Paranoia is an instinct or thought process that is believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety , suspicion , or fear , often to the point of delusion and irrationality . Paranoid thinking typically includes persecutory beliefs, or beliefs of conspiracy concerning a perceived threat towards oneself (i.e., "Everyone is out to get me" ). Paranoia is distinct from phobias , which also involve irrational fear, but usually no blame.
140-528: Making false accusations and the general distrust of other people also frequently accompany paranoia. For example, a paranoid person might believe an incident was intentional when most people would view it as an accident or coincidence. Paranoia is a central symptom of psychosis . A common symptom of paranoia is attribution bias . These individuals typically have a biased perception of reality, often exhibiting more hostile beliefs than average. A paranoid person may view someone else's accidental behavior as though it
280-545: A self-fulfilling prophecy . It has been suggested that a "hierarchy" of paranoia exists, extending from mild social evaluative concerns, through ideas of social reference, to persecutory beliefs concerning mild, moderate, and severe threats. A paranoid reaction may be caused from a decline in brain circulation as a result of high blood pressure or hardening of the arterial walls. Drug-induced paranoia, associated with cannabis and stimulants like amphetamines or methamphetamine , has much in common with schizophrenic paranoia;
420-552: A belief that inhibits critical functioning and is widely considered delusional in one population may be common (and even adaptive) in another, or in the same population at a later time. Since normative views may contradict available evidence, a belief need not contravene cultural standards in order to be considered delusional. Prevalence in schizophrenia is generally considered at least 90%, and around 50% in bipolar disorder. The DSM-5 characterizes certain delusions as "bizarre" if they are clearly implausible, or are incompatible with
560-446: A brain disorder. Historically, Karl Jaspers classified psychotic delusions into primary and secondary types. Primary delusions are defined as arising suddenly and not being comprehensible in terms of normal mental processes, whereas secondary delusions are typically understood as being influenced by the person's background or current situation (e.g., ethnicity; also religious, superstitious, or political beliefs). Disorganization
700-431: A cenesthetic hallucination, is characterized by visceral sensations in the absence of stimuli. Cenesthetic hallucinations may include sensations of burning, or re-arrangement of internal organs. Psychosis may involve delusional beliefs. A delusion is a fixed, false idiosyncratic belief , which does not change even when presented with incontrovertible evidence to the contrary. Delusions are context- and culture-dependent:
840-451: A circular relationship: more hypervigilance generates more rumination, whereupon more rumination generates more hypervigilance. Hypervigilance can be thought of as a way to appraise threatening social information, but in contrast to adaptive vigilance, hypervigilance will produce elevated levels of arousal, fear, anxiety, and threat perception. Rumination is another possible response to threatening social information. Rumination can be related to
980-541: A continuous systematized delusion arising much later in life with no presence of either hallucinations or a deteriorating course, paraphrenia as an identical syndrome to paranoia but with hallucinations. Even at the present time, a delusion need not be suspicious or fearful to be classified as paranoid. A person might be diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia without delusions of persecution, simply because their delusions refer mainly to themselves. It has generally been agreed upon that individuals with paranoid delusions will have
1120-540: A dangerous and destructive impact on some athletes. A self-fulfilling prophecy may be a form of causality loop. Predestination does not necessarily involve a supernatural power, and could be the result of other "infallible foreknowledge" mechanisms. Problems arising from infallibility and influencing the future are explored in Newcomb's paradox . A notable fictional example of a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs in classical play Oedipus Rex , in which Oedipus becomes
1260-409: A deliberate and specific act by or message from some other entity), delusions of grandeur (the belief that one possesses special power or influence beyond one's actual limits), thought broadcasting (the belief that one's thoughts are audible) and thought insertion (the belief that one's thoughts are not one's own). A delusion may also involve misidentification of objects, persons, or environs that
1400-549: A desired or expected outcome." The works of philosophers Karl Popper and Alan Gerwith also contributed to the idea. An early precursor of the concept appears in Edward Gibbon 's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire : "During many ages, the prediction, as it is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment". The phrase "self-fulfilling prophecy" was coined by Robert K. Merton , a sociologist who also developed
1540-702: A disturbing and threatening social environment. Paranoid cognition captures the idea that dysphoric self-consciousness may be related with the position that people occupy within a social system. This self-consciousness conduces to a hypervigilant and ruminative mode to process social information that finally will stimulate a variety of paranoid-like forms of social misperception and misjudgment. This model identifies four components that are essential to understanding paranoid social cognition: situational antecedents, dysphoric self-consciousness, hypervigilance and rumination, and judgmental biases. Perceived social distinctiveness, perceived evaluative scrutiny and uncertainty about
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#17327828435861680-487: A failure of feedforward networks from sensory cortices to the inferior frontal cortex, which normally cancel out sensory cortex activity during internally generated speech. The resulting disruption in expected and perceived speech is thought to produce lucid hallucinatory experiences. The two-factor model of delusions posits that dysfunction in both belief formation systems and belief evaluation systems are necessary for delusions. Dysfunction in evaluations systems localized to
1820-415: A first-episode of psychosis and prediabetes. Self-fulfilling prophecy A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true at least in part as a result of a person's belief or expectation that the prediction would come true. In the phenomena, people tend to act the way they have been expected to in order to make the expectations come true. Self-fulfilling prophecies are an example of
1960-509: A great kingdom. Assuming this meant he would succeed, he attacked, only to fail—the kingdom he destroyed was his own. When it was predicted that Cronos would be overthrown by his son, and usurp his throne as King of the Gods, Cronus ate his children, each shortly after they were born, enraging his wife, Rhea. To get revenge, when she bore Zeus, she gave Cronos a stone to eat instead, sending Zeus to be raised by Amalthea . Cronos' attempt to avoid
2100-429: A large number of medications may provoke psychotic symptoms. Drugs that can induce psychosis experimentally or in a significant proportion of people include: The first brain image of an individual with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called pneumoencephalography (a painful and now obsolete procedure where cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow
2240-490: A long history of methamphetamine use and who have experienced psychosis in the past from methamphetamine use are highly likely to re-experience methamphetamine psychosis if drug use is recommenced. Methamphetamine-induced psychosis is likely gated by genetic vulnerability, which can produce long-term changes in brain neurochemistry following repetitive use. A 2024 study found that psychedelic use may potentially reduce, or have no effect on, psychotic symptoms in individuals with
2380-400: A manifestation of an intra-psychic conflict or disturbance. For instance, Colby (1981) suggested that the biases of blaming others for one's problems serve to alleviate the distress produced by the feeling of being humiliated, and helps to repudiate the belief that the self is to blame for such incompetence. This intra-psychic perspective emphasizes that the cause of paranoid cognitions is inside
