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128-471: Historically, Paros was known for its fine white marble , which gave rise to the term Parian to describe marble or china of similar qualities. Today, abandoned marble quarries and mines (with some still being in use) can be found on the island, but Paros is primarily known as a popular tourist spot. Paros' geographic co-ordinates are 37° N. latitude, and 25° 10' E. longitude. The area is 165 km (64 sq mi). Its greatest length from N.E. to S.W.

256-476: A recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. Dust, debris and temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees. For the staff involved in marble processing, it is necessary to provide eye protection equipment, and it is recommended to improve the education of all workers on occupational health risks and strengthen preventive measures. As

384-528: A boule of 400 to guide the work of the assembly. After the reforms of Cleisthenes, the Athenian Boule was expanded to 500 and was elected by lot every year. Each of Cleisthenes's 10 tribes provided 50 councilors who were at least 30 years old. The Boule's roles in public affairs included finance, maintaining the military's cavalry and fleet of ships, advising the generals , approving of newly elected magistrates, and receiving ambassadors. Most importantly,

512-422: A case since the issues in these major suits were regarded as affecting the community as a whole. Justice was rapid: a case could last no longer than one day and had to be completed by the time the sun set. Some convictions triggered an automatic penalty, but where this was not the case the two litigants each proposed a penalty for the convicted defendant and the jury chose between them in a further vote. No appeal

640-461: A coarse grain and a very beautiful texture, was the chief source of wealth for the island. The celebrated marble quarries lie on the northern side of the mountain anciently known as Marathi (afterwards Capresso), a little below a former convent of St Mina . The marble, which was exported from the 6th century BC onwards, was used by Praxiteles and other ancient Greek sculptors . It was obtained by means of subterranean quarries driven horizontally or at

768-606: A colony of Ionians under whom it attained a high degree of prosperity. It sent out colonies to Thasos and Parium on the Hellespont . In the former colony, which was planned in the 15th or 18th Olympiad , the poet Archilochus , a native of Paros, is said to have taken part. As late as 385 BC the Parians, in conjunction with Dionysius of Syracuse , founded a colony on the Illyrian island of Pharos ( Hvar ). Shortly before

896-443: A debt to the city: see atimia ); for some Athenians, this amounted to permanent (and in fact inheritable) disqualification. Given the exclusive and ancestral concept of citizenship held by Greek city-states , a relatively large portion of the population took part in the government of Athens and of other radical democracies like it, compared to oligarchies and aristocracies. Some Athenian citizens were far more active than others, but

1024-421: A descending angle into the rock. The marble thus quarried by lamplight was given the name of Lychnites, Lychneus (from lychnos , a lamp), or Lygdos. Several of these tunnels are still to be seen. At the entrance to one of them is a bas-relief dedicated to Pan and the nymphs . Several attempts to work the marble have been made in modern times, but it has not been exported in any great quantities. The major part of

1152-489: A free gift of grain had arrived from the Egyptian king to be distributed among all citizens, many "illegitimate" citizens were removed from the registers. Citizenship applied to both individuals and their descendants. It could also be granted by the assembly and was sometimes given to large groups (e.g. Plateans in 427 BC and Samians in 405 BC). However, by the 4th century, citizenship was given only to individuals and by

1280-475: A general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. Though there might be blocs of opinion, sometimes enduring, on important matters, there were no political parties, and likewise government —or opposition —as in the Westminster system did not exist. Voting was by simple majority . In the 5th century at least, there were scarcely any limits on the power exercised by the assembly. If the assembly broke

1408-570: A growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile. The stone and marble industry is one of the largest industries in Palestine, contributing 20-25% of its total industrial revenues, generating USD $ 400–$ 450 million in revenue annually. The industry employs 15,000–20,000 workers across the West Bank across 1200–1700 facilities, and amounts to 4.5% of

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1536-576: A higher sex drive and consequentially if given free range to engage in society would be more promiscuous. With this in mind, they feared that women may engage in affairs and have sons out of wedlock which would jeopardize the Athenian system of property and inheritance between heirs as well as the citizenry of potential children if their parentage was called into question. In terms of intelligence, Athenian men believed that women were less intelligent than men and therefore, similarly to barbarians and slaves of

1664-425: A jury pool of 6,000 in total. For particularly important public suits the jury could be increased by adding in extra allotments of 500. 1,000 and 1,500 are regularly encountered as jury sizes and on at least one occasion, the first time a new kind of case was brought to court (see graphē paranómōn ), all 6,000 members of the jury pool may have attended to one case. The cases were put by the litigants themselves in

