serpent imagery, smoking, and their penis. Females in contrast have large midsections sitting with their legs extended, decorated with modified pound signs and bird imagery, holding children and pots, and occasionally nursing. The effigies depicted

4818-402: The way in which the Casas Grandes people thought social life should be implemented based on gender differences and provide insight on the simple aspects of society. Various theories exist as to the inhabitants of Casas Grandes, but the most logical relationship of Casas Grandes to Forty Houses 97 kilometres (60 mi) to the south and to TJ Ruins and Gila Cliff 320 kilometres (200 mi) to

4891-466: The world's cropland is irrigated. The quality of irrigation water is very important to maintain soil fertility and tilth , and for using more soil depth by the plants. When soil is irrigated with high alkaline water, unwanted sodium salts build up in the soil which would make soil draining capacity very poor. So plant roots can not penetrate deep into the soil for optimum growth in Alkali soils . When soil

4964-417: Was found to have better soil improvement than manure based compost. Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants use light energy to drive chemical reactions which convert CO 2 into sugars. As such, all plants require access to both light and carbon dioxide to produce energy, grow and reproduce. While typically limited by nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, low levels of carbon dioxide can also act as

5037-476: Was generally rectangular, and appears to have consisted of three separate units joined by galleries or lines of lower buildings. The eastern and western halves of the city are divided by a stone wall and reservoirs. The monuments on the east are rectilinear, puddled adobe structures used primarily for domestic and manufacturing purposes. The buildings on the west, on the other hand, are open earth mounds lined in stone for public displays. This visual structure defines

5110-468: Was intentionally created by communities in the Amazon. While Dark Earth, and other anthropic soils, can be found all throughout the world, Amazonian Dark Earth is particularly significant because “it contrasts too sharply with the especially poor fertility of typical highly weathered tropical upland soils in the Amazon”. There is much evidence to suggest that the development of ancient agricultural societies in

5183-409: Was rebuilt with multi-story apartment buildings to replace the small buildings. Casas Grandes consisted of about 2,000 adjoining rooms built of adobe, I-shaped Mesoamerican ballcourts , stone-faced platforms, effigy mounds, and a market area. About 350 other, smaller settlement sites have been found in the Casas Grandes area, some as far as 70 kilometres (43 mi) away. Archaeologists believe that

5256-1148: Was unnecessary and grazing among living trees was possible, settlers saved labor by simply burning the forest undergrowth...and turning loose their cattle...In at least one ill-favored area, the inhabitants of neighboring towns burned so frequently and graze so intensively that…the timber was greatly injured, and the land became hard to subdue...In the long run, cattle tended to encourage the growth of woody, thorn-bearing plants which they could not eat and which, once established, were very difficult to remove”. These practices were methods of simplifying labor for colonial settlers in new lands when they were not familiar with traditional Indigenous agricultural methods. Those Indigenous communities were not consulted but rather forced out of their homelands so European settlers could commodify their resources. The practice of intensive land burning and turning loose cattle ruined soil fertility and prohibited sustainable crop growth. While colonists utilized fire to clear land, certain prescribed burning practices are common and valuable to increase biodiversity and in turn, benefit soil fertility. Without consideration of

5329-536: Was “allowed to harm or remove an earthworm for fear of offending the deity of fertility”. In Ghana and Liberia, it is a long-withstanding practice to combine different types of waste to create fertile soil that is referred to as African Dark Earths. This soil, contains high concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, and carbon. Albert Howard is credited as the first Westerner to publish Native techniques of sustainable agriculture. As noted by Howard in 1944, “In all future studies of disease we must, therefore, always begin with

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