2520-472: A manner that encourages self-fulfilling thoughts: for example, female students may seem to be bad at math if teachers never encouraged them to improve their mathematical abilities. The term "self-fulfilling prophecy" made its first appearance in educational literature in the 1960s, when African-American psychologist Kenneth B. Clark studied the responses of black children to black and white dolls. The responses from Clark's study ranged from some children calling
2660-440: A mechanism in psychosis. This theory is reinforced by the fact that dissociative NMDA receptor antagonists such as ketamine , PCP and dextromethorphan (at large overdoses) induce a psychotic state. The symptoms of dissociative intoxication are also considered to mirror the symptoms of schizophrenia, including negative symptoms . NMDA receptor antagonism, in addition to producing symptoms reminiscent of psychosis, mimics
2800-529: A medium effect size. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) lessens paranoid delusions relative to control conditions according to a meta-analysis . A meta-analysis of 43 studies reported that metacognitive training (MCT) reduces (paranoid) delusions at a medium to large effect size relative to control conditions. The word paranoia comes from the Greek παράνοια ( paránoia ), " madness ", and that from παρά ( pará ), "beside, by" and νόος ( nóos ), "mind". The term
2940-602: A mental health survey distributed to residents of Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua (in Mexico) and El Paso, Texas (in the United States), paranoid beliefs seem to be associated with feelings of powerlessness and victimization , enhanced by social situations. Paranoid symptoms were associated with an attitude of mistrust and an external locus of control. Citing research showing that women and those with lower socioeconomic status are more prone to locating locus of control externally,
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#17327828435863080-569: A model of trust development pointed out that trust increases or decreases as a function of the cumulative history of interaction between two or more persons. Another relevant difference can be discerned among "pathological and non-pathological forms of trust and distrust". According to Deutsch, the main difference is that non-pathological forms are flexible and responsive to changing circumstances. Pathological forms reflect exaggerated perceptual biases and judgmental predispositions that can arise and perpetuate them, are reflexively caused errors similar to
3220-614: A moderate effect. Outcomes depend on the underlying cause. In the United States about 3% of people develop psychosis at some point in their lives. The condition has been described since at least the 4th century BC by Hippocrates and possibly as early as 1500 BC in the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus . A hallucination is defined as sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. Hallucinations are different from illusions and perceptual distortions, which are
3360-717: A more prolonged period after use, or upon withdrawal . Individuals who experience substance-induced psychosis tend to have a greater awareness of their psychosis and tend to have higher levels of suicidal thinking compared to those who have a primary psychotic illness. Drugs commonly alleged to induce psychotic symptoms include alcohol , cannabis , cocaine , amphetamines , cathinones , psychedelic drugs (such as LSD and psilocybin ), κ-opioid receptor agonists (such as enadoline and salvinorin A ) and NMDA receptor antagonists (such as phencyclidine and ketamine ). Caffeine may worsen symptoms in those with schizophrenia and cause psychosis at very high doses in people without
3500-468: A person to do something potentially dangerous when combined with delusions. So-called "minor hallucinations", such as extracampine hallucinations, or false perceptions of people or movement occurring outside of one's visual field, frequently occur in neurocognitive disorders, such as Parkinson's disease. Visual hallucinations occur in roughly a third of people with schizophrenia, although rates as high as 55% are reported. The prevalence in bipolar disorder
3640-513: A personal or family history of psychotic disorders. A 2023 study found an interaction between lifetime psychedelic use and family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder on psychotic symptoms over the past two weeks. Psychotic symptoms were highest among individuals with both a family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder and lifetime psychedelic use, while they were lowest among those with lifetime psychedelic use but no family history of these disorders. Administration, or sometimes withdrawal, of
3780-459: A predictor of adolescent and adult psychosis. Individuals with psychotic symptoms are three times more likely to have experienced childhood trauma (e.g., physical or sexual abuse, physical or emotional neglect) than those in the general population. Increased individual vulnerability toward psychosis may interact with traumatic experiences promoting an onset of future psychotic symptoms, particularly during sensitive developmental periods. Importantly,
3920-425: A psychosis in 26–46 percent of heavy users. Some of these people develop a long-lasting psychosis that can persist for longer than six months. Those who have had a short-lived psychosis from methamphetamine can have a relapse of the methamphetamine psychosis years later after a stressful event such as severe insomnia or a period of hazardous alcohol use despite not relapsing back to methamphetamine. Individuals who have
4060-480: A region from the right STG to the right insula, left insula, and cerebellum, and are more severe in the right ACC, right STG, insula and cerebellum. Another meta analysis reported bilateral reductions in insula, operculum, STG, medial frontal cortex, and ACC, but also reported increased GMV in the right lingual gyrus and left precentral gyrus . The Kraepelinian dichotomy is made questionable by grey matter abnormalities in bipolar and schizophrenia; schizophrenia
4200-409: A response is thought to root from conferring excessive salience to otherwise mundane events. Dysfunction higher up in the hierarchy, where representation is more abstract, could result in delusions. The common finding of reduced GAD67 expression in psychotic disorders may explain enhanced AMPA mediated signaling, caused by reduced GABAergic inhibition. The connection between dopamine and psychosis
4340-548: A result of the inability to feel motivation and drive towards both the desire to engage in as well as to complete tasks and goals. Previous research has indicated that a deficiency in the neural representation in regards to goals and the motivation to achieve them, has demonstrated that when a reward is not present, a strong reaction is noted in the ventral striatum; reinforcement learning is intact when contingencies about stimulus-reward are implicit, but not when they require explicit neural processing; reward prediction errors are what
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4480-415: A result of these delusions. However, the overall actions were not of a violent nature in most of the informants. The authors note that other studies such as one by Taylor (1985), have shown that violent behaviors were more common in certain types of paranoid individuals, mainly those considered to be offensive such as prisoners. Other researchers have found associations between childhood abusive behaviors and
4620-401: A revolution against him, and his death. The later prophecy by the first apparition of the witches that Macbeth should "Beware Macduff" is also a self-fulfilling prophecy. If Macbeth had not been told this, then he might not have regarded Macduff as a threat. Therefore, he would not have killed Macduff's family, and Macduff would not have sought revenge and killed Macbeth. The law of attraction
4760-426: A role in bringing about what has been expected. The idea is similar to that discussed by the philosopher William James as " The Will to Believe ." But James viewed it positively, as the self-validation of a belief. Examples abound in studies of cognitive dissonance theory and the related self-perception theory ; people will often change their attitudes to come into line with what they profess publicly. In
