A paraphrase or rephrase ( / ˈ p ær ə ˌ f r eɪ z / ) is the rendering of the same text in different words without losing the meaning of the text itself. More often than not, a paraphrased text can convey its meaning better than the original words. In other words, it is a copy of the text in meaning, but which is different from the original. For example, when someone tells a story they heard in own words, they paraphrase, with the meaning being the same. The term itself is derived via Latin paraphrasis , from Ancient Greek παράφρασις ( paráphrasis ) 'additional manner of expression'. The act of paraphrasing is also called paraphrasis .
66-476: Although paraphrases likely abounded in oral traditions, paraphrasing as a specific educational exercise dates back to at least Roman times, when the author Quintilian recommended it for students to develop dexterity in language. In the Middle Ages, this tradition continued, with authors such as Geoffrey of Vinsauf developing schoolroom exercises that included both rhetorical manipulations and paraphrasing as
132-591: A close advisor of the Emperor, which probably ensured his survival after the assassination of Galba in 69. After Galba's death, and during the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors which followed, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric . Among his students were Pliny the Younger , and perhaps Tacitus . The Emperor Vespasian made him a consul . The emperor "in general was not especially interested in
198-475: A filthy dungeon. The influential scholar Leonardo Bruni , considered the first modern historian, greeted the news by writing to his friend Poggio: It will be your glory to restore to the present age, by your labour and diligence, the writings of excellent authors, which have hitherto escaped the researches of the learned... Oh! what a valuable acquisition! What an unexpected pleasure! Shall I then behold Quintilian whole and entire, who, even in his imperfect state,
264-407: A form of transcription , direct or quoted speech is spoken or written text that reports speech or thought in its original form phrased by the original speaker. In narrative , it is usually enclosed in quotation marks, but it can be enclosed in guillemets (« ») in some languages. The cited speaker either is mentioned in the tag (or attribution) or is implied. Direct speech is often used as
330-401: A literary device to represent someone's point of view. Quotations are also widely used in spoken language when an interlocutor wishes to present a proposition that they have come to know via hearsay. Direct speech and indirect speech can also refer to the difference between speech acts where the illocutionary force is conveyed directly and indirectly, respectively. Thus, "What time is it?"
396-460: A modification from the original quote. Various uses of brackets in quotes are: When "[ sic ]" is added, it means that errors are present in the original text. For example, "Domestic cats are valued by hoomans [ sic ] for companionship." Traditionally, quotations—more specifically known as direct quotations —have been distinguished from indirect quotations. Direct quotations differ from indirect quotations in that they are reported from
462-593: A paragraph or changing the way arguments are presented without altering the factual content. Extremes include changes that significantly alter the text, possibly introducing new information or omitting crucial details, thus pushing the boundaries of what might typically be considered a paraphrase. Machine learning models have been trained to generate paraphrases with specific properties, such as high semantic similarity and syntactic diversity, or to generate specific paraphrase types. Models that have high capacity in paraphrasing can be used for various applications. For example,
528-503: A practical model in the art he was expounding, neither Aristotle, nor any less austere among the Greek rhetoricians, has any pretensions to measure himself with Quintilian. In reality, for a triumph over the difficulties of the subject, and as a lesson on the possibility of imparting grace to the treatment of scholastic topics, naturally as intractable as that of Grammar or Prosody, there is no such chef-d'œuvre to this hour in any literature, as
594-507: A reporting speaker heard. Quotations are employed in spoken discourse for many reasons. They are often used by speakers to depict stories and events that have occurred in the past to other interlocutors . The speaker does not necessarily have to have been an original participant in the story or event. Therefore, they can quote something that they did not hear firsthand. Quotations are also used to express thoughts that have never been uttered aloud prior to being quoted. For example, while telling
660-399: A situation that will not actually take place. In the latter usage, the proposed dialogue only exists in the conversational context. The quoted material is usually not a verbatim replication of an utterance that someone originally said. Instead, quotations in spoken discourse reproduce what a speaker wishes to communicate to their recipients; quotations demonstrate something that someone said,
726-451: A story, a speaker quotes inner thoughts that they had during a specific situation. Finally, speakers use quotations to propose future dialogue for participants in a situation that may take place in the future. For example, two friends talk about their 10-year high school reunion that will take place in the future and propose what they would say. While future dialogue can be proposed for a situation that will likely happen, it can also be based on