1792-458: A large amount of waste not being land-filled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment. The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily stained by colored liquids and scratches easily. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important. Athenian democracy Athenian democracy developed around

1920-559: A major power, had at most 15,000. The non-citizen component of the population was made up of resident foreigners ( metics ) and slaves, with the latter perhaps somewhat more numerous. Around 338 BC the orator Hyperides (fragment 13) claimed that there were 150,000 slaves in Attica, but this figure is probably no more than an impression: slaves outnumbered those of citizen stock but did not swamp them. Only adult male Athenian citizens who had completed their military training as ephebes had

2048-561: A marked anti-professionalism. No judges presided over the courts, nor did anyone give legal direction to the jurors. With the random selection of jurors, it meant that these jurors were simply ordinary citizens with little to no legal training. Magistrates had only an administrative function and were laymen. Most of the annual magistracies in Athens could only be held once in a lifetime. There were no lawyers as such; litigants acted solely in their capacity as citizens. Whatever professionalism there

2176-601: A natural spacious harbor for boat traffic. In ancient times it was closed by a chain or boom . In modern times it is experiencing great touristic development. Another popular harbor is that of Drios on the south-east side, where the Turkish fleet used to anchor on its annual voyage through the Aegean during the period of Ottoman rule over Paros (1537–1832). The three villages of Prodromos (formerly Dragoulas), Marmara, and Marpissa (formerly Tsipidos), situated on an open plain on

2304-646: A potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set

2432-416: A process called sortition . The assembly had four main functions: it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner), elected some officials, legislated, and tried political crimes. As the system evolved, the last function was shifted to the law courts. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position, followed by

2560-464: A siege of 26 days, during which they had wasted the island. It was at a temple of Demeter Thesmophoros in Paros that Miltiades received the wound from which he died. By means of an inscription, Ludwig Ross was able to identify the site of the temple; it lies, as Herodotus suggests, on a low hill beyond the boundary of the town. Paros also sided with shahanshah Xerxes I of Persia against Greece in

2688-400: A special vote with a quorum of 6,000. This was generally done as a reward for some service to the state. In the course of a century, the number of citizenships so granted was in the hundreds rather than thousands. Xenias Graphe (ξενίας γραφή) was an action brought against any one who unlawfully exercised the rights of citizenship. If convicted, the person was sold as a slave and the property

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2816-404: A suit, a smaller kind known as dike (δίκη) or private suit, and a larger kind known as graphe or public suit. For private suits, the minimum jury size was 200 (increased to 401 if a sum of over 1,000 drachmas was at issue), for public suits 501. Under Cleisthenes's reforms, juries were selected by lot from a panel of 600 jurors, there being 600 jurors from each of the ten tribes of Athens, making

2944-515: A twelfth tribe in honour of the Pergamene king. The Athenians declared for Rome, and in 146 BC Athens became an autonomous civitas foederata , able to manage internal affairs. This allowed Athens to practice the forms of democracy, though Rome ensured that the constitution strengthened the city's aristocracy. Under Roman rule, the archons ranked as the highest officials. They were elected, and even foreigners such as Domitian and Hadrian held

3072-425: A typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF 6 ) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) taking place. The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF 6 ) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface. The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H 2 C 2 O 4 ), an organic acid. The resulting reaction

3200-415: A way that gave each free resident of Attica a political function: Athenian citizens had the right to participate in assembly meetings. Solon sought to break away at the strong influence noble families had on the government by broadening the government's structure to include a wider range of property classes rather than just the aristocracy. His constitutional reforms included establishing four property classes:

3328-618: A wider variety of viewpoints, which lowers the dangers of a small number of people holding all the power and promotes an informed voter. Philip II had led a coalition of the Greek states to war with Persia in 336 BC, but his Greek soldiers were hostages for the behavior of their states as much as allies. Alexander the Great 's relations with Athens later strained when he returned to Babylon in 324 BC; after his death, Athens and Sparta led several states to war with Macedonia and lost. This led to

3456-474: Is 21 km (13 mi), and its greatest breadth 16 km (10 mi). The island is of a round, plump-pear shape, formed by a single mountain (724 m (2,375 ft)) sloping evenly down on all sides to a maritime plain, which is broadest on the north-east and south-west sides. The island is composed of marble, though gneiss and mica- schist are to be found in a few places. To the west of Paros lies its smaller sister island Antiparos . At its narrowest,

3584-399: Is a rock composed of calcium and magnesium carbonate , mostly white and pink. Common marble varieties are granular limestone or dolomite . The hardness of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and the internal stress disappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It