4900-473: A single status, perhaps because paranoia results in difficulty with interpersonal relationships. Some researchers have arranged types of paranoia by commonality. The least common types of paranoia at the very top of the hierarchy would be those involving more serious threats. Social anxiety is at the bottom of this hierarchy as the most frequently exhibited level of paranoia. Social circumstances appear to be highly influential on paranoid beliefs. According to
5040-519: A symptom of chronic alcoholism that can appear in the acute withdrawal phase, shares many symptoms with alcohol-related psychosis suggesting a common mechanism. According to current studies, cannabis use is associated with increased risk of psychotic disorders, and the more often cannabis is used the more likely a person is to develop a psychotic illness. Furthermore, people with a history of cannabis use develop psychotic symptoms earlier than those who have never used cannabis. Some debate exists regarding
5180-575: A widespread belief that the stock will go down (or up), thus starting the selling/buying mass move, etc. People adapt to the judgments and assessments made by society, regardless of whether they were originally correct or not. There are certain prejudices against a socially marginalized group (e.g., homeless people, drug addicts or other minorities), and therefore, people in this marginalized group actually begin to behave in accordance with expectations. A leading study by Columbia University found that self-fulfilling prophecies have some part in relationships:
5320-1082: Is a condition of the mind or psyche that results in difficulties determining what is real and what is not real. Symptoms may include delusions and hallucinations , among other features. Additional symptoms are disorganized thinking and incoherent speech and behavior that is inappropriate for a given situation. There may also be sleep problems , social withdrawal , lack of motivation, and difficulties carrying out daily activities . Psychosis can have serious adverse outcomes. Psychosis can have several different causes. These include mental illness , such as schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder , bipolar disorder , sensory deprivation , Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome or cerebral beriberi and in rare cases major depression ( psychotic depression ). Other causes include: trauma , sleep deprivation , some medical conditions, certain medications , and drugs such as alcohol , cannabis , hallucinogens , and stimulants . One type, known as postpartum psychosis , can occur after giving birth. The neurotransmitter dopamine
5460-422: Is a typical example of self-fulfilling prophecy. It is the name given to the belief that "like attracts like" and that by focusing on positive or negative thoughts, one can bring about positive or negative results. According to this law, all things are created first by imagination, which leads to thoughts, then to words and actions. The thoughts, words and actions held in mind affect someone's intentions which makes
5600-620: Is also known as the Pygmalion effect , based on the experiments by Robert Resenthal and Lenore Jacobson, where teachers were told that a random selection of students were expected to perform exceptionally well; those students showed a significant increase in test scores at the end of the year. Philosopher Karl Popper called the self-fulfilling prophecy the Oedipus effect : One of the ideas I had discussed in The Poverty of Historicism
5740-490: Is around 15%. Content commonly involves animate objects, although perceptual abnormalities such as changes in lighting, shading, streaks, or lines may be seen. Visual abnormalities may conflict with proprioceptive information, and visions may include experiences such as the ground tilting. Lilliputian hallucinations are less common in schizophrenia, and are more common in various types of encephalopathy , such as peduncular hallucinosis . A visceral hallucination, also called
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5880-473: Is associated from the Greek word "para-noeo". Its meaning was "derangement", or "departure from the normal". However, the word was used strictly and other words were used such as "insanity" or "crazy", as these words were introduced by Aurelius Cornelius Celsus. The term "paranoia" first made an appearance during plays of Greek tragedians, and was also used by philosophers such as Plato and Hippocrates. Nevertheless,
6020-425: Is associated with ventral striatal (VS), which is the part of the brain that is involved with the desire to naturally satisfy the body's needs. When high reports of negative symptoms were recorded, there were significant irregularities in the left VS. Anhedonia, the inability to feel pleasure, is a commonly reported symptom in psychosis; experiences are present in most people with schizophrenia. Anhedonia arises as
6160-636: Is associated with negative symptoms; deficits in Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (dlPFC) activity and failure to improve performance on cognitive tasks when offered monetary incentives are present; and dopamine mediated functions are abnormal. Psychosis has been traditionally linked to the overactivity of the neurotransmitter dopamine . In particular to its effect in the mesolimbic pathway . The two major sources of evidence given to support this theory are that dopamine receptor D2 blocking drugs (i.e., antipsychotics ) tend to reduce
6300-413: Is associated with post-stroke delusions, and hypometabolism this region associated with caudate strokes presenting with delusions. The aberrant salience model suggests that delusions are a result of people assigning excessive importance to irrelevant stimuli. In support of this hypothesis, regions normally associated with the salience network demonstrate reduced grey matter in people with delusions, and
6440-554: Is believed to play an important role. Acute psychosis is termed primary if it results from a psychiatric condition and secondary if it is caused by another medical condition or drugs. The diagnosis of a mental-health condition requires excluding other potential causes. Testing may be done to check for central nervous system diseases, toxins, or other health problems as a cause. Treatment may include antipsychotic medication , psychotherapy , and social support . Early treatment appears to improve outcomes. Medications appear to have
6580-434: Is controversial. Employed as an adjective, paranoid has become attached to a diverse set of presentations, from paranoid schizophrenia, through paranoid depression, to paranoid personality—not to mention a motley collection of paranoid 'psychoses', 'reactions', and 'states'—and this is to restrict discussion to functional disorders . Even when abbreviated down to the prefix para-, the term crops up causing trouble as
6720-428: Is distinguishable from bipolar in that regions of grey matter reduction are generally larger in magnitude, although adjusting for gender differences reduces the difference to the left dorsomedial prefrontal cortex , and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex . During attentional tasks, first episode psychosis is associated with hypoactivation in the right middle frontal gyrus, a region generally described as encompassing
6860-483: Is due to the long-term effects of alcohol consumption resulting in distortions to neuronal membranes, gene expression , as well as thiamine deficiency. It is possible that hazardous alcohol use via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance-induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as causing psychosocial impairments. Delirium tremens ,
7000-612: Is generally believed to be complex. While dopamine receptor D2 suppresses adenylate cyclase activity, the D1 receptor increases it. If D2-blocking drugs are administered, the blocked dopamine spills over to the D1 receptors. The increased adenylate cyclase activity affects genetic expression in the nerve cell, which takes time. Hence antipsychotic drugs take a week or two to reduce the symptoms of psychosis. Moreover, newer and equally effective antipsychotic drugs actually block slightly less dopamine in
7140-448: Is intentional or signifies a threat. An investigation of a non-clinical paranoid population found that characteristics such as feeling powerless and depressed, isolating oneself, and relinquishing activities, were associated with more frequent paranoia. Some scientists have created different subtypes for the various symptoms of paranoia, including erotic, persecutory, litigious, and exalted. Most commonly paranoid individuals tend to be of
