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30-441: Up to the beginning of the 13th century there was no single structure for the order of the biblical books, and it was often presented in 4 volumes. The Paris Bible was unique for its time; it was a pandect (complete single volume) with a uniform order, which is similar to the order of the modern Bible used today. Between 1230 and 1280 AD this bible was copied more frequently and spread more widely across Europe than any other copy of

60-449: A commission of sixteen members to do the work—one government official, four professors, and eleven advocates. The commission was given the power to condense and alter the texts in order to simplify, clarify, and eliminate conflicts among them. The Digest's organization is complex: each of the fifty books is divided into several titles, each containing several extracts, and many of the extracts have several parts or paragraphs. Research in

90-596: A saddle or travelling bag or indeed a pocket. Scholars apply the term to bibles which possess a number of common characteristics. Each pandect contained the Deuterocanonical books (though not the apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans or the Fourth Book of Esdras ), 64 prologues mostly based on the commentaries of Jerome and most have an index of the interpretations of Hebrew names (IHN).  Whilst

120-728: Is evidence of highly decorated pages mid-way through a one volume bible it is evidence of a two-volume manuscript being rebound at a later date as one volume. The explosion of the mendicant orders of preaching friars, in particular the Franciscans and Dominicans , lead to innovation in manuscript Bible design and manufacture: Friars differed from monks in that they did not reside in closed communities but went out to live and preach in society. As they renounced possessions and travelled extensively to preach, they required small books which could be carried on their person. The orders of friars were remarkably successful, and as every preaching friar

150-744: Is one part of the Corpus Juris Civilis , the codification of Roman law ordered early in the 6th century AD by Justinian I , who was Eastern Roman emperor in Constantinople . Two other units, the Digest and the Institutes , were created during his reign. The fourth part, the Novellae Constitutiones (New Constitutions, or Novels), was compiled unofficially after his death but is now also thought of as part of

180-758: The Journal of the Institute of Actuaries in 1851 by future U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Joseph P. Bradley (1870–1892), a former actuary for the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company . English translations have been published by Samuel Parsons Scott (1932) and Alan Watson (1985), the latter based on the Latin text published by Theodor Mommsen in 1878. Codex Justinianus The Code of Justinian ( Latin : Codex Justinianus , Justinianeus or Justiniani )

210-605: The Corpus Juris Civilis . Shortly after Justinian became emperor in 527, he decided the empire's legal system needed repair. There existed three codices of imperial laws and other individual laws, many of which conflicted or were out of date. The Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus were unofficial compilations. (The term "Codex" refers to the physical aspect of the works, being in book form, rather than on papyrus rolls. The transition to

240-660: The Bible would change. One of the often-heard comments of the Paris Bible is that it was designed for studying the newly-introduced scholastic theology . Mendicant Orders also created schools ( studia ) which had, at the heart of the education program, an academic study of the scriptures. It was these changes which led to the desire to rearrange the format of the Bible in order that students, masters and preachers could retrieve information effectively. Adding reading aids like running headers and chapter numbers allowed readers to find

270-512: The Bible. Paris Bible is the name given to bibles produced by scribes mainly in Paris and areas of Northern France although examples are believed to have originated in England and Italy. However, scholars caution that the term is used too broadly as it is often confused with the 'pocket bible' which is applied to bibles produced from the 12th century onwards. These were small enough to be carried in

300-570: The Books of the Bible and essential text. pandect#Noun The Digest ( Latin : Digesta ), also known as the Pandects ( Pandectae ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Πανδέκται , Pandéktai , "All-Containing"), was a compendium or digest of juristic writings on Roman law compiled by order of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in 530–533 AD. It is divided into 50 books. The Digest

330-606: The Kriegel brothers' edition of the CJC rather than that of Theodor Mommsen , Paul Krüger , Rudolf Schöll and Wilhelm Kroll , which is accepted as the most reliable, and his translation was severely criticized. Reviewing Scott's work, the Roman law scholar W. W. Buckland wrote that Scott "...had at his disposal an adequate latinity and has produced a version written in an English which can be read with pleasure. But much more than that

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360-454: The codex occurred around AD 300.) The Codex Theodosianus was an official compilation ordered by Theodosius II . In February 528, Justinian promulgated the constitution Hac quae necessario , by which was created a ten-man commission to review these earlier compilations as well as individual laws, eliminate everything unnecessary or obsolete, make changes as it saw fit, and create a single compilation of imperial laws in force. The commission

390-482: The constitutions in the Code were to be used alongside the conflicting opinions of ancient jurists. "The citation of the said constitutions of Our Code, with the opinions of the ancient interpreters of the law, will suffice for the disposal of all cases." Justinian attempted to harmonize these conflicting opinions by issuing his "Fifty Decisions" and by passing additional new laws. This meant that his Code no longer reflected

420-543: The duties of higher offices; books 2–8 cover private law; book 9 deals with crimes; and books 10–12 contain administrative law. The Code's structure is based on ancient classifications set out in the edictum perpetuum (perpetual edict), as is that of the Digest. In the West, Justinian's Codex was largely lost, or in many places never present, due to the limited western extent of the Roman territories. The Latin version known today

450-633: The end of the 12th century, and the humanists of the 16th century added the laws originally promulgated in Greek. Paul Krüger created the modern, standard version of the Codex in 1877. No English translations were made of the Codex until the 20th century. In 1932, the English translation of the entire Corpus Juris Civilis (CJC) by Samuel Parsons Scott was published posthumously. Unfortunately, Scott used