3712-439: Is a very popular building material. The following table is a summary of the features of Marble. White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times . This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into

3840-538: Is as follows: In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC 2 O 4 ) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed. The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium Methylophaga murata was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin . Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from Milan Cathedral ; black Cladosporium attacked dried acrylic resin using melanin. Marble

3968-407: Is not a coincidence that 6,000 is the number both for the full quorum for the assembly and for the annual pool from which jurors were picked for particular trials. By the mid-4th century, however, the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial. The central events of the Athenian democracy were the meetings of

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4096-651: Is speculated to have not simply been a legal obligation to the state, but also a form of ethnic-nationality. The title of "Athenian" was given to free residents deeming them citizens and granted them special privileges and protections over other residents in the city who were considered "non-citizens". In the timeline of Athenian laws, Solon's laws outlined a clear boundary between the protections that exist between citizens, Athenians, who were considered free and non-citizens, non-Athenians, who legally could be subjected to slavery. Also excluded from voting were citizens whose rights were under suspension (typically for failure to pay

4224-581: The Ancient Greek μάρμαρον ( mármaron ), from μάρμαρος ( mármaros ), "crystalline rock, shining stone", perhaps from the verb μαρμαίρω ( marmaírō ), "to flash, sparkle, gleam"; R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a " Pre-Greek origin is probable". This stem is also the ancestor of the English word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like." While the English term "marble" resembles

4352-552: The French marbre , most other European languages (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek. Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks , most commonly limestone or dolomite . Metamorphism causes variable re-crystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals . Primary sedimentary textures and structures of

4480-601: The German occupation of Paros, the island's strategic importance led to the forced construction of an airfield located near the village of Marpissa . The project amassed over 400 forced Greek workers at one point. Local resistance, aided by the Allies, sought to sabotage the project, with Nikolas Stellas, a 23-year-old partisan, emerging as a key figure. Captured by the Germans, Stellas refused to provide any names or information and

4608-859: The Hellenistic dynasty (305–30 BC) that ruled Egypt. Paros then became part of the Roman Empire and later of the Byzantine Empire , its Greek-speaking successor state. In 1204, the soldiers of the Fourth Crusade seized Constantinople and overthrew the Byzantine Empire. Although a residual Byzantine state known as the Empire of Nicaea survived the Crusader onslaught and eventually recovered Constantinople (1261), many of

4736-859: The Ottoman Turks and remained under the Ottoman Empire until the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829). During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) in 1770–1775 Naoussa Bay was the home base for the Russian Archipelago Squadron of Count Alexey Orlov . Under the Treaty of Constantinople (1832) , Paros became part of the newly independent Kingdom of Greece , the first time the Parians had been ruled by fellow Greeks for over six centuries. At this time, Paros became

4864-576: The Persian War , Paros seems to have been a dependency of Naxos. In the first Greco-Persian War (490 BC), Paros sided with the Persians and sent a trireme to Marathon to support them. In retaliation, the capital was besieged by an Athenian fleet under Miltiades , who demanded a fine of 100 talents . But the town offered a vigorous resistance, and the Athenians were obliged to sail away after

4992-665: The Roman Empire in 391. It is said to have been founded by the mother of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (ruled 306–337), Saint Helen , during her pilgrimage to the Holy Land . There are two adjoining chapels, one of very early form, and also a baptistery with a cruciform font. The Archaeological Museum of Paros is located in Parikia town,a small but interesting museum housing some of

5120-653: The Sicilian campaign in 413 BC, a group of citizens took steps to limit the radical democracy they thought was leading the city to ruin. Their efforts, initially conducted through constitutional channels, culminated in the establishment of an oligarchy, the Council of 400, in the Athenian coup of 411 BC . The oligarchy endured for only four months before it was replaced by a more democratic government. Democratic regimes governed until Athens surrendered to Sparta in 404 BC, when

5248-514: The Venieri which fought a battle against the Turkish admiral Barbarossa in 1537. Another settlement on the island Paros is Lefkes ( Λεύκες ). Lefkes is an inland mountain village 10 km (6 mi) away from Parikia. In the late 19th century, Lefkes was the center of the municipality of Iria which belonged to the Province of Naxos until 1912. The name of the municipality Iria was one of

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5376-420: The agora into the assembly meeting place ( Pnyx ), with a fine being imposed on those who got the red on their clothes. After the restoration of democracy in 403 BC, pay for assembly attendance was introduced. This promoted a new enthusiasm for assembly meetings. Only the first 6,000 to arrive were admitted and paid, with the red rope now used to keep latecomers at bay. In 594 BC, Solon is said to have created