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#17327828435867280-1028: Is not formally acknowledged by current ICD or DSM criteria. Its unclear place in psychiatric nosology has likely contributed to the limited scientific investigation and literature on the topic. Postpartum psychosis is a rare yet serious and debilitating form of psychosis. Symptoms range from fluctuating moods and insomnia to mood-incongruent delusions related to the individual or the infant. Women experiencing postpartum psychosis are at increased risk for suicide or infanticide. Many women who experience first-time psychosis from postpartum often have bipolar disorder, meaning they could experience an increase of psychotic episodes even after postpartum. A very large number of medical conditions can cause psychosis, sometimes called secondary psychosis . Examples include: Various psychoactive substances (both legal and illegal) have been implicated in causing, exacerbating, or precipitating psychotic states or disorders in users, with varying levels of evidence. This may be upon intoxication for
7420-400: Is not strange that people may exhibit in their daily life, self-centered thought such as they are being talked about, suspicion about others' intentions, and assumptions of ill-will or hostility (e.g., people may feel as if everything is going against them). According to Kramer (1998), these milder forms of paranoid cognition may be considered as an adaptive response to cope with or make sense of
7560-493: Is placed in an empty room with no light and sound after 15 minutes, a phenomenon known as sensory deprivation . Neuroticism , a personality trait associated with vulnerability to stressors, is an independent predictor of the development of psychosis. From a diagnostic standpoint, organic disorders were believed to be caused by physical illness affecting the brain (that is, psychiatric disorders secondary to other conditions) while functional disorders were considered disorders of
7700-687: Is psychosis or autism spectrum disorder, social or generalized anxiety disorder, or obsessive-compulsive disorder. The symptoms of psychosis may be caused by serious psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia , a number of medical illnesses, and trauma . Psychosis may also be temporary or transient, and be caused by medications or substance use disorder ( substance-induced psychosis ). Brief hallucinations are not uncommon in those without any psychiatric disease, including healthy children. Causes or triggers include: Traumatic life events have been linked with an elevated risk of developing psychotic symptoms. Childhood trauma has specifically been shown to be
7840-453: Is reported in posterior insula, ventral medial frontal cortex, and ventral ACC. Studies during acute experiences of hallucinations demonstrate increased activity in primary or secondary sensory cortices. As auditory hallucinations are most common in psychosis, most robust evidence exists for increased activity in the left middle temporal gyrus , left superior temporal gyrus , and left inferior frontal gyrus (i.e. Broca's area ). Activity in
7980-624: Is split into disorganized speech (or thought), and grossly disorganized motor behavior. Disorganized speech or thought, also called formal thought disorder , is disorganization of thinking that is inferred from speech. Characteristics of disorganized speech include rapidly switching topics, called derailment or loose association; switching to topics that are unrelated, called tangential thinking; incomprehensible speech, called word salad or incoherence. Disorganized motor behavior includes repetitive, odd, or sometimes purposeless movement. Disorganized motor behavior rarely includes catatonia, and although it
8120-590: Is story type 930 in the Aarne–Thompson classification scheme. The girl's father's efforts to prevent it are the reason why the boy ends up marrying her. Another fairy-tale occurs with older children. In The Language of the Birds , a father forces his son to tell him what the birds say: that the father would be the son's servant. In The Ram , the father forces his daughter to tell him her dream: that her father would hold an ewer for her to wash her hands in. In both,
8260-551: The Arabian Nights , use this device to foreshadow what is going to happen, as a special form of literary prolepsis . A notable example is " The Ruined Man Who Became Rich Again Through a Dream ", in which a man is told in his dream to leave his native city of Baghdad and travel to Cairo , where he will discover the whereabouts of some hidden treasure. The man travels there and experiences misfortune after losing belief in
8400-459: The Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity & Culture, "Self-fulfilling prophecy makes it possible to highlight the tragic vicious circle which victimizes people twice: first, because the victim is stigmatized with an inherent negative quality; and secondly, because he or she is prevented from disproving this quality." An example is given where white workers expected that black people would be against
8540-473: The inability to feel pleasure ( anhedonia ). Altered Behavioral Inhibition System functioning could possibly cause reduced sustained attention in psychosis and overall contribute to more negative reactions. Psychosis is rare in adolescents. Young people who have psychosis may have trouble connecting with the world around them and may experience hallucinations or delusions. Adolescents with psychosis may also have cognitive deficits that may make it harder for
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#17327828435868680-422: The ventral striatum , hippocampus , and ACC are related to the lucidity of hallucinations, and indicate that activation or involvement of emotional circuitry are key to the impact of abnormal activity in sensory cortices. Together, these findings indicate abnormal processing of internally generated sensory experiences, coupled with abnormal emotional processing, results in hallucinations. One proposed model involves
8820-411: The "inevitability of war" is a self-fulfilling prophecy that has received considerable study. Fear of failure leads to deterioration of results, even if the person is objectively able to adequately cope with the problem. For example, fear of falling leads to more falls among older people. Americans of Chinese and Japanese origin are more likely to die of a heart attack on the 4th of each month, due to
8960-542: The ' Thucydides trap ': the occurrence of a rising power threatening a ruling or dominant power. Thuycidides was an Athenian historian and general who recorded the Peloponnesian war between Sparta and Athens. He wrote, "It was the rise of Athens and the fear that this instilled in Sparta that made war inevitable." Another example of self-fulfilling prophecies is the United States' invasion of Iraq in 2003. The invasion
9100-839: The Pygmalion in the Classroom study, where teachers were told arbitrarily that random students were likely to show significant intellectual growth. As a result, those random students actually ended the year with significantly greater improvement when given another IQ test. Though the changes may be subconscious, teachers who have higher expectations typically give "more time to answer questions, more specific feedback, and more approval". Likewise, students who have positive experiences with their teachers may study more. Academic self-fulfilling prophecies can be negative, however: one study indicated that female students may perform worse if they expect their male instructor to be sexist. The phenomenon of
9240-549: The United States, the concept was broadly and consistently applied in the field of public education reform, following the " War on Poverty ", as teacher expectations have been shown to influence student academic performance. Theodore Brameld noted: "In simplest terms, education already projects and thereby reinforces whatever habits of personal and cultural life are considered to be acceptable and dominant." The effects of teacher attitudes, beliefs, and values, affecting their expectations have been tested repeatedly, most notably in
9380-580: The Wise Oleg". In Scandinavian traditions, this legend lived on in the saga of Orvar-Odd . Many fairy-tales, such as The Devil With the Three Golden Hairs , The Fish and the Ring , The Story of Three Wonderful Beggars , or The King Who Would Be Stronger Than Fate , feature a prophecy that a poor boy will marry a rich girl (or, less frequently, a poor girl will marry a rich boy). This
9520-591: The actual reward is versus what the reward was predicted to be. In most cases positive prediction errors are considered an abnormal occurrence. A positive prediction error response occurs when there is an increased activation in a brain region, typically the striatum , in response to unexpected rewards. A negative prediction error response occurs when there is a decreased activation in a region when predicted rewards do not occur. Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) response, taken as an indicator of effort allocation, does not increase with reward or reward probability increase, and
9660-449: The afflicted should reasonably be able to recognize; such examples include Cotard's syndrome (the belief that oneself is partly or wholly dead ) and clinical lycanthropy (the belief that oneself is or has transformed into an animal). The subject matter of delusions seems to reflect the current culture in a particular time and location. For example, in the US, during the early 1900s syphilis
9800-620: The appearance of violent behaviors in psychotic individuals. This could be a result of their inability to cope with aggression as well as other people, especially when constantly attending to potential threats in their environment. The attention to threat itself has been proposed as one of the major contributors of violent actions in paranoid people, although there has been much deliberation about this as well. Other studies have shown that there may only be certain types of delusions that promote any violent behaviors, persecutory delusions seem to be one of these. Having resentful emotions towards others and
9940-521: The attitudes and behaviors of teachers. The belief held by teachers was that minority students were unintelligent, and therefore the teachers put no effort into teaching them. This led to a feedback loop of those students not being educated, and thus being perceived as unintelligent. In literature, self-fulfilling prophecies are often used as plot devices . They have been used in stories for millennia, but are especially popular in science fiction and fantasy . They are often used for dramatic irony , with
10080-458: The babies and she raised them. Later, a shepherd found the twins and named them Romulus and Remus. As teenagers, they discovered their heritage, and killed their uncle in revenge, fulfilling the prophecy. A variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy is the self-fulfilling dream, which dates back to medieval Arabic literature . Several tales in the One Thousand and One Nights , also known as
10220-405: The bank was unable to fulfill all its customers' withdrawals, which eventually caused the bank to go bankrupt. Merton concludes with the analysis, "The prophecy of collapse led to its own fulfillment". While Merton's example focused on self-fulfilling prophecies within a community, self-fulfilling prophecies also apply to individuals, as individuals often conform to the expectations of others. This
10360-419: The beliefs by people in relationships can impact the likelihood of a breakup or the overall health of the relationship. L. Alan Sroufe suggested that "rejection expectations can lead people to behave in ways that elicit rejection from others." The study looked at the inner workings behind the role of self-fulfilling prophecies in romantic relationships of people who were deemed high in rejection sensitivity, which
10500-492: The black doll ugly to one girl bursting into tears when prompted to pick the doll she identified with. The black children internalized the inferiority they learned and acted accordingly. Clark, whose work pushed the Supreme Court to desegregate schools , noted the influence of teachers on the achievement levels between Black and White students. This prompted Clark to begin a study in ten inner-city schools where he assessed
10640-518: The book that provoked the adventures described in the book to take place. This is an early example of reverse causality . In the 12th century, this tale was translated into Latin by Petrus Alphonsi and included in his Disciplina Clericalis . In the 14th century, a version of this tale also appears in the Gesta Romanorum and Giovanni Boccaccio 's The Decameron . Self-fulfilling prophecies appear in classical Sanskrit literature . In
10780-512: The brain than older drugs whilst also blocking 5-HT2A receptors, suggesting the 'dopamine hypothesis' may be oversimplified. Soyka and colleagues found no evidence of dopaminergic dysfunction in people with alcohol-induced psychosis and Zoldan et al. reported moderately successful use of ondansetron , a 5-HT 3 receptor antagonist, in the treatment of levodopa psychosis in Parkinson's disease patients. A review found an association between
10920-690: The causal relationship between cannabis use and psychosis with some studies suggesting that cannabis use hastens the onset of psychosis primarily in those with pre-existing vulnerability. Indeed, cannabis use plays an important role in the development of psychosis in vulnerable individuals, and cannabis use in adolescence should be discouraged. Some studies indicate that the effects of two active compounds in cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), have opposite effects with respect to psychosis. While THC can induce psychotic symptoms in healthy individuals, limited evidence suggests that CBD may have antipsychotic effects. Methamphetamine induces
11060-464: The child's understanding of their relationship with the world. Experiences found to enhance or create paranoia included frequent disappointment, stress, and a sense of hopelessness. Discrimination has also been reported as a potential predictor of paranoid delusions. Such reports that paranoia seemed to appear more in older patients who had experienced greater discrimination throughout their lives. Immigrants are more subject to some forms of psychosis than
11200-441: The condition. Cannabis and other illicit recreational drugs are often associated with psychosis in adolescents and cannabis use before 15 years old may increase the risk of psychosis in adulthood. Approximately three percent of people with alcoholism experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol related psychosis may manifest itself through a kindling mechanism . The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis
11340-542: The contentious but stubbornly persistent concept of paraphrenia ". At least 50% of the diagnosed cases of schizophrenia experience delusions of reference and delusions of persecution. Paranoia perceptions and behavior may be part of many mental illnesses, such as depression and dementia, but they are more prevalent in three mental disorders: paranoid schizophrenia , delusional disorder ( persecutory type ), and paranoid personality disorder . Paranoid delusions are often treated with antipsychotic medication , which exert
11480-411: The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).Altered Behavioral Inhibition System functioning could possibly cause reduced sustained attention in psychosis and overall contribute to more negative reactions. In congruence with studies on grey matter volume, hypoactivity in the right insula, and right inferior parietal lobe is also reported. During cognitive tasks, hypoactivities in the right insula, dACC, and
11620-411: The expected result happen. Although there are some cases where positive or negative attitudes can produce corresponding results (principally the placebo and nocebo effects), there is no scientific basis to the law of attraction. Some researchers from 2008 found that in basketball, the head coaches gave more biased feedback while the assistant coaches gave more critical feedback. They predicted this
11760-523: The fact that psychosis commonly occurs in neurodegenerative diseases of the dopaminergic nervous system, such as Parkinson's disease, which involved reduced, rather than increased, dopaminergic activity. The endocannabinoid system is also implicated in psychosis. This is evidenced by the propensity of CB 1 receptor agonists such as THC to induce psychotic symptoms, and the efficacy of CB 1 receptor antagonists such as CBD in ameliorating psychosis. NMDA receptor dysfunction has been proposed as
11900-467: The faithful vizier " Ja'far ibn Yahya from sight. Ja'far, "disturbed and upset flees Baghdad and plunges into a series of adventures in Damascus , involving Attaf and the woman whom Attaf eventually marries." After returning to Baghdad, Ja'far reads the same book that caused Harun to laugh and weep, and discovers that it describes his own adventures with Attaf. In other words, it was Harun's reading of
12040-415: The father takes the child's response as evidence of malice and drives the child off; this allows the child to change so that the father will not recognize his own offspring later and so offer to act as the child's servant. In some variants of Sleeping Beauty , such as Sun, Moon, and Talia , the sleep is not brought about by a curse, but a prophecy that she will be endangered by flax (or hemp) results in
12180-553: The first Western scholars to investigate this phenomenon. In 1928, they developed the Thomas theorem (also known as the Thomas dictum): "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." Another American sociologist, Robert K. Merton , continued the research, and is credited with coining the term "self-fulfilling prophecy" and popularizing the idea that "a belief or expectation, correct or incorrect, could bring about
12320-449: The following: Psychotic symptoms may also be seen in: Subtypes of psychosis include: Cycloid psychosis is typically an acute, self-limiting form of psychosis with psychotic and mood symptoms that progress from normal to full-blown, usually between a few hours to days, and not related to drug intake or brain injury . While proposed as a distinct entity, clinically separate from schizophrenia and affective disorders, cycloid psychosis
12460-533: The foreboding dream not only predicted the future, but the dream was the cause of its prediction coming true. A variant of this story later appears in English folklore as the " Pedlar of Swaffham ". Another variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy can be seen in " The Tale of Attaf ", where Harun al-Rashid consults his library (the House of Wisdom ), reads a random book, "falls to laughing and weeping and dismisses
12600-482: The functioning of the mind in the absence of physical disorders (that is, primary psychological or psychiatric disorders). Subtle physical abnormalities have been found in illnesses traditionally considered functional, such as schizophrenia . The DSM-IV-TR avoids the functional/organic distinction, and instead lists traditional psychotic illnesses, psychosis due to general medical conditions, and substance-induced psychosis. Primary psychiatric causes of psychosis include
12740-790: The general population, which may be related to more frequent experiences of discrimination and humiliation. Many more mood-based symptoms, for example grandiosity and guilt, may underlie functional paranoia. Colby (1981) defined paranoid cognition as "persecutory delusions and false beliefs whose propositional content clusters around ideas of being harassed, threatened, harmed, subjugated, persecuted, accused, mistreated, killed, wronged, tormented, disparaged, vilified, and so on, by malevolent others, either specific individuals or groups" (p. 518). Three components of paranoid cognition have been identified by Robins & Post: "a) suspicions without enough basis that others are exploiting, harming, or deceiving them; b) preoccupation with unjustified doubts about
12880-438: The head of the people (social perceiver), and dismisses the possibility that paranoid cognition may be related to the social context in which such cognitions are embedded. This point is extremely relevant because when origins of distrust and suspicion (two components of paranoid cognition) are studied many researchers have accentuated the importance of social interaction, particularly when social interaction has gone awry. Even more,
13020-416: The higher level theory of mind tasks, they were not as able to interpret others' emotions or claims. Social psychological research has proposed a mild form of paranoid cognition, paranoid social cognition , that has its origins in social determinants more than intra-psychic conflict. This perspective states that in milder forms, paranoid cognitions may be very common among normal individuals. For instance, it
13160-466: The ideas of anomie , social structure , and the modes of individual adaption. In his book Social Theory and Social Structure , he uses the example of a bank run to show how self-fulfilling thoughts can make unwanted situations happen. In his illustration, rumors spread about the town that the local bank is going to file for bankruptcy, causing many people to rush to the bank and close their accounts. Because banks do not keep their total assets in cash,
13300-417: The inability to understand what other people are feeling seem to have an association with violence in paranoid individuals. This was based on a study of people with paranoid schizophrenia (one of the common mental disorders that exhibit paranoid symptoms) theories of mind capabilities in relation to empathy. The results of this study revealed specifically that although the violent patients were more successful at
13440-407: The intensity of psychotic symptoms, and that drugs that accentuate dopamine release, or inhibit its reuptake (such as amphetamines and cocaine ) can trigger psychosis in some people (see stimulant psychosis ). However, there is substantial evidence that dopaminergic overactivity does not fully explain psychosis, and that neurodegerative pathophysiology plays a significant role. This is evidenced by
13580-494: The left precuneus, as well as reduced deactivations in the right basal ganglia , right thalamus , right inferior frontal and left precentral gyri are observed. These results are highly consistent and replicable possibly except the abnormalities of the right inferior frontal gyrus. Decreased grey matter volume in conjunction with bilateral hypoactivity is observed in anterior insula, dorsal medial frontal cortex, and dorsal ACC. Decreased grey matter volume and bilateral hyperactivity
13720-400: The loyalty, or trustworthiness, of friends or associates; c) reluctance to confide in others because of unwarranted fear that the information will be used maliciously against them" (1997, p. 3). Paranoid cognition has been conceptualized by clinical psychology almost exclusively in terms of psychodynamic constructs and dispositional variables. From this point of view, paranoid cognition is
13860-501: The misperception of external stimuli. Hallucinations may occur in any of the senses and take on almost any form. They may consist of simple sensations (such as lights, colors, sounds, tastes, or smells) or more detailed experiences (such as seeing and interacting with animals and people, hearing voices , and having complex tactile sensations). Hallucinations are generally characterized as being vivid and uncontrollable. Auditory hallucinations , particularly experiences of hearing voices, are
14000-466: The more general phenomenon of positive feedback loops . A self-fulfilling prophecy can have either negative or positive outcomes. Merely applying a label to someone or something can affect the perception of the person/thing and create a self-fulfilling prophecy. Interpersonal communication plays a significant role in establishing these phenomena as well as impacting the labeling process. American sociologists W. I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas were
14140-496: The most common and often prominent feature of psychosis. Up to 15% of the general population may experience auditory hallucinations (though not all are due to psychosis). The prevalence of auditory hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia is generally put around 70%, but may go as high as 98%. Reported prevalence in bipolar disorder ranges between 11% and 68%. During the early 20th century, auditory hallucinations were second to visual hallucinations in frequency, but they are now
14280-613: The most common manifestation of schizophrenia, although rates vary between cultures and regions. Auditory hallucinations are most commonly intelligible voices. When voices are present, the average number has been estimated at three. Content, like frequency, differs significantly, especially across cultures and demographics. People who experience auditory hallucinations can frequently identify the loudness, location of origin, and may settle on identities for voices. Western cultures are associated with auditory experiences concerning religious content, frequently related to sin. Hallucinations may command
14420-529: The neurophysiological aspects, such as reduction in the amplitude of P50 , P300 , and MMN evoked potentials . Hierarchical Bayesian neurocomputational models of sensory feedback, in agreement with neuroimaging literature, link NMDA receptor hypofunction to delusional or hallucinatory symptoms via proposing a failure of NMDA mediated top down predictions to adequately cancel out enhanced bottom up AMPA mediated predictions errors. Excessive prediction errors in response to stimuli that would normally not produce such
14560-626: The neurotransmitter dopamine , which is widely implicated in salience processing, is also widely implicated in psychotic disorders. Specific regions have been associated with specific types of delusions. The volume of the hippocampus and parahippocampus is related to paranoid delusions in Alzheimer's disease , and has been reported to be abnormal post mortem in one person with delusions. Capgras delusions have been associated with occipito-temporal damage, and may be related to failure to elicit normal emotions or memories in response to faces. Psychosis
14700-443: The number four being considered unlucky and a portent of death. Moore's law predicting that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years is often considered as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The belief that a bank is insolvent may help create the fact, but confidence in the bank's prospects may improve them. Similarly, stock-exchange panics and speculative bubbles can be both triggered by
14840-398: The paranoid social cognition because it can increase negative thinking about negative events, and evoke a pessimistic explanatory style. Three main judgmental consequences have been identified: Meta-analyses have confirmed that individuals with paranoia tend to jump to conclusions and are incorrigible in their judgements, even for delusion-neutral scenarios. Psychosis Psychosis
14980-440: The principles of trade unionism because they considered black workers to be "undisciplined in traditions of trade unionism and the art of collective bargain-ing." Due to this belief, black workers were not hired at white-owned businesses, which made black workers unable to learn the principles of trade unionism, and thus prevented them from unionizing. Teachers can encourage stereotype-based courses and can interact with students in
15120-417: The profoundly agitated state described above. It involves excessive and purposeless motor behaviour, as well as an extreme mental preoccupation that prevents an intact experience of reality. An example is someone walking very fast in circles to the exclusion of anything else with a level of mental preoccupation (meaning not focused on anything relevant to the situation) that was not typical of the person prior to
15260-460: The prophecy made Zeus his enemy, ultimately leading to its fulfilment. The story of Romulus and Remus is another example. According to legend, a man overthrew his brother, the king. He then ordered that his two nephews, Romulus and Remus, be drowned, fearing that they would someday kill him as he did to his brother. The boys were placed in a basket and thrown in the Tiber River . A wolf found
15400-476: The prophecy, ending up in jail, where he tells his dream to a police officer. The officer mocks the idea of foreboding dreams and tells the protagonist that he himself had a dream about a house with a courtyard and fountain in Baghdad where treasure is buried under the fountain. The man recognizes the place as his own house and, after he is released from jail, he returns home and digs up the treasure. In other words,
15540-574: The prophecy. In still others, Acrisius is one of the wedding guests when Polydectes tries to force Danaë to marry him, and is accidentally killed when Perseus turns all the guests to stone with the Gorgon 's head. Greek historiography provides a famous variant: when the Lydian king Croesus asked the Delphic Oracle if he should invade Persia, the response came that if he did, he would destroy
15680-456: The prophesied events come about as a result of the actions taken to prevent them. The word "prophet" is derived from the Greek word prophete , meaning "one who speaks for another." The best-known example from Greek legend is that of Oedipus. Warned that his child would one day kill him, Laius abandoned his newborn son Oedipus to die, but Oedipus was found and raised by others, and thus in ignorance of his true origins. When he grew up, Oedipus
15820-520: The prophesied events coming to pass due to the attempts to prevent the prophecy. They are also sometimes used as comic relief . Many myths, legends, and fairy-tales make use of this motif as a central element of narratives that are designed to illustrate inexorable fate , fundamental to the Hellenic world-view. In a common motif, a child, whether newborn or not yet conceived, is prophesied to cause something that those in power do not want to happen, but
15960-471: The relationship between traumatic life events and psychotic symptoms appears to be dose-dependent in which multiple traumatic life events accumulate, compounding symptom expression and severity. However, acute, stressful events can also trigger brief psychotic episodes. Trauma prevention and early intervention may be an important target for decreasing the incidence of psychotic disorders and ameliorating its effects. A healthy person could become psychotic if he
16100-470: The relationship has been under investigation since 2012. Drug-induced paranoia has a better prognosis than schizophrenic paranoia once the drug has been removed. For further information, see stimulant psychosis and substance-induced psychosis . Based on data obtained by the Dutch NEMESIS project in 2005, there was an association between impaired hearing and the onset of symptoms of psychosis, which
16240-458: The researchers suggested that women may be especially affected by the effects of socioeconomic status on paranoia. Surveys have revealed that paranoia can develop from difficult parental relationships and untrustworthy environments, for instance those that were highly disciplinary, strict, and unstable, could contribute to paranoia. Some sources have also noted that indulging and pampering the child could contribute to greater paranoia, via disrupting
16380-477: The right lateral prefrontal cortex, regardless of delusion content, is supported by neuroimaging studies and is congruent with its role in conflict monitoring in healthy persons. Abnormal activation and reduced volume is seen in people with delusions, as well as in disorders associated with delusions such as frontotemporal dementia , psychosis and Lewy body dementia . Furthermore, lesions to this region are associated with "jumping to conclusions", damage to this region
16520-484: The royal order to remove all the flax or hemp from the castle, resulting in her ignorance of the danger and her curiosity. Shakespeare 's Macbeth is another classic example of a self-fulfilling prophecy. The three witches prophecy that Macbeth will eventually become king, but that the offspring of his best friend will rule instead of his own. Spurred by the prophecy, Macbeth kills the king and his own friend, something he arguably would not have done otherwise, leading to
16660-570: The social standing. Refers to an aversive form of heightened 'public self-consciousness' characterized by the feelings that one is under intensive evaluation or scrutiny . Becoming self-tormenting will increase the odds of interpreting others' behaviors in a self-referential way. Self-consciousness was characterized as an aversive psychological state. According to this model, people experiencing self-consciousness will be highly motivated to reduce it, trying to make sense of what they are experiencing. These attempts promote hypervigilance and rumination in
16800-515: The story of Krishna in the Indian epic Mahabharata , the ruler of the Mathura kingdom, Kamsa , afraid of a prophecy that predicted his death at the hands of his sister Devaki 's son, had her cast into prison where he planned to kill all of her children at birth. After killing the first six children, and Devaki's apparent miscarriage of the seventh, Krishna (the eighth son) was born. As his life
16940-639: The structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture). Both first episode psychosis , and high risk status is associated with reductions in grey matter volume (GMV). First episode psychotic and high risk populations are associated with similar but distinct abnormalities in GMV. Reductions in the right middle temporal gyrus , right superior temporal gyrus (STG), right parahippocampus , right hippocampus , right middle frontal gyrus , and left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) are observed in high risk populations. Reductions in first episode psychosis span
17080-453: The surrounding cultural context. The concept of bizarre delusions has many criticisms, the most prominent being judging its presence is not highly reliable even among trained individuals. A delusion may involve diverse thematic content. The most common type is a persecutory delusion , in which a person believes that an entity seeks to harm them. Others include delusions of reference (the belief that some element of one's experience represents
17220-465: The symptom onset. In both types of catatonia, there is generally no reaction to anything that happens outside of them. It is important to distinguish catatonic agitation from severe bipolar mania, although someone could have both. Negative symptoms include reduced emotional expression , decreased motivation ( avolition ), and reduced spontaneous speech (poverty of speech, alogia ). Individuals with this condition lack interest and spontaneity, and have
17360-421: The tendency to take action based on their beliefs. More research is needed on the particular types of actions that are pursued based on paranoid delusions. Some researchers have made attempts to distinguish the different variations of actions brought on as a result of delusions. Wessely et al. (1993) did just this by studying individuals with delusions of which more than half had reportedly taken action or behaved as
17500-623: The word "paranoia" was the equivalent of "delirium" or "high fever". Eventually, the term made its way out of everyday language for two millennia. "Paranoia" was soon revived as it made an appearance in the writings of the nosologists . It began to take appearance in France, with the writings of Rudolph August Vogel (1772) and François Boissier de Sauvage (1759). According to Michael Phelan, Padraig Wright, and Julian Stern (2000), paranoia and paraphrenia are debated entities that were detached from dementia praecox by Kraepelin, who explained paranoia as
17640-411: The world in any way while awake. This type of catatonia presents with waxy flexibility . Waxy flexibility is when someone physically moves part of a catatonic person's body and the person stays in the position even if it is bizarre and otherwise nonfunctional (such as moving a person's arm straight up in the air and the arm staying there). The other type of catatonia is more of an outward presentation of
17780-402: The youth to socialize and work. Potential impairments include reduced speed of mental processing, ability to focus without getting distracted (limited attention span ), and deficits in verbal memory . If an adolescent is experiencing psychosis, they most likely have comorbidity, meaning that they could have multiple mental illnesses. Because of this, it may be difficult to determine whether it
17920-603: Was a common topic, during the Second World War Germany, during the Cold War communists, and in recent years, technology has been a focus. Some psychologists, such as those who practice the Open Dialogue method, believe that the content of psychosis represents an underlying thought process that may, in part, be responsible for psychosis, though the accepted medical position is that psychosis is due to
18060-401: Was a historically prominent symptom, it is rarely seen today. Whether this is due to historically used treatments or the lack thereof is unknown. Catatonia describes a profoundly agitated state in which the experience of reality is generally considered impaired. There are two primary manifestations of catatonic behavior. The classic presentation is a person who does not move or interact with
18200-585: Was based on a five-year follow up. Some older studies have actually declared that a state of paranoia can be produced in patients that were under a hypnotic state of deafness. This idea however generated much skepticism during its time. In the DSM-IV-TR , paranoia is diagnosed in the form of: According to clinical psychologist P. J. McKenna, "As a noun, paranoia denotes a disorder which has been argued in and out of existence, and whose clinical features, course, boundaries, and virtually every other aspect of which
18340-508: Was based on the assumption that Iraq posed a terrorist threat to the United States, though evidence shows that no threat was actually posed. The invasion and subsequent overthrowing of the regime resulted in Iraq becoming a stronghold for the terrorist organization Al Qaeda , thus fulfilling the initial belief of a potential threat. Self-fulfilling prophecies are one of the main contributions to racial prejudice and vice versa. According to
18480-608: Was defined as "the disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection". The study found that women were more likely to experience rejection sensitivity in comparison to the negativity held by men about the future of their relationships, and that women sensitive to rejection "may be more likely to behave in ways that exacerbate conflicts," which could lead to behavior that would "erode their partners' relationship satisfaction and commitment." Other specific examples discussed in psychology include: Self-fulfilling prophecies have been apparent throughout history with
18620-481: Was due to Kamsa's attempts to prevent the prophecy that it came true, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Oleg of Novgorod was a Varangian prince who ruled over the Rus people during the early tenth century. As old East Slavic chronicles say, it was prophesied by the pagan priests that Oleg's stallion would be the source of Oleg's death. To avoid this he sent the horse away. Many years later he asked where his horse was, and
18760-593: Was due to the external expectations from the coaches to the athletes which could have resulted in the Pygmalion effect with positive and negative results. Researcher Helen Brown published findings of two experiments performed on athletes, investigating the effect that the media has on them, and concluded that the athlete's performance was impacted by and aligned with expectations of their performance. A follow-up experiment in London found that such expectations can impact their judgement and thought processes, and can even have
18900-405: Was his biological mother. Although the legend of Perseus opens with the prophecy that he will kill his grandfather Acrisius , the prophecy is only self-fulfilling in some variants. In some, he accidentally spears his grandfather at a competition—an act that could have happened regardless of Acrisius ' response to the prophecy. In other variants, his presence at the games is due to his hearing of
19040-428: Was in danger he was smuggled out to be raised by his foster parents Yashoda and Nanda in the village of Gokula . Years later, Kamsan learned about the child's escape and kept sending various demons to put an end to him. The demons were defeated at the hands of Krishna and his brother Balarama . Krishna, as a young man returned to Mathura to overthrow his uncle, and Kamsa was eventually killed by his nephew Krishna. It
19180-463: Was the influence of a prediction upon the event predicted. I had called this the "Oedipus effect", because the oracle played a most important role in the sequence of events which led to the fulfilment of its prophecy. [...] For a time I thought that the existence of the Oedipus effect distinguished the social from the natural sciences. But in biology, too—even in molecular biology—expectations often play
19320-561: Was told that it had died. He asked to see the remains and was taken to the place where the bones lay. When he touched the horse's skull with his boot a snake slithered from the skull and bit him. Oleg died, thus fulfilling the prophecy. In the Primary Chronicle , Oleg is known as the Prophet, ironically referring to the circumstances of his death. The story was romanticized by Alexander Pushkin in his celebrated ballad "The Song of
19460-446: Was used to describe a mental illness in which a delusional belief is the sole or most prominent feature. In this definition, the belief does not have to be persecutory to be classified as paranoid, so any number of delusional beliefs can be classified as paranoia. For example, a person who has the sole delusional belief that they are an important religious figure would be classified by Kraepelin as having "pure paranoia". The word "paranoia"
19600-421: Was warned that he would kill his father and marry his mother. He sought to avoid this, and, believing his foster parents to be his real parents, left his home and travelled to Greece, eventually reaching the city where his biological parents lived. There, he got into a fight with a stranger, killed him, and married his widow, only to discover that the stranger he had killed was his biological father, and his new wife
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