480-696: The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna (1088). The codified authorities often conflicted. Therefore, Justinian ordered these conflicts to be settled and fifty of these were published as the "quinquaginta decisiones" (fifty decisions). Soon after, he further decreed that the works of these ancient writers, which totalled over 1,500 books, be condensed into fifty books. These were to be entitled Digesta in Latin and Pandectae or Pandéktai ( Πανδέκται ) in Greek. In response to this order of December 15, 530 ("Deo auctore"), Tribonian created

510-580: The latest imperial law. Thus, Justinian ordered a new compilation to supersede the first, and this Codex was published in 534. No copies of the first edition of the Code have survived; only a fragment of an index of contents on an Egyptian papyrus remains. Known as the Codex Repetitae Praelectionis , this second edition of the Code was published on November 16, 534, and took effect on December 30. The Codex consists of twelve books: book 1 concerns ecclesiastical law, sources of law, and

540-424: The modern era has created a highly probable picture of how the commission carried out its task. Approximately two-fifths of the Digest consists of the writings of Ulpian , while some one-sixth belongs to Paulus . The work was declared to be the sole source of non-statute law: commentaries on the compilation were forbidden, or even the citing of the original works of the jurists for the explaining of ambiguities in

570-622: The purported Sea Peoples during the Greek Dark Ages ( c.  1100–750 BC ) that led to the proliferation of the Doric Greek dialect. The law of general average constitutes the fundamental principle that underlies all insurance . Also, in an opinion dated to approximately 220 AD during the reign of Elagabalus (218–222) of the Severan dynasty , Ulpian compiled a life table that would later be submitted in an article to

600-700: The text. One opinion written by Paulus at the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century in 235 AD about the Lex Rhodia ("Rhodian law") articulates the general average principle of marine insurance established on the island of Rhodes in approximately 1000 to 800 BC as a member of the Doric Hexapolis , plausibly by the Phoenicians during the proposed Dorian invasion and emergence of

630-467: The thirteenth century bibles were divided into chapters, they were yet to include numbered verses. The bibles varied, especially by region, from almost 200mm by 120mm, to a small 130mm by 80mm. The smaller "pocket" versions were intended for traveling friars. Scholars have disputed the fact that all Paris Bibles were single volume manuscripts as several two volume bibles are still in existence. Several leading Book Historians have suggested that where there

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660-535: The writings of Papinian , Paulus , Ulpian , Modestinus , and Gaius were made the primary juristic authorities who could be cited in court. Others cited by them also could be referred to, but their views had to be "informed by a comparison of manuscripts". The principal surviving manuscript is the Littera Florentina of the late sixth or early seventh century. In the Middle Ages, the Digest

690-515: Was divided into three parts, and most of the manuscripts contain only one of these parts. The entire Digest was first translated into English in 1985 by the Scottish legal scholar Alan Watson . The Digest was discovered in Amalfi in 1135, prompting a revival of learning of Roman law throughout Europe. Other sources claim it was discovered in 1070 and formed a major impetus for the founding of

720-584: Was headed by the praetorian prefect John the Cappadocian and also included Tribonian , who was later to head the other Corpus Juris Civilis projects. The commission finished its work in 14 months, and the compilation was promulgated in April 529 by the Constitutio Summa . However, this compilation did not eliminate all the conflicts that had arisen over the years in Roman jurisprudence, and

750-502: Was later collected separately as the Novellae Constitutiones (New Laws or, conventionally, the "Novels"). The original Codex Justinianus was promulgated in April of 529 by the C. "Summa". This made it the only source of imperial law, and repealed all earlier codifications. However, it permitted reference to ancient jurists whose writings had been regarded as authoritative. Under Theodosus II's Law of Citations ,

780-587: Was needed, and the work cannot be said to satisfy these further requirements." Around the same time that Scott was active, Wyoming Supreme Court Justice Fred H. Blume was translating the Code and Novels, using the standard Mommsen, Krüger, Schöll, and Kroll version. While this was not printed in his lifetime, in 2005 his translation of both the Code and the Novels was published on the Annotated Justinian Code website. A new English translation of

810-573: Was painstakingly restored over many centuries. The only known manuscript that once contained the entire Latin Codex is a Veronese palimpsest of the 6th or 7th century; it is now only fragments. Within its home in the Roman Empire, the code was translated into Greek, which had become the governing language, and adapted, in the 9th century as the Basilika . It appears as if the Latin Code

840-590: Was part of a reduction and codification of all Roman laws up to that time, which later came to be known as the Corpus Juris Civilis ( lit.   ' Body of Civil Law ' ). The other two parts were a collection of statutes, the Codex (Code) , which survives in a second edition, and an introductory textbook, the Institutes ; all three parts were given force of law. The set was intended to be complete, but Justinian passed further legislation, which

870-487: Was required to have a Bible, pocket Bibles would have been required, according to de Hamel, in their thousands – a fact which accounts for their relative prevalence today. 20,000 small-format Paris Bibles are estimated to have been produced in the 13th century alone, in France, Italy and England. The founding of a flurry of universities in the thirteenth century can be regarded as one of the major changes which determined how

900-400: Was shortened in the Middle Ages into an "Epitome Codex", with inscriptions being dropped and numerous other changes made. Some time in the 8th or 9th century, the last three books of the Code were separated from the others, and many other laws in the first nine books, including all of those written in Greek, were dropped. Substantially complete versions of Justinian's Codex were restored around

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