5504-473: The assembly ( ἐκκλησία , ekklesía ). Unlike a parliament , the assembly's members were not elected, but attended by right when they chose. Greek democracy created at Athens was direct , rather than representative : any adult male citizen over the age of 20 could take part, and it was a duty to do so. The officials of the democracy were in part elected by the Assembly and in large part chosen by lottery in

5632-493: The dimension stone trade, the term marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone, that geologists call the Holston Formation . Ashgabat , the capital city of Turkmenistan , was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having

5760-454: The pentakosiomedimnoi , the hippeis , the zeugitai , and the thetes . The classifications were based on how many medimnoi a man's estate made per year with the pentakosiomedimnoi making at least 500 medimnoi, the hippeis making 300-500 medimnoi, the zeugitai making 200-300 medimnoi, and the thetes making under 200 medimnoi. By granting the formerly aristocratic role to every free citizen of Athens who owned property, Solon reshaped

5888-434: The 5th century BC, there were 10 fixed assembly meetings per year, one in each of the ten state months , with other meetings called as needed. In the following century, the meetings were set to forty a year, with four in each state month. One of these was now called the main meeting, kyria ekklesia . Additional meetings might still be called, especially as up until 355 BC there were still political trials that were conducted in

6016-469: The 6th century BC in the Greek city-state (known as a polis ) of Athens , comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica . Although Athens is the most familiar of the democratic city-states in ancient Greece, it was not the only one, nor was it the first; multiple other city-states adopted similar democratic constitutions before Athens. By the late 4th century BC, as many as half of

6144-411: The Athenians provides a run-down of the structure of Athens' government and its processes. There were three political bodies where citizens gathered in numbers running into the hundreds or thousands. These are the assembly (in some cases with a quorum of 6,000), the council of 500 ( boule ), and the courts (a minimum of 200 people, on some occasions up to 6,000). Of these three bodies, the assembly and

6272-604: The Athenians their lives and did not sell them into slavery; he also restored the previous government, in 86 BC. After Rome became an Empire under Augustus , the nominal independence of Athens dissolved and its government converged to the normal type for a Roman municipality, with a Senate of decuriones . Estimates of the population of ancient Athens vary. During the 4th century BC, there might well have been some 250,000–300,000 people in Attica. Citizen families could have amounted to 100,000 people, and out of these some 30,000 would have been adult male citizens entitled to vote in

6400-628: The Boule would draft probouleumata , or deliberations for the Ecclesia to discuss and approve on. During emergencies, the Ecclesia would also grant special temporary powers to the Boule. Cleisthenes restricted the Boule's membership to those of zeugitai status (and above), presumably because these classes' financial interests gave them an incentive towards effective governance. A member had to be approved by his deme, each of which would have an incentive to select those with experience in local politics and

6528-526: The British. There are no remains of the airfield today. On 26 September 2000 the ferry MS Express Samina collided with the Portes islets off the bay of Parikia, killing 82 of those on board. Starting in the summer of 2023, the island saw protests from locals on many beaches due to government failure to stop beach-side businesses from placing more umbrellas than permitted. The protests saw some success, with

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6656-416: The Greek government toughening inspections and implementing fines for businesses who do not abide by the rules. The capital, Parikia (Greek: παροικία), situated on a bay on the north-west side of the island, occupies the site of the ancient capital Paros. Parikía harbour is a major hub for Aegean islands ferries and catamarans , with several sailings each day for Piraeus, the port of Athens, Heraklion ,

6784-588: The Hellenistic control of Athens, with the Macedonian king appointing a local agent as political governor in Athens. However, the governors, like Demetrius of Phalerum , appointed by Cassander , kept some of the traditional institutions in formal existence, although the Athenian public would consider them to be nothing more than Macedonian puppet dictators. Once Demetrius Poliorcetes ended Cassander's rule over Athens, Demetrius of Phalerum went into exile and

6912-462: The Peloponnesian war and there it stayed; the original amount is not known. Notably, this was introduced more than fifty years before payment for attendance at assembly meetings. Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended. The system showed

7040-432: The ancient names of Paros. Lefkes was the capital of the municipality Iria which included the villages Angyria or Ageria, Aliki, Aneratzia, Vounia, Kamari, Campos, Langada, Maltes, and Marathi. Iria became Lefkes Community following the law enforcement DNZ/1912 "On Municipalities". At that time, the village managed to achieve great economic development. In the 1970s many residents moved to Athens due to urbanization. However,