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#1732780736488792-449: A text can be altered to convey the same or similar meaning: Morphology-based changes involve alterations at the level of word formation, such as changing the tense of verbs or the number of nouns. For instance, converting "walks" to "walked" represents a morphological change by altering the verb's tense. Lexicon-based changes include changes made by substituting words with their synonyms or closely related words without significantly altering
858-697: A text literally, a paraphrase conveys the essential thought expressed in a source text—if necessary, at the expense of literality . For details, see dynamic and formal equivalence . The phrase "in your own words" is often used within this context to imply that the writer has rewritten the text in their own writing style – how they would have written it if they had created the idea. Nowadays, there are some models to learn and recognize paraphrase on natural language texts. Sentences can also be automatically paraphrased using text simplification software. Quintilian Marcus Fabius Quintilianus ( Latin: [kᶣiːn.tɪ.li.ˈaː.nʊs] ; c. 35 – c. 100 AD)
924-445: A way of generating poems and speeches. There is interest in the study of paraphrases relating to concerns around plagiarism and original authorship. For the purposes of education, Fred Inglis identifies five levels of paraphrase: Paraphrasing with synonyms is considered by some to be an acceptable stage in teaching paraphrase, but it is necessary that it is ultimately combined with techniques for altering sentence structure to avoid
990-413: A well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study rhetoric early in the reign of Nero . While there, he cultivated a relationship with Domitius Afer , who died in 59. "It had always been the custom … for young men with ambitions in public life to fix upon some older model of their ambition … and regard him as a mentor". Quintilian evidently adopted Afer as his model and listened to him speak and plead cases in
1056-404: Is a direct speech act that might also be expressed by the indirect speech act "Do you know what time it is?" A crucial semantic distinction between direct and indirect speech is that direct speech purports to report the exact words that were said or written, whereas indirect speech is a representation of speech in one's own words. The distinction between indirect speech and free indirect speech
1122-548: Is also seen in Luther's contemporary Erasmus of Rotterdam. He above all shaped the implicit depth of humanism and had studied at Steyn. It has been argued by a musicologist, Ursula Kirkendale, that the composition of Johann Sebastian Bach 's Das musikalische Opfer ( The Musical Offering , BWV 1079), was closely connected with the Institutio Oratoria . Among Bach's duties during his tenure at Leipzig (1723–1750)
1188-551: Is believed to have died sometime around 100 AD, not having long survived Domitian, who was assassinated in 96. The only extant work of Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric entitled Institutio Oratoria (generally referred to in English as the Institutes of Oratory ), written around 95 AD. This work deals not only with the theory and practice of rhetoric, but also with the foundational education and development of
1254-476: Is given to him. Quintilian believed that "his style is for the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous because it abounds in attractive faults". Seneca was regarded as doubly dangerous because his style was sometimes attractive. This reading of Seneca "has heavily coloured subsequent judgments of Seneca and his style". Quintilian also made an impression on Martial , the Latin poet. A short poem, written in 86 AD,
1320-402: Is his criticism of the orator Seneca the Younger . Quintilian was attempting to modify the prevailing imperial style of oratory with his book, and Seneca was the principal figure in that style's tradition. He was more recent than many of the authors mentioned by Quintilian, but his reputation within the post-classical style necessitated both his mention and the criticism or back-handed praise that
1386-404: Is mostly one of style, hence free indirect speech is sometimes described as a free indirect style. A quotation can also refer to the repeated use of units of any other form of expression, especially parts of artistic works: elements of a painting , scenes from a movie or sections from a musical composition . Quotations are used for a variety of reasons: to illuminate the meaning or to support
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#17327807364881452-552: Is often mentioned by writers like Montaigne and Lessing ... but he made no major contribution to intellectual history, and by the nineteenth century he seemed to be... rather little read and rarely edited". However, in his celebrated Autobiography, John Stuart Mill (arguably the nineteenth-century's most influential English intellectual) spoke highly of Quintilian as a force in his early education. He wrote that Quintilian, while little-read in Mill's day due to "his obscure style and to
