During World War II, aviation firmly established itself as a critical component of modern warfare from the Battle of Britain in the early stages to the great aircraft carrier battles between American and Japanese Pacific fleets and the final delivery of nuclear weapons. The major belligerents, Germany and Japan on the one side and Britain , the United States and the USSR on the other, manufactured huge air forces which engaged in pitched battles both with each other and with the opposing ground forces. Bombing established itself as a major strategic force, and this was also the first war in which the aircraft carrier played a significant role.
74-412: (Redirected from Parachute Club ) Parachute club may refer to: a club of parachuting and skydiving enthusiasts The Parachute Club , a Canadian band Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Parachute club . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
148-443: A drogue , catching air and pulling out the main parachute or the main canopy. There are two principal systems in use: the "throw-out", where the skydiver pulls a toggle attached to the top of the pilot-chute stowed in a small pocket outside the main container: and the "pull-out", where the skydiver pulls a small pad attached to the pilot-chute which is stowed inside the container. Throw-out pilot-chute pouches are usually positioned at
222-539: A vertical wind tunnel to simulate free fall has become a discipline of its own and is not only used for training but has its own competitions, teams, and figures. Aviation in World War II As with Aviation in World War I , military investment during World War II drove aviation forward in leaps and bounds. The streamlined cantilever monoplane quickly proves its worth in almost every role, although
296-470: A 4-man star formation, photographed by Bob Buquor. This discipline was formerly referred to in the skydiving community as Relative Work, often abbreviated to RW, Relly or Rel. Style can be considered as the sprint of parachuting. This individual discipline is played in free fall. The idea is to take maximum speed and complete a pre-designated series of maneuvers as fast and cleanly as possible (speed can exceed 400 km/h/250 mph). Jumps are filmed using
370-544: A battery of rockets in the nose intended to be fired into an oncoming bomber formation. Avionics systems increased in sophistication and became more widespread, including power-assisted flight controls, blind flying instrumentation, radio communications and radar tracking. Aircraft manufacturing remained a high priority throughout the war for all the key combatants and was a major part of their economic output. Women, and in Germany slave labour, were extensively employed due to
444-578: A fashion deemed unsafe by the appointed individual. In many countries, either the local regulations or the liability-conscious prudence of the drop zone owners require that parachutists must have attained the age of majority before engaging in the sport. The first skydive performed without a parachute was by stuntman Gary Connery on 23 May 2012 at 732 m. Due to the hazardous nature of skydiving, precautions are taken to avoid parachuting injuries and death. For first-time solo-parachutists, this includes anywhere from 4 to 8 hours of ground instruction. Since
518-571: A few older biplanes and other obsolescent types remained in niche roles for much of the war. Key design features during this period included: The retracting undercarriage gave landplanes a significant performance advantage over the equivalent seaplane , whose floats caused additional drag. In other respects, the evolution of seaplane design paralleled landplane developments. Seaplanes, typically flying boats , remained in use for long-range maritime operations. Smaller craft, typically floatplanes , remained in other niche areas such as mountain lakes where
592-485: A few older biplanes remained in niche roles for much of the war. Engine power and aircraft performance increased steadily, with jet and rocket engines beginning to make their appearance by the end of the war. Avionics systems increased in sophistication and became more widespread, including power-assisted flight controls, blind flying instrumentation, radio communications and radar tracking. The development of civil aviation stagnated until peace could be restored, and in
666-436: A ground-based camera (with an exceptional lens to record the performance). Performance is timed (from the start of the manoeuvre until its completion) and then judged in public at the end of the jump. Competition includes 4 qualifying rounds and a final for the top 8. Competitors jump from a height of 2200 m to 2500 m. They rush into an acceleration stage for 15 to 20 seconds and then run their series of manoeuvres benefiting to