7168-434: The assembly, rather than in court. The assembly meetings did not occur at fixed intervals, as they had to avoid clashing with the annual festivals that followed the lunar calendar. There was also a tendency for the four meetings to be aggregated toward the end of each state month. Attendance at the assembly was not always voluntary. In the 5th century, public slaves forming a cordon with a red-stained rope herded citizens from

7296-552: The assembly. In the mid-5th century, the number of adult male citizens was perhaps as high as 60,000, but this number fell precipitously during the Peloponnesian War. This slump was permanent, due to the introduction of a stricter definition of citizen described below. From a modern perspective, these figures may seem small, but among Greek city-states Athens was huge: most of the thousand or so Greek cities could only muster 1,000–1,500 adult male citizens each; and Corinth ,

7424-454: The attack on German forces stationed there. The operation included the sabotage of German communication lines and the abduction of a key German officer. This resistance effort was part of a broader Allied strategy in the Aegean during World War II, contributing to the disruption of German military operations in the region. The airfield constructed by the Germans in Marpissa was later bombed by

7552-494: The boule was responsible for a great portion of the administration of the state, but was granted relatively little latitude for initiative; the boule's control over policy was executed in its probouleutic, rather than its executive function; in the former, it prepared measures for deliberation by the assembly, in the latter, it merely executed the wishes of the assembly. Athens had an elaborate legal system centered on full citizen rights (see atimia ). The age limit of 30 or older,

7680-407: The capital of Crete , and other islands such as Naxos , Ios , Mykonos , and Santorini . In Parikia town, houses are built and decorated in the traditional Cycladic style, with flat roofs, whitewash walls and blue-painted doors and window frames and shutters. Shadowed by luxuriant vines, and surrounded by gardens of oranges and pomegranates , the houses give the town a picturesque aspect. Above

7808-442: The central stretch of the seafront road, are the remains of a medieval castle, built almost entirely of the marble remains of an ancient temple dedicated to Apollo . Similar traces of antiquity, in the shape of bas-reliefs , inscriptions, columns, and so on, are numerous. On a hillside in the southern outskirts of Parikia on the left of the Parikia – Alyki road are the remains of a temple dedicated to Asclepius . In addition, close to

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7936-435: The channel between the two islands is less than 2 km (1 mi) wide. A car-carrying shuttle-ferry operates all day (to and from Pounda, 5 km (3 mi) south of Parikia). In addition a dozen smaller islets surround Paros. Paros has numerous beaches including Golden Beach (Chrissí Aktí) near Drios on the east coast, at Pounda, Logaras, Piso Livadi, Naousa Bay , Parikia and Agia Irini. The constant strong wind in

8064-628: The concept is isonomia , which is indicated also in Herodotus' discussion. Around 460 BC an individual is known with the name of Democrates , a name possibly coined as a gesture of democratic loyalty; the name can also be found in Aeolian Temnus . Athens was not the only polis in Ancient Greece that instituted a democratic resume. Aristotle points out other cities that adopted democratic governments. Most general accounts of

8192-550: The council of the Areopagus , made up of ex-archons. The members of these institutions were generally aristocrats. In 621 BC, Draco replaced the prevailing system of oral law by a written code to be enforced only by a court of law . While the laws, later come to be known as the Draconian Constitution , were largely harsh and restrictive, with nearly all of them later being repealed, the written legal code

8320-465: The courts were the true sites of power – although courts, unlike the assembly, were never simply called the demos ('the people'), as they were manned by just those citizens over thirty. Crucially, citizens voting in both were not subject to review and prosecution, as were council members and all other officeholders. In the 5th century BC, there is often a record of the assembly sitting as a court of judgment itself for trials of political importance and it

8448-420: The democracy was restored in 307 BC. However, by now Athens had become "politically impotent". An example of this was that, in 307, in order to curry favour with Macedonia and Egypt, three new tribes were created, two in honour of the Macedonian king and his son, and the other in honour of the Egyptian king. However, when Rome fought Macedonia in 200, the Athenians abolished the first two new tribes and created

8576-477: The development of Athenian democracy. Cleisthenes broke up the unlimited power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten groups based on where they lived, rather than on their wealth. The longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles . After his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolutions in 411 and 404 BC, towards the end of the Peloponnesian War . It

8704-557: The domination of the aristocratic families and connected every Athenian to the city's rule. Cleisthenes formally identified free inhabitants of Attica as citizens of Athens, which gave them power and a role in a sense of civic solidarity. He did this by making the traditional tribes politically irrelevant and instituting ten new tribes, each made up of about three trittyes (geographical divisions), each consisting of several demes (further subdivisions). Every male citizen over 18 had to be registered in his deme. The third set of reforms