1518-451: Is some dispute over the real writer of these texts: "Some modern scholars believe that the declamations circulated in his name represent the lecture notes of a scholar either using Quintilian's system or actually trained by him". Institutio Oratoria (English: Institutes of Oratory ) is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was written around year 95 AD. The work deals also with
1584-475: The Institutio Oratoria than Cicero: "For who can instruct with greater thoroughness, or more deeply stir the emotions? Who has ever possessed such a gift of charm?". Quintilian's definition of rhetoric shares many similarities with that of Cicero, one being the importance of the speaker's moral character. Like Cicero, Quintilian also believes that "history and philosophy can increase an orator's command of copia and style;" they differ in that Quintilian "features
1650-605: The Vulgate Bible , whose theories on education are clearly influenced by Quintilian's. The Middle Ages saw a decline in knowledge of his work, since existing manuscripts of Institutio Oratoria were fragmented, but the Italian humanists revived interest in the work after the discovery by Poggio Bracciolini in 1416 of a forgotten, complete manuscript in the Abbey of Saint Gall , which he found "buried in rubbish and dust" in
1716-512: The orator , providing advice that ran from the cradle to the grave. An earlier text, De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae ("On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence") has been lost, but is believed to have been "a preliminary exposition of some of the views later set forth in [ Institutio Oratoria ]". In addition, there are two sets of declamations, Declamationes Maiores and Declamationes Minores , which have been attributed to Quintilian. However, there
1782-449: The that is signals the paraphrase that follows. A paraphrase does not need to accompany a direct quotation . The paraphrase typically serves to put the source's statement into perspective or to clarify the context in which it appeared. A paraphrase is typically more detailed than a summary . One should add the source at the end of the sentence: When the light was red, trains could not go (Misplaced Pages). A paraphrase may attempt to preserve
1848-542: The Institutions of Quintilian". In more recent times, Quintilian appears to have made another upward turn. He is frequently included in anthologies of literary criticism, and is an integral part of the history of education. He is believed to be the "earliest spokesman for a child-centered education", which is discussed above under his early childhood education theories. As well, he has something to offer students of speech, professional writing , and rhetoric, because of
1914-867: The appearance of plagiarism. Studies of English language students have found that ESL learners tend to rely on using synonyms rather than changing sentence structure when paraphrasing. Participants in a study of some Vietnamese ESL learners expressed that they preferred using synonyms out of a fear that using the wrong sentence structure would lead to the sentence having a different meaning. Na and Mai suggest that ESL teachers should provide varied activities including tasks requiring changes in syntax, and that ESL students should be given source texts to paraphrase whose meaning they are already readily able to understand. Natural Language Processing researchers have defined various (atomic) paraphrase types to better understand how paraphrasing occurs in humans. These types fall into six broad categories, each reflecting different ways in which
1980-468: The approximative meaning of such an utterance along with the way in which that utterance was produced. From a sociolinguistic perspective, a direct quotation in spoken discourse can therefore also be defined as "a performance whereby speakers re-enact previous behaviour (speech/thought/sound/voice effect and gesture) while assuming the dramatic role of the original source of this reported behaviour". Indirect quotations are simply paraphrases of something that
2046-413: The arguments of the work in which it is being quoted, to provide direct information about the work being quoted (whether in order to discuss it, positively or negatively), to pay homage to the original work or author , to make the user of the quotation seem well-read, and/or to comply with copyright law. Quotations are also commonly printed as a means of inspiration and to invoke philosophical thoughts from
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2112-471: The arts, but … was interested in education as a means of creating an intelligent and responsible ruling class". This subsidy enabled Quintilian to devote more time to the school. In addition, he appeared in the courts of law, arguing on behalf of clients. Of his personal life, little is known. In the Institutio Oratoria , he mentions a wife who died young, as well as two sons who predeceased him. Quintilian retired from teaching and pleading in 88 AD, during
2178-512: The character of the orator, as well as the art". In Book II, Quintilian sides with Plato 's assertion in the Phaedrus that the rhetorician must be just: "In the Phaedrus , Plato makes it even clearer that the complete attainment of this art is even impossible without the knowledge of justice, an opinion in which I heartily concur". Their views are further similar in their treatment of "(1)