740-449: A high point in an atmosphere to the ground or ocean surface with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent using a parachute or multiple parachutes. For human skydiving, there is often a phase of free fall (the skydiving segment), where the parachute has not yet been deployed and the body gradually accelerates to terminal velocity . In cargo parachuting, the parachute descent may begin immediately, such as
814-596: A higher risk factor due to the lower mobility of the jumper and the greater risk of entanglement. For this reason, these disciplines are generally practised by experienced jumpers. USPA member drop zones in the US and Canada are required to have an experienced jumper act as a "safety officer" (in Canada DSO – Drop Zone Safety Officer; in the U.S. S&TA – Safety and Training Advisor) who is responsible for dealing with jumpers who violate rules, regulations, or otherwise act in
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#1732793789403888-410: A higher terminal velocity than normal. In AFF, one (or sometimes two) instructor(s) are dedicated to just one student, causing this method of training to be more expensive than static line progression, where one instructor can dispatch multiple students per load, initially from a lower altitude. At a sport skydiver's deployment altitude, the individual manually deploys a small pilot-chute which acts as
962-411: A main parachute result in a malfunction. Ram-air parachutes typically spin uncontrollably when malfunctioning, and must be jettisoned before deploying the reserve parachute. Reserve parachutes are packed and deployed differently; they are also designed more conservatively and built and tested to more exacting standards so they are more reliable than main parachutes, but the real safety advantage comes from
1036-730: A manual release could. Whichever method is used, a spring-loaded pilot-chute then extracts the reserve parachute from the upper half of the container. World Championships are held every two years both Indoor and Outdoor in the competition disciplines Artistic Events (Freestyle and Freefly, indoor and outdoor), Canopy Formation (outdoor only), Canopy Piloting (outdoor only), Dynamic (indoor only), Formation Skydiving (indoor and outdoor), Paraski (outdoor only), Style & Accuracy Landing (outdoor only) and Wingsuit Flying (outdoor only). Continental Championships and World Cups can be held in alternate years. There are now two competitive Artistic Events, Freestyle and Freefly. Freestyle teams consist of
1110-402: A medical care facility. In the US and in most of the western world, skydivers are required to wear two parachutes. The reserve parachute must be periodically inspected and repacked (whether used or not) by a certified parachute rigger (in the US, an FAA certificated parachute rigger every 180 days). Many skydivers use an automatic activation device (AAD) that opens the reserve parachute at
1184-531: A more dangerous activity. Reputable drop zones will suspend normal operations during inclement weather. In the United States, the USPA's Basic Safety Requirements prohibit solo student skydivers from jumping in winds exceeding 14 mph while using ram-air equipment. However, maximum ground winds are unlimited for licensed skydivers. As parachuting is an aviation activity under the visual flight rules , it
1258-402: A parachute- airdrop in the lower atmosphere of Earth , or it may be significantly delayed. For example, in a planetary atmosphere , where an object is descending "under parachute" following atmospheric entry from space , may occur only after the hypersonic entry phase and initial deceleration that occurs due to friction with the thin upper atmosphere. The first parachute jump in history
1332-403: A performer and a videographer, Freefly teams have two performers and a videographer. Skysurfing is no longer a competitive event after insufficient competitors entered in two successive World Championships. The history of these events is on this Freeflying page. Often called "Classic accuracy", this is an individual or team contest performed under an open parachute. The aim is to touch down on
1406-399: A pouch (e.g., B.O.C pouch). Activation begins when the pilot-chute is thrown out. It inflates and creates drag, pulling the pin out of the closing loop and allowing the pilot-chute to pull the deployment bag from the container. The parachute lines are pulled loose from the rubber bands and extend as the canopy starts to open. A rectangular piece of fabric called the " slider " (which separates
1480-409: A predetermined altitude if it detects that the skydiver is still in free fall. Depending on the country, AADs are often mandatory for new jumpers, and/or required for all jumpers regardless of their experience level. Some skydivers wear a visual altimeter, and some use audible altimeters fitted to their helmets. Injuries and fatalities occurring under a fully functional parachute usually happen because