8832-455: The eastern side of the island, and rich in remains of antiquity, probably occupy the site of an ancient town. They are known together as the "villages of Kephalos" after the steep and lofty hill of Kephalos. On this hilltop stands the monastery of Agios Antonios ( St. Anthony ). Around it are the ruins of a medieval castle which belonged in the late Middle Ages to the Venetian noble family of

8960-412: The elements dêmos ( δῆμος , traditionally interpreted "people" or "towns" ) and krátos ( κράτος , which means "force" or "power"), and thus means literally "people power". In the words "monarchy" and "oligarchy", the second element comes from archē ( ἀρχή ), meaning "beginning (that which comes first)", and hence also "first place or power", "sovereignty". One might expect, by analogy, that

9088-487: The excavated material will be waste, this is often then used as chips for flooring or wall finish, and uses for which high-calcium limestone is suitable. Marble sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints. Using ground calcium carbonate as a filler in paint production can improve the brightness, hiding power and application performance of paint, and can also replace expensive pigments such as titanium dioxide . Recycling of marble waste leads to

9216-454: The favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture ), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material. Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts ; Marblehead, Ohio ; Marble Arch , London; the Sea of Marmara ; India's Marble Rocks ; and

9344-401: The form of an exchange of single speeches timed by a water clock or clepsydra , first prosecutor then defendant. In a public suit the litigants each had three hours to speak, much less in private suits (though here it was in proportion to the amount of money at stake). Decisions were made by voting without any time set aside for deliberation. Jurors did talk informally amongst themselves during

9472-437: The formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles). Vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided in the cleaning of marble products. Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO 3 ). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows

9600-428: The government was placed in the hands of the so-called Thirty Tyrants , who were pro-Spartan oligarchs. After a year, pro-democracy elements regained control, and democratic forms persisted until the Macedonian army of Phillip II conquered Athens in 338 BC. Despite having its roots in the principles of classical Athens, modern democracy has developed to meet the challenges of modern administration. Direct participation

9728-484: The greatest likelihood at effective participation in government. The members from each of the ten tribes in the Boule took it in turns to act as a standing committee (the prytaneis ) of the Boule for a period of thirty-six days. All fifty members of the prytaneis on duty were housed and fed in the tholos of the Prytaneion , a building adjacent to the bouleuterion , where the boule met. A chairman for each tribe

9856-431: The highest tribute of the island members: 30 talents annually, according to the estimate of Olympiodorus (429 BC). This implies that Paros was one of the wealthiest islands in the Aegean. Little is known about the constitution of Paros, but inscriptions seem to show that it was modeled on the Athenian democracy , with a boule (senate) at the head of affairs. In 410 BC, Athenian general Theramenes discovered that Paros

9984-588: The home of a heroine of the nationalist movement, Manto Mavrogenous , who had both financed and fought in the war for independence. Her house, near Ekatontapiliani church , is today a historical monument. During the WWII Axis occupation of Greece , Paros was originally occupied by the Italians until 1943. The Nazis then took over the Island in 1944 and imposed brutal rule from the beginning. In 1944, during

10112-402: The influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is typically not foliated ( layered ), although there are exceptions. In geology , the term marble refers to metamorphosed limestone , but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material . The word "marble" derives from

10240-466: The last few years, tourism presented to be a new source of income for the locals that led to the reconstruction of homes and landscaping to make it appealing as a tourist destination. Lefkes became part of the municipality of Paros in the Kapodistrias local government reform . In the latest census (2011) the population numbered 545 inhabitants. Parian marble , which is white and translucent , with

10368-480: The law, the only thing that might happen is that it would punish those who had proposed that it had agreed to. If a mistake had been made, from the assembly's viewpoint it could only be because it had been misled. As usual in ancient democracies, one had to physically attend a gathering to vote. Military service or simple distance prevented the exercise of citizenship. Voting was usually by show of hands (χειροτονία, kheirotonia , 'arm stretching') with officials judging

10496-566: The limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism. Acids react with the calcium carbonate in marble, producing carbonic acid (which decomposes quickly to CO 2 and H 2 O) and other soluble salts : Outdoor marble statues, gravestones , or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain whether by carbonation , sulfation or

10624-612: The many finds from sites in Paros. The best pieces, however, are in the Athens National Archaeological Museum . The Paros museum contains a fragment of the Parian Chronicle , a remarkable chronology of ancient Greece. Inscribed in marble, its entries give time elapsed between key events from the most distant past (1500 BC) down to 264 BC. On the north side of the island is the bay of Naoussa (Naussa, formerly Agoussa or Ausa), which provides