2244-403: The complement, otherwise the structure formed will be ungrammatical (e.g. *"They'll never make it!" cried to Mary John). Quotative inversion is only allowed when the verb is in the simple present or the simple past . The most common pairing is the verb said with a nominal subject, such as: "That's the whole trouble," said Gwen. Additionally, noun phrases are not permitted in addition to
2310-571: The dead to Quintilian, and for many he "provided the inspiration for a new humanistic philosophy of education". This enthusiasm for Quintilian spread with humanism itself, reaching northern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther , the German theologian and ecclesiastical reformer, "claimed that he preferred Quintilian to almost all authors, 'in that he educates and at the same time demonstrates eloquence, that is, he teaches in word and in deed most happily'". The influence of Quintilian's works
2376-406: The direct quotation can occur before a verb of saying or after a verb of saying. It can trigger inversion of the verb and the verb's subject . Subject-verb inversion occurs most often in written works, being rare in speech. Quotations may appear before the inverted verb, but can also appear after the subject, such as: "I am going to follow you all the rest of my life," declared the man and Said
2442-404: The emperor did not seem to mind. The emperor was so impressed with Quintilian's devotion to education that he hired him to be a tutor for his family. Domitian was in the harshest period of his rule at that time and almost no one had the courage to speak any idea that was unlike his, but Quintilian did. He spoke as an orator in the tradition of Cicero, such as had not been seen since the beginning of
2508-427: The essential meaning of the material being paraphrased. Thus, the (intentional or otherwise) reinterpretation of a source to infer a meaning that is not explicitly evident in the source itself qualifies as "original research ," and not a paraphrase. Unlike a metaphrase , which represents a "formal equivalent" of the source, a paraphrase represents a "dynamic equivalent" thereof. While a metaphrase attempts to translate
2574-755: The films The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and The Return of Sherlock Holmes ), " Luke, I am your father " (attributed to Darth Vader in Star Wars ), " Play it again, Sam " (attributed to Ilsa in Casablanca ), " Do you feel lucky, punk? " (attributed to Harry Callahan in Dirty Harry ) and " We don't need no stinkin' badges! " (attributed to Gold Hat in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre ). Quotative inversion occurs in sentences where
2640-417: The foundational education and development of orators . In this work, Quintilian establishes that the perfect orator is first a good man, and after that he is a good speaker. He also believed that a speech should stay genuine to a message that is "just and honorable". This came to be known as his good man theory , embracing the message that if one cannot be genuinely good, then one cannot be a good speaker for
2706-794: The function of figurative language and tropes. Footnotes Quotation A quotation is the repetition of a sentence, phrase, or passage from speech or text that someone has said or written. In oral speech, it is the representation of an utterance (i.e. of something that a speaker actually said) that is introduced by a quotative marker, such as a verb of saying. For example: John said: "I saw Mary today". Quotations in oral speech are also signaled by special prosody in addition to quotative markers. In written text, quotations are signaled by quotation marks. Quotations are also used to present well-known statement parts that are explicitly attributed by citation to their original source; such statements are marked with ( punctuated with) quotation marks . As
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2772-729: The granular understanding of the linguistic changes involved in paraphrase generation could be directly applied to support language learners. A model can provide simpler paraphrases considering specific linguistic variations (e.g., syntax) to support students in learning new words and concepts. Universities could create a linguistic profile of their students based on their assignments and better assess their thesis with content similarity detection for potential plagiarism cases. Different types of paraphrases such as syntax and lexicon changes have also been used for prompt engineering to adjust prompts in specific linguistic aspects to achieve better model outputs. A paraphrase typically explains or clarifies
2838-440: The great detail with which he covers the rhetorical system. His discussions of tropes and figures also formed the foundation of contemporary works on the nature of figurative language, including the post-structuralist and formalist theories. For example, the works of Jacques Derrida on the failure of language to impart the truth of the objects it is meant to represent would not be possible without Quintilian's assumptions about
2904-502: The inseparability, in more respects than one, of wisdom, goodness, and eloquence; and (2) the morally ideological nature of rhetoric. [...] For both, there are conceptual connections between rhetoric and justice which rule out the possibility of [an] amorally neutral conception of rhetoric. For both, rhetoric is 'speaking well,' and for both 'speaking well' means speaking justly". The influence of Quintilian's masterwork, Institutio Oratoria , can be felt in several areas. First of all, there
2970-476: The law courts. Afer has been characterized as a more austere, classical, Ciceronian speaker than those common at the time of Seneca the Younger , and he may have inspired Quintilian's love of Cicero . Sometime after Afer's death, Quintilian returned to Hispania, possibly to practice law in the courts of his own province. However, in 68, he returned to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba , Nero's short-lived successor. Quintilian does not appear to have been
3036-446: The manner in which that person said it, and the current speaker’s feelings about what was said. In this way, quotations are an especially effective storytelling device; the speaker is able to give a voice to the protagonists in their stories themselves, which allows the speaker’s audience to experience the situation in the way that the speaker themselves experienced it. In most languages, quotations in spoken discourse are introduced by
3102-775: The most reliable and comprehensive sources. Diaries and calendars often include quotations for entertainment or inspirational purposes, and small, dedicated sections in newspapers and weekly magazines—with recent quotations by leading personalities on current topics—have also become commonplace. Many quotations are routinely incorrect or attributed to the wrong authors, and quotations from obscure or unknown writers are often attributed to far more famous writers. Examples of this are Winston Churchill , to whom many political quotations of uncertain origin are attributed, and Oscar Wilde , to whom anonymous humorous quotations are sometimes attributed. Some quotations commonly believed to be quotations from literature, film, etc. do not actually appear in
3168-446: The orator I am training to be a sort of Roman Wise Man". Quintilian also "insists that his ideal orator is no philosopher because the philosopher does not take as a duty participation in civic life; this is constitutive of Quintilian's (and Isocrates ' and Cicero 's) ideal orator". Though he calls for imitation , he also urges the orator to use this knowledge to inspire his own original invention. No author receives greater praise in
3234-460: The people. This theory also revolves around being of service to the people. He asserts that a good man is one who works for the good of the people and the prosperity of society. Quintilian wrote Institutio Oratoria in the last years of Domitian 's rule of the Roman Empire . He had worked alongside Domitian, but as he began to write more and ease away from Emperor Domitian's complete power,
3300-407: The perspective of the experiencer, while indirect quotations are reported from the perspective of the reporting speaker (e.g. "He said: 'I am leaving now'" versus "He said (that) he was leaving immediately"); are free in their syntactic form, while indirect quotations are subject to language-specific structural requirements (e.g. indirect quotations in many Indo-European languages are required to have
3366-617: The reader. Pragmatically speaking, quotations can also be used as language games (in the Wittgensteinian sense of the term) to manipulate social order and the structure of society. Famous quotations are frequently collected in books that are sometimes called quotation dictionaries or treasuries. Of these, Bartlett's Familiar Quotations , The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations , The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations , The Yale Book of Quotations and The Macmillan Book of Proverbs, Maxims, and Famous Phrases are considered among
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#17327807364883432-545: The reign of Augustus . Rather than pleading cases, as an orator of his era might have been expected to do, he concentrated on speaking in more general terms about how sound rhetoric influences the education of the people. Quintilian cites many authors in the Institutio Oratoria before providing his own definition of rhetoric . His rhetoric is chiefly defined by Cato the Elder 's vir bonus, dicendi peritus , or "the good man skilled at speaking". Later he states: "I should like
3498-514: The reign of Domitian . His retirement may have been prompted by his achievement of financial security and his desire to become a gentleman of leisure. Quintilian survived several emperors; the reigns of Vespasian and Titus were relatively peaceful, but that of Domitian was reputed to be difficult. Domitian's cruelty and paranoia may have prompted the rhetorician to distance himself quietly. The emperor does not appear to have taken offence as he made Quintilian tutor of his two grand-nephews in 90 AD. He
3564-427: The scholastic details of which many parts of his treatise are made up", was "seldom sufficiently appreciated." "His book," Mill continued, "is a kind of encyclopaedia of the thoughts of the ancients on the whole field of education and culture; and I have retained through life many valuable ideas which I can distinctly trace to my reading of him...". He was also highly praised by Thomas De Quincey : "[F]or elegance and as
3630-413: The sentence structure and some words are altered. Syntax-based changes are primarily focused on the structure of the sentence rather than the words themselves. For example, changing a complex sentence into two simpler sentences while maintaining the overall meaning falls into this category. Discourse-based changes are alterations that affect the larger discourse or text structure, such as reordering points in
3696-407: The sentence structure. An example could be changing "quick" to "fast" in a sentence, where both adjectives convey a similar speed attribute. Lexico-syntactic-based changes contain both lexical alterations and modifications in the sentence structure. An example might be transforming an active voice sentence like "The cat chased the mouse" into a passive voice "The mouse was chased by the cat," where both
3762-446: The source material, but are paraphrases of phrases that do. The Star Trek catchphrase " Beam me up, Scotty " did not appear in that form in the original series. Other misquotations include " Just the facts, ma'am " (attributed to Jack Webb 's character of Joe Friday on Dragnet ), "Heavy lies the crown" from Shakespeare's Play Henry IV, Part 2 , " Elementary, my dear Watson " (attributed to Sherlock Holmes ; it was, however, said in
3828-496: The subject when inversion takes place. They are allowed only when there is no subject-verb inversion, or when part of a preposition phrase. In English, both verb-subject and subject-verb word orders are permitted: This however, is not the case in all languages. For example, in Peninsular Spanish, this inversion is not allowed. Quotatives must follow verb-subject order: Brackets are used to indicate an addition or
3894-507: The syntactic form of a well-formed declarative subordinate clause ); incorporate extralinguistic material and pragmatic markers, while indirect quotations do not. Crucially, direct quotations have a performative aspect (i.e. occur simultaneously with re-enactments of previous behaviours), which indirect quotations lack. Both direct and indirect quotations in spoken discourse are not intended to be verbatim reproductions of an utterance that has been produced. Instead, direct quotations convey
3960-401: The text that is being paraphrased. For example, "The signal was red" might be paraphrased as "The train was not allowed to pass as the red signal light was illuminated". A paraphrase can be introduced with verbum dicendi —a declaratory expression to signal the transition to the paraphrase. For example, in "The author states 'The signal was red,' that is , the train was not allowed to proceed,"
4026-479: The woman: "I see you with both my eyes." In syntactic terms, these direct quotations can be presented in two forms. The first is as the complement of a quotative verb (e.g. Marie said: "My brother has arrived"), and the second being as a head clause with a quotative adjunct (e.g. "My brother has arrived", Marie announces). The verb phrase can be further expanded to include a complement, such as: "They'll never make it!" cried John to Mary . Subjects must precede
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#17327807364884092-648: Was a Roman educator and rhetorician born in Hispania , widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing . In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilian ( / k w ɪ n ˈ t ɪ l i ən / ), although the alternate spellings of Quintillian and Quinctilian are occasionally seen, the latter in older texts. Quintilian was born c. 35 AD in Calagurris ( Calahorra , La Rioja ) in Hispania . His father,
4158-600: Was addressed to him, and opened, "Quintilian, greatest director of straying youth, / you are an honour, Quintilian, to the Roman toga". However, one should not take Martial's praise at face value, since he was known for his sly and witty insults. The opening lines are all that are usually quoted, but the rest of the poem contains lines such as "A man who longs to surpass his father's census rating" (6). This speaks of Quintilian's ambitious side and his drive for wealth and position. After his death, Quintilian's influence fluctuated. He
4224-400: Was mentioned by his pupil, Pliny, and by Juvenal , who may have been another student, "as an example of sobriety and of worldly success unusual in the teaching profession". During the 3rd to 5th centuries, his influence was felt among such authors as St. Augustine of Hippo , whose discussion of signs and figurative language certainly owed something to Quintilian, and to St. Jerome , editor of
4290-541: Was so rich a source of delight?... But Quintilian is so consummate a master of rhetoric and oratory, that when, after having delivered him from his long imprisonment in the dungeons of the barbarians, you transmit him to this country, all the nations of Italy ought to assemble to bid him welcome... Quintilian, an author whose works I will not hesitate to affirm, are more an object of desire to the learned than any others, excepting only Cicero's dissertation De Republica. The Italian poet Petrarch addressed one of his letters to
4356-696: Was teaching Latin; his early training included rhetoric. (Philologist and Rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule, Johann Matthias Gesner , for whom Bach composed a cantata in 1729, published a substantial Quintilian edition with a long footnote in Bach's honor.) After this high point, Quintilian's influence seems to have lessened somewhat, although he is mentioned by the English poet Alexander Pope in his versified An Essay on Criticism : In grave Quintilian's copious works we find The justest rules and clearest method join'd (lines 669–70). In addition, "he
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