1554-589: A runway was not feasible. Experiments on other configurations continued throughout the war, especially in Germany. A small number of twin tailboom types entered production, and some slower types designed for roles such as Army observation retained the older fixed undercarriage. Towards the end of the war the first jet aircraft entered service; the Arado Ar 234 reconnaissance bomber, Messerschmitt Me 262 Schwalbe (Swallow) fighter and Gloster Meteor fighter. The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet (Comet) interceptor
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#17327937894031628-463: A short time in the air and precision landing. However they were highly vulnerable and their dependence on surprise severely limited their success. The British used them extensively in the battle of Arnhem and suffered huge losses. Rotorcraft had been produced before the war in the form of the autogyro and many, such as the Avro Rota , a license-built Cierva design, continued in use throughout
1702-581: A sudden collapse (deflation) of one or more of the involved parachutes. When this occurs, the jumpers often must quickly perform emergency procedures (if there is sufficient altitude to do so) to "cut-away" (jettison) from their main canopies and deploy their reserve canopies. Canopy collisions are particularly dangerous when occurring at altitudes too low to allow the jumpers adequate time to safely jettison their main parachutes and fully deploy their reserve parachutes. Equipment failure may contribute to fatalities and injuries. Approximately one in 750 deployments of
1776-423: A target whose center is 2 cm in diameter. The target can be a deep foam mattress or an air-filled landing pad. An electronic recording pad of 32 cm in diameter is set in the middle. It measures score in 1 cm increments up to 16 cm and displays result just after landing. The first part of any competition takes place over 8 rounds. Then in the individual competition, after these 8 selective rounds,
1850-548: A tractor installation at the front and a pusher installation in the rear. Military gliders such as the British Airspeed Horsa and specialised tugs such as the German Heinkel He 111 Z were developed by a number of countries during World War II , for landing assault troops and equipment behind enemy lines. These gliders were characterised by a steep gliding angle and short landing run, allowing
1924-469: A very important part. So classic accuracy requires high adaptability to aerology and excellent steering control. It is also the most interesting discipline for spectators due to the closeness of action (a few meters) and the possibility to be practiced everywhere (sport ground, stadium, urban place...). Today, classic accuracy is the most practiced (in competition) discipline of skydiving in the world. Previously called Canopy Relative Work, or CREW for short,
1998-429: Is a fixed cord attached to a large, stable object. It is used to open parachutes automatically for paratroopers and novice parachutists . Instructor-assisted deployment (IAD) is a parachute deployment program most adequately similar to static line. The main difference is that instead of being deployed by a static line, the student's jumpmaster (who is in the plane with them) deploys the student's parachute by throwing
2072-421: Is a skydive where the participants open their parachutes very quickly after leaving the aircraft with the intention of flying in close proximity to each other. The goal is to create various formations by "docking" with other parachutists on the jump. The dock is often accomplished by placing one's feet into the lines of another person's parachute. Formations require at least 2 people, but can have many more. Due to
2146-589: Is a statistical hazard , and may be avoided by observing simple principles, including knowing upper wind speeds, the number of party members and exit groups, and having sufficient exit separation between jumpers. In 2013, 17% of all skydiving fatalities in the United States resulted from mid-air collisions. Skydiving can be practised without jumping. Vertical wind tunnels are used to practise for free fall ("indoor skydiving" or "bodyflight"), while virtual reality parachute simulators are used to practise parachute control. Beginning skydivers seeking training have
2220-495: Is generally illegal to jump in or through clouds, according to the relevant rules governing the airspace, such as FAR 105 in the US or Faldskærmsbestemmelser ( Parachuting Ordinances ) in Denmark. Jumpers and pilots of the dropping aircraft similarly bear responsibility of following the other VFR elements, in particular ensuring that the air traffic at the moment of jump does not create a hazard. A collision with another canopy
2294-488: Is relatively rare in modern times, it was occasionally used in World War I by German military aviators, and utilized extensively throughout the air wars of World War II . In modern times, the most common means of escape from an aircraft in distress is via an ejection seat . Said system is usually operated by the pilot, aircrew member, or passenger by engaging an activation device manually. In most designs, this will lead to
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2368-700: The Messerschmitt Bf 109 , giving them far greater firepower. The early marks of Spitfire and Hurricane had machine guns that were, however, of the .30 calibre (7.62mm) class, with less hitting power than heavier calibre weapons firing non-explosive bullets - the Germans' MG 131 machine gun , the Japanese Ho-103 machine gun , the Soviets' Berezin UB and particularly the "light-barrel" AN/M2 version of
2442-588: The Sikorsky R-4 . The R-4 was far the most-produced type and was introduced into RAF service as the Hoverfly I, where it was progressively replacing the Avro Rota autogyro by the end of hostilities. Engine power and aircraft performance increased steadily throughout the war, with liquid-cooled inline and vee engines competing with air-cooled radials much as they had competed with air-cooled rotary types in
2516-640: The Spanish Civil War . Other European air forces, especially the British RAF were struggling to re-equip with similarly modern types and to train up aircrew. Early German successes, with the notable assistance of the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bomber, overran Europe and left Britain open to attack. During the ensuing Battle of Britain , the British fighter squadrons had to quickly relearn
2590-576: The 186 injured in a 110,000 parachute jump study. Due to the possibility of fractures (commonly occurring on the tibia and the ankle mortise), it is recommended that parachutists wear supportive footwear. Supportive footwear prevents inward and outward ankle rolling, allowing the PLF to safely transfer impact energy through the true ankle joint, and dissipate it via the medial gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior muscles. Parachuting in poor weather, especially with thunderstorms, high winds, and dust devils can be
2664-539: The 1980s, the average dropped to 34.1, and in the 1990s, the average decreased to 32.3 deaths per year. Between 2000 and 2009, the average dropped to 25.8 and over the eight years after 2009, the annual average declined to 22.4 fatalities (roughly 7.5 fatalities per one million jumps). In 2017, members of one organization, the United States Parachute Association (USPA) reported 2,585 skydiving injuries sufficiently severe to require resort to
2738-503: The American Browning M2 machine gun, all of the .50 calibre (12.7mm) size, became very widely used as primary offensive and defensive aircraft armament by the end of World War II. The Bf 109 could also be fitted with a cannon, and later variants with up to three. These guns have exploding shells instead of solid bullets but are larger and heavier than ordinary machine guns and opinions differed on both sides as to which type
2812-710: The European coast and flew across the English Channel . The radio communications, provided to every pilot, also required new protocols such as radio silence before engaging the enemy. Later on, the British and Americans developed large long-range heavy bombers, causing great damage to the German war effort and substantial casualties. While the British favoured unescorted night bombing, the Americans preferred to mount daytime raids, escorted by long-range fighters. In
2886-712: The First War. As an example, at the start of the war the Rolls-Royce Merlin III liquid-cooled V-12 engine developed just 1,000 hp while at the end its derivative the Rolls-Royce Griffon 61 offered 2,035 hp. In the early stages of the war German fighters, especially the Messerschmitt Bf 109 , were very fast and maneuverable and had the advantage over the British types of a fuel-injected engine. This allowed them to fly upside-down or to perform other negative-G manoeuvres without fear of
2960-415: The Germans opted for this approach, the British chose the simpler and more robust centrifugal compressor in which the air is first flung outwards, using centrifugal force to help compress it, before being burned and returned to the axial-flow turbine stage. This resulted in a shorter but wider engine for the same airflow and output power. The Hungarian Jendrassik Cs-1 , in 1940 the world's first turboprop ,
3034-516: The Pacific war, both sides made extensive use of aircraft carriers and carrier-to-carrier engagements became pivotal turning points in several campaigns. Civil aviation continued in non-combatant countries. In countries engaged in warfare, many civilian aircraft were pressed into military service. Some civilian operations were maintained, for example BOAC continued making overseas passenger flights, often camouflaging its aircraft. Civil aviation
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3108-463: The Soviet Union and, later on, in Germany turned to more readily-available raw materials such as timber and coal. The de Havilland Mosquito fighter-bomber was a rare British example of a wooden aeroplane. At the outbreak of war there were relatively few aerodromes capable of supporting military aircraft operations. Land-based aircraft with retracting undercarriage had superior performance to
3182-406: The bottom of the container – the B.O.C. deployment system – but older harnesses often have leg-mounted pouches. The latter are safe for flat-flying, but often unsuitable for freestyle or head-down flying. In a typical civilian sport parachute system, the pilot-chute is connected to a line known as the "bridle", which in turn is attached to a small deployment bag that contains the folded parachute and
3256-412: The canopy suspension lines, which are stowed with rubber bands. At the bottom of the container that holds the deployment bag is a closing loop which, during packing, is fed through the grommets of the four flaps that are used to close the container. At that point, a curved pin that is attached to the bridle is inserted through the closing loop. The next step involves folding the pilot-chute and placing it in
3330-458: The cause of more than 30% of all skydiving-related injuries and deaths. Often, injuries sustained during parachute landing are caused when a single outstretched limb, such as a hand or foot, is extended separately from the rest of the body, causing it to sustain forces disproportional to the support structures within. This tendency is displayed in the accompanying chart, which shows the significantly higher proportion of wrist and ankle injuries among
3404-399: The chest) which will release the main canopy from the harness/container. Once free from the malfunctioning main canopy, the reserve canopy can be activated manually by pulling a second handle on the front left harness. Some containers are fitted with a connecting line from the main to reserve parachutes – known as a reserve static line (RSL) – which pulls open the reserve container faster than
3478-581: The close proximity of the canopies, care has to be taken by all participants to ensure the safety of the jump. It is common for a CREW jumper to carry a hook knife to use in case they become entangled in another jumper's lines. Formation Skydiving (FS) was born in California, USA during the 1960s. The first documented skydiving formation occurred over Arvin, California in March 1964 when Mitch Poteet, Don Henderson, Andy Keech and Lou Paproski successfully formed
3552-511: The combatant countries many existing civilian aircraft were pressed into military service. However military technologies developed during the war would revolutionise postwar aviation. In particular, the widespread construction of aerodromes with serviceable runways would provide the basis for a postwar move of long-range passenger flights from flying boats to land planes. The streamlined cantilever monoplane (an airplane with one pair of wings) quickly proved its worth in almost every role, although
3626-690: The deployment of airborne forces and supplies. Special operations forces commonly employ parachuting, especially free-fall parachuting, as a method of insertion. Occasionally, forest firefighters , known as " smokejumpers " in the United States , use parachuting as a means of rapidly inserting themselves near forest fires in especially remote or otherwise inaccessible areas. Manually exiting an aircraft and parachuting to safety has been widely used by aviators (especially military aviators and aircrew ) and passengers to escape an aircraft that could not otherwise land safely. While this method of escape
3700-615: The development of military technologies, strategies, tactics and events throughout the war. At the outbreak of the war in Europe in 1939, the German Luftwaffe had amassed an attack force of modern all-metal cantilever monoplanes designed to support the Blitzkrieg style of warfare at relatively short range and manufactured by a large and organised industry. Pilots had been well-trained, both in flying clubs and in some cases
3774-591: The engine cutting out, as happened to the British types fitted with carburettors. On the other hand, the carburettor combined with a turbocharger gave better performance at altitude. However, as the war wore on, Germany's critical inability to produce piston aviation engines of at least 1,500 kW (2,000 PS) maximum power and above that possessed proven front-line reliability, prevented them from fully developing more advanced strategic and tactical combat aircraft designs that would require such powerplants. Meanwhile, jet and rocket engines had been under steady development,
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#17327937894033848-457: The equivalent seaplanes , leading to the widespread construction of aerodromes throughout all theatres of campaign. After the war many of these would become civil airports , providing the basis for a move of long-range passenger flights from flying boats to landplanes. The increasing sophistication of warplanes meant that ground facilities also became more sophisticated. The high-powered engines in use could no longer be started by hand-swinging
3922-400: The following options: Tandem skydiving or tandem parachuting refers to a type of skydiving where a student skydiver is connected to an instructor via a harness. The instructor guides the student through the whole jump from exit through freefall , piloting the canopy , and landing. The student needs only minimal instruction before making a tandem jump with the instructor. A static line
3996-435: The jet-powered Heinkel He 162 Spatz (sparrow) light fighter. Other variations were flown but never entered production, sometimes independently by different countries. These included the canard or tail-first configuration in combination with a pusher propeller, the flying wing , the slip-wing which took off as a biplane and then discarded the upper wing, and twin centrally-mounted engines in push-pull configuration with
4070-432: The jumper. During a normal deployment, a skydiver will generally experience a few seconds of intense deceleration, in the realm of 3 to 4 g, while the parachute slows the descent from 190 km/h (120 mph) to approximately 28 km/h (17 mph). If a skydiver experiences a malfunction of their main parachute which they cannot correct, they pull a "cut-away" handle on the front right-hand side of their harness (on
4144-427: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_club&oldid=933039640 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Parachuting Parachuting and skydiving are methods of descending from
4218-679: The majority of parachute injuries occur upon landing (approximately 85%), the greatest emphasis within ground training is usually on the proper parachute landing fall (PLF), which seeks to orient the body so as to evenly disperse the impact through flexion of several large, insulating muscles (such as the medial gastrocnemius , tibialis anterior , rectus femoris , vastus medialis , biceps femoris , and semitendinosus), as opposed to individual bones, tendons, and ligaments which break and tear more easily. Parachutists, especially those flying smaller sport canopies, often land with dangerous amounts of kinetic energy, and for this reason, improper landings are
4292-494: The maximum of the stored speed. Those series consist of Turns and Back-Loops to achieve in a pre-designated order. The incorrect performance of the manoeuvres gives rise to penalties that are added at run time. The performance of the athlete is defined in seconds and hundredths of a second. The competitor with the lowest cumulative time is declared the winner. Notice the complete sequence is performed by leading international experts in just over 6 seconds, penalties included. Using
4366-432: The military call-up of able-bodied men. Due to the threat of bombing, especially in Europe, manufacturing became progressively more dispersed. When British and American bombing raids started in earnest, Germany moved much of its production into underground factories. Strategic materials such as aluminium for airframes and petroleum oil for fuel were in limited supply and soon became scarce. Many manufacturers, especially in
4440-513: The old tactical lessons from the first war. Initially the RAF fighters flew in a tight three-fighter arrowhead formation, soon changing to the looser four-aircraft arrangement which the Germans called the "finger-four." They soon also relearned the value of climbing above your opponent before attacking. At the same time, the development of an early radar warning system by the British provided a new way to track German attack formations as they gathered over
4514-489: The parachute lines into four main groups fed through grommets in the four respective corners of the slider) slows the opening of the parachute and works its way down until the canopy is fully open and the slider is just above the head of the skydiver. The slider slows and controls the deployment of the parachute. Without a slider, the parachute would inflate fast, potentially damaging the parachute fabric and/or suspension lines, as well as causing discomfort, injury or even death of
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#17327937894034588-455: The parachutist can be caught in downdrafts close to the ground. Shifting winds can cause a crosswind or downwind landing which have a higher potential for injury due to the wind speed adding to the landing speed. Another risk factor is that of "canopy collisions", or collisions between two or more skydivers under fully inflated parachutes. Canopy collisions can cause the jumpers' inflated parachutes to entangle with each other, often resulting in
4662-533: The pilot chute downward and clear of the door as the student exits. Accelerated freefall (AFF) (known in Canada as progressive freefall, and in Finland as Nova (NOpeutettu VApaapudotus, a literal translation) is a method of training for skydiving, called accelerated because the progression is the fastest way to experience solo freefall, normally from 10,000 to 15,000 feet above ground level (AGL), allowing one to reach
4736-493: The probability of an unlikely main malfunction multiplied by the even less likely probability of a reserve malfunction. This yields an even smaller probability of a double malfunction although the possibility of a main malfunction that cannot be cut away causing a reserve malfunction is a very real risk. Static line failures pose risks of towed paratroopers. Parachuting disciplines such as BASE jumping or those that involve equipment such as wingsuit flying and sky surfing have
4810-511: The propeller, but powered starting systems had to be provided, whether mechanical as with the Hucks starter or electrical as with the wheeled battery pack or trolley accumulator used for aircraft such as the Spitfire, which had an inbuilt electric starter motor. Aviation during this period was dominated by the conduct of the war, and the war in turn by air power. Aviation was heavily involved in
4884-503: The rocket especially in Germany and the jet both there and in Britain. By the end of the war they were beginning to make their appearance in operational types. The German and British jet technologies differed significantly. The axial-flow jet, in which air passes continuously backwards through the engine, was recognized as the most efficient design but required highly advanced new technologies in both materials and precision manufacture. While
4958-404: The seat being propelled out of and away from the aircraft, carrying the occupant with it, by means of either an explosive charge or a rocket propulsion system. Once clear of the aircraft, the ejection seat will deploy a parachute, although some older models entrusted this step to manual activation by the seat's occupant. In the U.S. during the 1970s, the sport averaged 42.5 fatalities annually. In
5032-509: The skydiver performed unsafe maneuvers or made an error in judgement while flying their canopy, typically resulting in a high-speed impact with the ground or other hazards on the ground. One of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy and while swooping. Swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding at high-speed parallel to the ground during landing. Changing wind conditions are another risk factor. In conditions of strong winds and turbulence during hot days,
5106-431: The top 25% jump a semi-final round. After the semi-final round, the top 50% are selected for the final round. The competitor with the lowest cumulative score is declared the winner. Competitors jump in teams of 5 maximum, exiting the aircraft at 1,000 or 1,200 meters and opening their parachutes sequentially to allow each competitor a clear approach to the target. This sport is unpredictable because weather conditions play
5180-557: The war. The Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 Bachstelze (Wagtail) unpowered rotor kite was towed behind submarines for use as an observation platform. In 1942 the Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri (Hummingbird) observation platform became the first true helicopter with a power-driven rotor to enter production. Two years later it was followed in Germany by the twin-rotor Focke Achgelis Fa 223 Drache (Kite) transport helicopter and in America by
5254-509: Was better. Some aircraft were made in both variants, while others could be modified in the field to fit either or both types. As the war progressed, higher aircraft speeds, cockpit armour and stronger airframes led to a steadily increasing preference for cannon. Later in the war the British and American forces made extensive use of unguided rockets for ground attack, while the German Bachem Natter point-defence interceptor had
5328-513: Was both rocket powered and of tailless configuration. Both of the Messerschmitt types had swept wings to delay the onset of small shock waves and the accompanying drag at transonic speeds. Other German types delivered to front-line units in the last days of the war included the rocket-powered vertical-takeoff Bachem Ba 349 Natter (Adder) interceptor — the very first manned, rocket-powered aircraft to launch vertically as designed — and
5402-433: Was made on 22 October 1797 by Frenchman André-Jacques Garnerin above Parc Monceau , Paris. He used a silk parachute to descend approximately 3,000 feet (910 m) from a hot air balloon. Parachuting is performed as a recreational activity and a competitive sport , and is widely considered an extreme sport due to the risks involved. In 2018, there were 3.3 million jumps in the US. Modern militaries utilize parachuting for
5476-525: Was of axial-flow design with similarly revered-flow combustion but was cancelled due to other priorities. The pulse jet was a crude jet engine which produced too much vibration to be usable for manned aircraft but found a niche in the V-1 flying bomb . At the start of the war, the British Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters had eight machine guns against typically four on
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