10752-486: The men. For the most part, Athens followed a citizenship-through-birth criterion. This criterion could be further divided into three categories: free birth from an Athenian father, free and legitimate birth from an Athenian father, and free and legitimate birth from an Athenian father and an Athenian mother. Athenians considered circumstances of one's birth to be relevant to the type of political identity and positions they could hold as citizens. Citizenry in ancient Athens

10880-497: The modern harbour, the remains of an ancient cemetery are visible, having been discovered recently during non-archaeological excavations. Back from the port, around 400 m left of Parikia's main square, is the town's principal church, the Panagia Ekatontapiliani , literally meaning "church of the hundred doors". Its oldest features almost certainly predate the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of

11008-538: The names of wives and daughters of citizens or finding round about ways of referring to them. Pushed out of the public sphere, women's role was confined to the private sphere of working in the home and being cast as a second-rate human, subservient to her male guardian whether that be a father or husband. In the realm of Athenian men's rationalization, part of the reasons for excluding women from politics came from widely held views that women were more sexual, and intellectually handicapped. Athenian men believed that women had

11136-546: The nation's GDP. The vast majority of the industry's exports are to Israel. Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and that the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine produced would be geologically considered limestone. Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such as silicosis . Skin and eye problems are also

11264-420: The office as a mark of honour. Four presided over the judicial administration. The council (whose numbers varied at different times from 300 to 750) was appointed by lot. It was superseded in importance by the Areopagus , which, recruited from the elected archons, had an aristocratic character and was entrusted with wide powers. From the time of Hadrian, an imperial curator superintended the finances. The shadow of

11392-447: The old constitution lingered on and archons and Areopagus survived the fall of the Roman Empire. In 88 BC, there was a revolution under the philosopher Athenion, who, as tyrant, forced the Assembly to agree to elect whomever he might ask to office. Athenion allied with Mithridates of Pontus and went to war with Rome; he was killed during the war and was replaced by Aristion . The victorious Roman general, Publius Cornelius Sulla , left

11520-571: The original Byzantine territories, including Paros, were lost permanently to the crusading powers. Paros became subject to the Duchy of the Archipelago , a fiefdom made up of various Aegean islands ruled by a Venetian duke as nominal vassal of a succession of crusader states. In practice, however, the duchy was always a client state of the Republic of Venice . In 1537, Paros was conquered by

11648-460: The original carbonate rock ( protolith ) have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure ( silicate -poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties, sometimes called striations , are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay , silt , sand , iron oxides , or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in

11776-412: The outcome by sight. This could cause problems when it becomes too dark to see properly. However, any member could demand that officials issue a recount. For a small category of votes, a quorum of 6,000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here small colored stones were used, white for yes and black for no. At the end of the session, each voter tossed one of these into a large clay jar which

11904-435: The over one thousand existing Greek cities might have been democracies. Athens practiced a political system of legislation and executive bills. Participation was open to adult, free male citizens (i.e., not a metic , woman or slave.) Adult male citizens probably constituted no more than 30 percent of the total adult population. Solon (in 594 BC), Cleisthenes (in 508–07 BC), and Ephialtes (in 462 BC) contributed to

12032-421: The people. Unlike office holders (magistrates), who could be impeached and prosecuted for misconduct, the jurors could not be censured, for they, in effect, were the people and no authority could be higher than that. A corollary of this was that, at least acclaimed by defendants, if a court had made an unjust decision, it must have been because it had been misled by a litigant. Essentially there were two grades of

12160-492: The remaining white marble is now state-owned and, like its Pentelic counterpart, is only used for archaeological restorations. In December 1883 these quarries were visited by Theodore and Mabel Bent during their tour of the Cyclades. Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO 3 ) or dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ) that have recrystallized under

12288-494: The right to practice religion. Throughout its history, Athens had many different constitutions under its different leaders. Some of the history of Athens' reforms as well as a collection of constitutions from other Ancient Greek city-states was compiled and synthesized into a large all-encompassing constitution created by either Aristotle or one of his students called the Constitution of the Athenians . The Constitution of

12416-507: The right to vote in Athens. The percentage of the population that actually participated in the government was 10% to 20% of the total number of inhabitants, but this varied from the fifth to the fourth century BC. This excluded a majority of the population: slaves , freed slaves, children, women and metics (foreign residents in Athens). The women had limited rights and privileges, had restricted movement in public, and were very segregated from

12544-435: The rise of democratic institutions refer mainly to Athens, since this Greek city-state's system provides a fuller historical record, including having the only complete extant "constitution" as compiled by Aristotle and his students in the 4th century BCE - part of a collection called Constitutions ( Politeiai ) . Before the first attempt at democratic government, Athens was ruled by a series of archons , or magistrates, and

12672-401: The same as that for office holders but ten years older than that required for participation in the assembly, gave the courts a certain standing in relation to the assembly. Jurors were required to be under oath, which was not required for attendance at the assembly. The authority exercised by the courts had the same basis as that of the assembly: both were regarded as expressing the direct will of

12800-594: The second Greco-Persian War (480–479 BC), but, after the battle of Artemisium , the Parian contingent remained inactive at Kythnos as they watched the progression of events. For their support of the Persians, the islanders were later punished by the Athenian war leader Themistocles , who exacted a heavy fine. Under the Delian League , the Athenian-dominated naval confederacy (477–404 BC), Paros paid

12928-429: The social framework of the city-state. Under these reforms, the boule (a council of 400 members, with 100 citizens from each of Athens's four tribes) ran daily affairs and set the political agenda. The Areopagus, which formerly took on this role, remained but thereafter carried on the role of "guardianship of the laws". Another major contribution to democracy was Solon's setting up of an Ecclesia or Assembly, which

13056-409: The stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form. Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction , specifically

13184-449: The strait between Paros and Naxos makes it a favoured windsurfing location. The story that Paros of Parrhasia colonized the island with Arcadians is an etymological fiction of the type that abounds in Greek legends. Ancient names of the island are said to have been Plateia (or Pactia), Demetrias, Strongyle (meaning round, due to the round shape of the island), Hyria, Hyleessa, Minoa and Cabarnis. The island later received from Athens

13312-458: The suppliant daughters of Danaos to take refuge in the city-state of Argos), i.e. that authority as implemented by the people in the Assembly has veto power over a king. The word is then attested in the works of Herodotus ( Histories 6.43.3) in both a verbal and nominal sense with the terms dēmokrateomai ( δημοκρατέομαι ) meaning "I participate in a democracy" and dēmokratia ( δημοκρατία ) meaning "democracy." The earlier word used for

13440-495: The term "demarchy" would have been adopted for the new form of government introduced by Athenian democrats. However, the word "demarchy" ( δημαρχία ) had already been taken and meant " mayoralty ", the office or rank of a high municipal magistrate . (In present-day use, the term " demarchy " has acquired a new meaning.) It is unknown whether the word "democracy" was in existence when systems that came to be called democratic were first instituted. The first conceptual articulation of

13568-553: The term Athenian was largely reserved for just male citizens. Before Pericles' law that decreed citizenship to be restricted to children of both Athenian men and women, the polis did not register women as citizens or keep any form of registration for them which resulted in many court cases of witnesses having to prove that women were wives of Athenian men. In addition to being barred from any form of formal participation in government, women were also largely left out of public discussions and speeches with orators going as far as leaving out

13696-544: The term is generally accepted to be c. 470 The Suppliants (l. 604) with the line sung by the Chorus: dēmou kratousa cheir ( δήμου κρατούσα χειρ ). This approximately translates as the "people's hand of power", and in the context of the play it acts as a representation of the popular requirement that the king needed to get approval from the Demos in a public assembly before taking any large decision (in this case of allowing

13824-436: The time, were considered to be incapable of effectively participating and contributing to public discourse on political issues and affairs. These rationales, as well as the barring women from fighting in battle, another requirement of citizens, meant that in the eyes of Athenian men, by nature, women were not meant to be allowed citizenship. Despite being barred from the right to vote and citizenship overall, women were granted

13952-626: The towns of Marble, Minnesota ; Marble, Colorado ; Marble Falls, Texas , and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York . The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum . Total world quarrying production in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production. In the process of marble mining and processing, around half or

14080-413: The vast numbers required for the system to work testify to a breadth of direct participation among those eligible that greatly surpassed any present-day democracy. Athenian citizens had to be descended from citizens; after the reforms of Pericles and Cimon in 450 BC, only those descended from two Athenian parents could claim citizenship. Although the legislation was not retrospective, five years later, when

14208-462: The voting procedure and juries could be rowdy, shouting out their disapproval or disbelief of things said by the litigants. This may have had some role in building a consensus. The jury could only cast a "yes" or "no" vote as to the guilt and sentence of the defendant. For private suits only the victims or their families could prosecute, while for public suits anyone ( ho boulomenos , "whoever wants to" i.e. any citizen with full citizen rights) could bring

14336-655: The widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, and sarcophagi . There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD. According to the United States Geological Survey , U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $ 18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $