87-564: Paraiyar , Parayar or Maraiyar (formerly anglicised as Pariah / p ə ˈ r aɪ . ə / pə- RY -ə and Paree ) is a caste group found in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala and in Sri Lanka . Robert Caldwell , a nineteenth-century missionary and grammarian who worked in South India, was in agreement with some Indian writers of the same period who considered
174-523: A French missionary who worked in India between 1792 and 1823 and had a Brahmin -centric outlook, recorded the community's name as Pariah . He described them as people who lived outside the system of morals prescribed by Hinduism, accepted that outcaste position and were characterised by "drunkenness, shamelessness, brutality, truthlessness, uncleanliness, disgusting food practices, and an absolute lack of personal honour". Moffat says this led to pariah entering
261-563: A devotee clad in animal skins and carrying an ayah sulikah (iron spear, trident lance) as an icon representing his god. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwaram, but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed. The dating of the Shvetashvatara is also in dispute, but it is likely a late Upanishad . The Mahabharata mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140. Other evidence that
348-434: A diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute monism . In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic ( dvaita ) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism ( bhedabheda ) Agama texts and sixty four monism ( advaita ) Agama texts. The Bhairava Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic. The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (Self) and
435-548: A high status in the past. Edgar Thurston (1855–1935), for example, claimed that their status was nearly equal to that of the Brahmins in the past. H. A. Stuart, in his Census Report of 1891, claimed that Valluvars were a priestly class among the Paraiyars, and served as priests during Pallava reign. Robert Caldwell , J. H. A. Tremenheere and Edward Jewitt Robinson claimed that the ancient poet-philosopher Thiruvalluvar
522-525: A man with a feeling of true devotion to the feet of Siva ." Nandanar was described as a temple servant and leather worker, who supplied straps for drums and gut-string for stringed instruments used in the Chidambaram temple, but he was himself not allowed to enter the temple. The Paraiyar regard Nandanar as one of their own caste. Paraiyars wear the sacred thread under rituals such as marriage and funeral. Scholars such as Burchett and Moffatt state that
609-576: A proper name, it means "The Auspicious One". The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda , as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities , including Rudra . The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to
696-578: A prototype of Shiva. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear from the seal if the figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan,
783-464: A sovereign democratic republic. The new republic was also declared to be a "Union of States". The constitution of 1950 distinguished between three main types of states: Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu -speaking northern districts of Madras State . The French enclave of Chandernagore was transferred to West Bengal in 1954. In the same year Pondicherry , comprising
870-508: A theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy. Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools ranging from nondualism , dualism , and mixed schools . The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, as it is an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and Vedic culture. Some trace
957-424: Is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories , for a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into 806 districts and smaller administrative divisions . The states of India are self-governing administrative divisions, each having a state government . The governing powers of the states are shared between the state government and the union government . On
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#17327764221371044-433: Is closely related to Shaktism , and some Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be one with Shiva within. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Shaivites. Shiva ( śiva , Sanskrit : शिव ) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious. As
1131-478: Is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins. However, this is controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho . According to Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after
1218-597: Is present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and God. While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been acceptable to the Shaivas. Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-traditions. These broadly existed and are studied in three groups: theistic dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine features or practices of
1305-490: Is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion and a way of life, with a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions. It has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or humanist. Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism with
1392-577: Is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many cases. For example, in
1479-823: The Shiva Purāṇa , the Skanda Purāṇa , and the Linga Purāṇa . Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of Vaishnavism . But following the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with
1566-561: The Bhakti movement ( c. 7th–9th centuries CE), the saints – Shaivite Nayanars and the Vaishnavite Alvars – contained one saint each from the untouchable communities. The Nayanar saint Nandanar was born, according to Periya Puranam , in a "threshold of the huts covered with strips of leather", with mango trees from whose branches were hung drums. "In this abode of the people of the lowest caste ( kadainar ), there arose
1653-646: The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas , a few caves include Shaivism ideas. The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the Funan period, that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE. In Indonesia, temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that Shiva
1740-803: The Crown Colony of Burma . In 1947, the last Act of the Crown was passed. The act dissolved the Indian Empire, the Imperial Legislative Council and the Chamber of Princes and the Union of India was consequently established from 9 former Indian provinces ( East Punjab , United Provinces , Central Provinces , Madras , Bombay , Bihar , Orissa , West Bengal and Assam ) and 562 former Indian states. Between 1947 and 1950,
1827-501: The Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, Shaivism is the second-largest Hindu sect , constituting about 252 million or 26.6% of Hindus. Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions and traditions derived from the southern Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta traditions and philosophies, which were assimilated in
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#17327764221371914-491: The parai drum or by integration into the low-status labouring groups who were generically called Paraiyar. Thus, it is thought that Paraiyar came to have many subcastes. According to 1961 Madras Census Report, castes that are categorised under Paraiyar include Koliyar, Panchamar, Thoti, Vettiyan, Vetti, Vellam, Vel, Natuvile, Pani, Pambaikaran, Ammaparaiyan, Urumikaran, Morasu, Tangalam, Samban, Paryan, Nesavukaraparayan, Thotiparayan, Kongaparayan, Mannaparayan, and Semban. During
2001-543: The 10th-century Chola stone inscriptions from Kolar district ). Thass subsequently advocated the term Adi Dravida ( Original Dravidians ) to describe the community. In 1892, he used the term Adidravida Jana Sabhai to describe an organisation, which was probably Srinivasan's Parayar Mahajana Sabha. In 1895, he established the People's Assembly of Urdravidians (Adidravida Jana Sabha), which probably split off from Srinivasan's organisation. According to Michael Bergunder, Thass
2088-550: The 1920s and 1930s, Periyar E. V. Ramasamy ensured the wider dissemination of the term Adi Dravida . Paraiyars belong to the Valangai ("Right-hand caste faction"). Some of them assume the title Valangaimaan ("Head of the right-hand division"). The Valangai comprised castes with an agricultural basis while the Idangai consisted of castes involved in manufacturing. Valangai were better organised politically. As of 2017,
2175-469: The 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era. The Vedic literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, will be acceptable to the Shaivas. According to David Smith, "a key feature of
2262-489: The 5th century, during the late Guptas era. These inscriptions have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE. During the Gupta Empire (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of Purāṇa literature developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism – along with Vaishnavism , Shaktism, Smarta Traditions of Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then. The most important Shaiva Purāṇas of this period include
2349-555: The Bhakti devotationalism did not undermine Brahmin ritual dominance. Instead, it might have strengthened it by warding off challenges from Jainism and Buddhism . By the early 19th century, the Paraiyars had a degraded status in the Tamil society. Francis Buchanan 's report on socio-economic condition of South Indians described them ("Pariar") as inferior caste slaves, who cultivated the lands held by Brahmins . This report largely shaped
2436-471: The Emperor's representative to the constituent states of the province. The first three of the lieutenant-governorships were territories annexed to India from other powers and temporarily governed by the erstwhile Bengal Presidency, before being made into their own separate provinces. Agra and Bengal were still considered de jure parts of the defunct Bengal Presidency for judicial and legal purposes. Agra
2523-653: The English language as "a synonym for the socially ostracised and the morally depraved". Iyothee Thass felt that Paraiyar was a slur , and campaigned against its usage. During the 1881 census of India , he requested the government to record the community members under the name Aboriginal Tamils . He later suggested Dravidian as an alternative term, and formed the Dhraavidar Mahajana Sabhai (Dravidian Mahajana Assembly) in 1891. Another Paraiyar leader, Rettamalai Srinivasan , however, advocated using
2610-474: The Government of India introduced legislation to merge the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli into a single union territory to be known as Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu , effective from 26 January 2020. Ladakh UT The Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any state between
2697-491: The Indian Union and the state's monarchy was abolished. In 1987, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became states on 20 February, followed by Goa on 30 May, while erstwhile union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu 's northern exclaves Damão and Diu became a separate union territory as Daman and Diu . In November 2000, three new states were created, namely: Pondicherry was renamed Puducherry in 2007 and Orissa
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2784-456: The Kinaiyan – "was probably the same as the modern Paraiyan". He says that these people were believed to be associated with magical power and kept at a distance, made to live in separate hamlets outside villages. However, their magical power was believed to sustain the king, who had the ability to transform it into auspicious power. Moffatt is less sure of this, saying that we do not know whether
2871-666: The Paraiyans and the Katampans, there are no castes. This poem is sometimes interpreted as evidence of there being only four castes in ancient Tamilakam . However, in their translation of the Purananuru, George L. Hart and Hank Heifetz argue that this interpretation is incorrect: as with other poems in this section of the Purananuru, this verse "deals with life in a marginal village... All these plants, food, castes, and gods are typically those found in such marginal areas," and thus
2958-766: The Paraiyar were a listed as a Scheduled Caste in Tamil Nadu under India's system of affirmative action . Malavazhiyattam is a ritualistic dance drama performed once a year by the Paraya community in Kerala. Malavazhi is the mother goddesses who are installed in the homes of the Parayas and worshiped by them. Malavazhiyattam is performed to please the deities through music and drama. Citations Bibliography States and union territories of India India
3045-478: The Paraiyars "affect to consider themselves as the real proprietors of the soil". In 1894, William Goudie, a Wesleyan missionary, said that the Paraiyars were self-evidently the "disinherited children of the soil". English officials such as Ellis believed that the Paraiyars were serfs toiling under a system of bonded labour that resembled the European villeinage . However, scholars such as Burton Stein argue that
3132-627: The Paraiyars lost their culture, religion, wealth and status in the society and become destitute. In 1898, Thass and many of his followers converted to Buddhism and founded the Sakya Buddha Society ( cākkaiya putta caṅkam ) with the influential mediation of Henry Steel Olcott of the Theosophical Society . Olcott subsequently and greatly supported the Tamil Paraiyar Buddhists. Jean-Antoine Dubois ,
3219-1044: The Shaiva Upanishads. These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature. The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era. The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti -style theistic dualism themes to a synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes. The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology. These texts include Shaiva cosmology , epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of practice. These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit and in south Indian languages such as Tamil . The Agamas present
3306-717: The Shaiva tradition in South India has been one of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism-related manuscripts from ancient and medieval India. The region was also the source of Hindu arts, temple architecture, and merchants who helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st millennium CE. There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is either the primary deity or reverentially included in anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, or svayambhu ). Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Gudimallam
3393-705: The Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas". This school's view can be summed as, The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk. The Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE) is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called
3480-667: The Union and that state. Shaivism Saiddhantika Non - Saiddhantika Traditional Shaivism ( / ˈ ʃ aɪ v ɪ z ə m / ; Sanskrit : शैवसंप्रदायः , romanized : Śaivasampradāyaḥ ) is one of the major Hindu traditions , which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being . One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga -orientated monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism . It considers both
3567-499: The Vedas and Upanishads, the Agamas, and the Bhasya . According to Gavin Flood – a professor at Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a sophisticated theology, in its diverse traditions. Among the notable and influential commentaries by dvaita (dualistic) theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th century Bhojadeva. The dualistic theology
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3654-600: The Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation, while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are non-Puranik. Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the Vaishnava Alvars launched the Bhakti movement in the 7th century, and influential Vedanta scholars such as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational framework that helped Vaishnavism expand. Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots, given their mention in
3741-629: The agricultural bondage in Tamil society was different from the contemporary British ideas of slavery . Historians such as David Washbrook have argued that the socio-economic status of the Paraiyars rose greatly in the 18th century during the Company rule in India ; Washbrook calls it the "Golden Age of the Pariah". Raj Sekhar Basu disagrees with this narrative, although he agrees that there were "certain important economic developments". The Church Mission Society converted many Paraiyars to Christianity by
3828-517: The arrival of Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography; however, this evidence is weak and subject to competing inferences. In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism . The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal suggest that Shaivism (particularly Pāśupata) was established in this region by
3915-464: The backwardness of contemporary local Muslims made Islam unappealing. Thass subsequently attempted a Buddhist reconstruction of the Tamil religious history. He argued that the Paraiyars were originally followers of Buddhism and constituted the original population of India. According to him, the Brahmanical invaders from Persia defeated them and destroyed Buddhism in southern India; as a result,
4002-647: The direct rule of the Emperor of India (who was also the King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions ) and a few minor states, ruled by Indian princes under the suzerainty of the Emperor. A Governor or Lieutenant-Governor acted as the representative of the Emperor to that province and head of government of the directly ruled territories in the province. The governor or lieutenant-governor also served as
4089-456: The distancing was a consequence of the belief in their magical powers or in Hinduism's ritual pollution as we know of it nowadays. Burton Stein describes an essentially continuous process of expansion of the nuclear areas of the caste society into forest and upland areas of tribal and warrior people, and their integration into the caste society at the lowest levels. Many of the forest groups were incorporated as Paraiyar either by association with
4176-556: The dominant religious tradition of many Hindu kingdoms . It arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the Atman (Self) within oneself and every living being. It
4263-629: The drums called kiṇai in the literature later came to be called paṟai and the people that played the drum were paraiyar (plural of paraiyan ). Paraiyar as a word referring to an occupational group first appears in the second century CE writings of Mangudi Kilar . The 335th poem of the Purananuru mentions the Paraiyar: Other than the Tutiyan drummers and the Panan singers and
4350-531: The earliest clear mention of Rudra ("Roarer") in its hymns 2.33, 1.43 and 1.114. The text also includes a Satarudriya , an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra, that is cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as recited in major Shiva temples of Hindus in contemporary times. Yet, the Vedic literature only present scriptural theology, but does not attest to the existence of Shaivism. According to Gavin Flood , "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during
4437-460: The early 19th century. During the British Raj, the missionary schools and colleges admitted Paraiyar students amid opposition from the upper-caste students. In 1893, the colonial government sanctioned an additional stipend for the Paraiyar students. The colonial officials, scholars, and missionaries attempted to rewrite the history of the Paraiyars, characterising them as a community that enjoyed
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#17327764221374524-804: The early 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North Indian subcontinent , including in the Hindu Kush region such as Nuristan . Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva temples had been built in central, southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent, including those at Badami cave temples , Aihole , Elephanta Caves , Ellora Caves (Kailasha, cave 16), Khajuraho , Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram, Madurai, and Conjeevaram. Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from
4611-769: The effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting. The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras , the Maukharis , the Maitrakas , the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva . Vaishnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir . In
4698-441: The epics such as the Mahabharata , Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier. The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the later though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnavism. This is evidenced in Hindu texts such as the Isvarasamhita , Padmasamhita, and Paramesvarasamhita . Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir through Nepal,
4785-408: The existence of an Ultimate Reality ( Brahman ) which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism. The texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two. Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God
4872-458: The former French enclaves of Pondichéry , Karikal , Yanaon and Mahé , was transferred to India. This became a union territory in 1962. Also in 1954, pro-India forces liberated the Portuguese-held enclaves of Dadrá and Nagar Aveli , declaring the short-lived de facto state of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli . In 1961, India annexed it as the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli . The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 reorganised
4959-402: The four castes mentioned here should not be taken as a comprehensive list of all Tamil castes in this period. Hart says that the pulaiyar performed a ritual function by composing and singing songs in the king's favour and beating drums, as well as travelling around villages to announce royal decrees. They were divided into subgroups based on the instruments they played and one of these groups –
5046-955: The god (Shiva) with Tantra practices and Agama teachings. There is a considerable overlap between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus. Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik (esoteric, tantric). They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while placing Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category. Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows: Shaiva manuscripts that have survived (post-8th century) Nepal and Himalayan region = 140,000 South India = 8,600 Others (Devanagiri) = 2,000 Bali and SE Asia = Many —Alexis Sanderson, The Saiva Literature Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by numerous texts ranging from scriptures to theological treatises. These include
5133-493: The name from the Tamil word poraian , the name of a regional subdivision mentioned by ancient Tamil grammarians, or the Sanskrit pahariya , meaning "hill man". More recently, George L. Hart 's textual analysis of the Sangam literature ( c. 300 BCE – 300 CE) has led him to favour Caldwell's earlier hypothesis. The literature has references to the Tamil caste system and refers to a number of "low-born" groups variously called Pulaiyar and Kinaiyar . Hart believes that one of
5220-450: The name to derive from the Tamil word parai ( drum ). According to this hypothesis , the Paraiyars were originally a community of drummers who performed at auspicious events like weddings and funerals. M. Srinivasa Aiyangar, writing a little later, found this etymology unsatisfactory, arguing that beating of drums could not have been an occupation of so many people. Some other writers, such as Gustav Solomon Oppert , have derived
5307-414: The non-Vedic Shiva-tradition. In the process of Sanskritisation and the synthesis of Hinduism , starting in the last centuries BCE , these pre-Vedic traditions became aligned with the Vedic deity Rudra and other Vedic deities, incorporating the non-Vedic Shiva-traditions into the Vedic-Brahmanical fold . Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming
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#17327764221375394-461: The noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver". The Sanskrit word śaiva or shaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the pan-Hindu traditions found widely across South Asia predominantly in Southern India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. While Shiva
5481-450: The origins to the Indus Valley civilization , which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal , which early scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals, and with horns. This "Pashupati" ( Lord of Animals , Sanskrit paśupati ) seal has been interpreted by these scholars as
5568-472: The other hand, the union territories are directly governed by the union government. The Indian Empire was a very complex political entity consisting of various imperial divisions and states and territories of varying autonomy. At the time of its establishment in 1876, it was made up of 584 constituent states and the directly ruled territories of the Crown . The entire empire was divided into provinces and agencies. A province consisted of territory under
5655-568: The paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed. In the centuries that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions. In Balinese Hinduism , Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya " into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification
5742-413: The perceptions of the British officials about contemporary society. They regarded Pariyars as an outcaste, untouchable community. In the second half of the 19th century, there were frequent descriptions of the Paraiyars in official documents and reformist tracts as being "disinherited sons of the earth". The first reference to the idea may be that written by Francis Whyte Ellis in 1818, where he writes that
5829-422: The period from 200 BC to 100 AD." Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical god, but eventually came to be incorporated into the Brahmanical fold. The pre-Vedic Shiva acquired a growing prominence as its cult assimilated numerous "ruder faiths" and their mythologies, and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre-Vedic myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva-cult. Shiva's growing prominence
5916-410: The proposal that it is proto-Shiva may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings". Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bull interpretation is likely more accurate. The Rigveda (~1500–1200 BCE) has
6003-404: The provinces with only territories under direct Crown rule. The latter years of the Indian Empire saw the enactment of the last Government of India Act by the Crown. This act granted full autonomy to Indian provinces. Provincial laws no longer needed the assent of the governor-general. This act created the office of a Premier in each province, who functioned as the new head of government and
6090-572: The provinces. However a good number of states were organised into imperial structures called agencies, or residencies. An Agent to the Governor-General (AGG) functioned as the Emperor's representative to all the states in the agency. In 1919, the fourth Government of India was enacted by the Crown. This saw many major changes. The legislatures of the provinces were made elected ones rather than nominated ones. Some provinces were given bicameral legislatures . All provinces were elevated to governorships and all lieutenant governors were made governors. Burma
6177-404: The representative of the Emperor . In addition to these, there were certain territories ruled directly by the Government of India through nominated chief commissioners. These were former independent states annexed to India and since ruled directly by the Supreme Government. A vast majority of the Indian states in the late nineteenth century were, in terms of imperial divisions, organised within
6264-459: The second half of the 1st millennium CE, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject
6351-495: The states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states. As a result of this act: Bombay State was split into the linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. The former Union Territory of Nagaland achieved statehood on 1 December 1963. The Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and
6438-509: The term Paraiyar with pride. In 1892, he formed the Parayar Mahajana Sabha (Paraiyar Mahajana Assembly), and also started a news publication titled Paraiyan . Thass continued his campaign against the term, and petitioned the government to discontinue its usage, demanding punishment for those who used the term. He incorrectly claimed that the term Paraiyar was not found in any ancient records (it has been, in fact, found in
6525-473: The terms such as "Shiva, Mahadeva, Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and they use iconography such as the Linga , Nandi , Trishula (trident), as well as anthropomorphic statues of Shiva in temples to help focus their practices. Another sub-group is called esoteric, which fuses it with abstract Sivata (feminine energy) or Sivatva (neuter abstraction), wherein the theology integrates the goddess (Shakti) and
6612-552: The territories of the princely states were politically integrated into the new Indian Union . Most were merged into existing provinces. Others were organised into new provinces and states , such as Rajasthan , Himachal Pradesh , Malwa Union , Baghelkhand and Bundelkhand States Union , and Patiala and East Punjab States Union , made up of multiple princely states. A few, including Mysore , Hyderabad , Bhopal , and Bilaspur , became separate states. The new Constitution of India , which came into force on 26 January 1950, made India
6699-415: The transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh . The act designated Chandigarh as a union territory and the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana. Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1969. The north-eastern states of Manipur , Meghalaya and Tripura were formed on 21 January 1972. Mysore State was renamed Karnataka in 1973. On 16 May 1975, Sikkim became the 22nd state of
6786-479: Was a Paraiyar. Iyothee Thass , a Siddha doctor by occupation, belonged to a Paraiyar elite. In 1892, he demanded access for Paraiyars to Hindu temples, but faced resistance from Brahmins and Vellalars . This experience led him to believe that it was impossible to emancipate the community within the Hindu fold. In 1893, he also rejected Christianity and Islam as the alternatives to Hinduism, because caste differences had persisted among Indian Christians , while
6873-536: Was challenged by the numerous scholars of advaita (nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta, the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna, Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians. The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism , while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific sub-traditions. The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to
6960-492: Was facilitated by identification with a number of Vedic deities, such as Purusha , Rudra , Agni , Indra , Prajāpati , Vāyu , among others. The followers of Shiva were gradually accepted into the Brahmanical fold, becoming allowed to recite some of the Vedic hymns. Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya , dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions the term Shiva-bhagavata in section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states that this term refers to
7047-506: Was given a special status and made an autonomous province. The Chamber of Princes was established by Emperor George V in 1920. One of the major consequences of this was the creation of many more agencies from the states of the provinces, thus granting them direct relations with the Emperor instead of with the Governors. This saw the separation of all the states from the provinces and addition to before-mentioned agencies. This left all
7134-593: Was renamed Odisha in 2011. Telangana was created on 2 June 2014 from ten former districts of north-western Andhra Pradesh . In August 2019, the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 , which contains provisions to reorganise the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories; Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh , effective from 31 October 2019. Later that year in November,
7221-399: Was responsible to the provincial legislature. Bengal, Madras and Bombay which had been till now styled Presidencies, were now officially styled as provinces. The provinces of Orissa and Sind were created from Bihar and Bombay respectively. The Province of Burma which had previously functioned as an autonomous province of India was now separated from the Indian Empire, and established as
7308-501: Was separated in 1878 and merged with Oudh . The Bengal Presidency was re-established in 1912 as a governorship. All these provinces had their own legislatures established by the Indian Councils Acts, and high courts established by Indian High Courts Acts. Laws passed by these legislatures needed the dual assent of the governor or lieutenant-governor of the province and the governor-general of India , who functioned as
7395-509: Was the highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam, and persists today in the province of Bali. The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century. Shaivism and Shiva held
7482-548: Was thus the first person to introduce the concept of Adi Dravida into political discussion. Another Paraiyar leader, M. C. Rajah — a Madras councillor — made successful efforts for adoption of the term Adi-Dravidar in the government records. In 1914, the Madras Legislative Council passed a resolution that officially censured the usage of the term Paraiyar to refer to a specific community, and recommended Adi Dravidar as an alternative. In
7569-431: Was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women. Shaivism centers around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary significantly. They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva within oneself. Within each of these theologies, there are two sub-groups. One sub-group is called Vedic-Puranic, who use
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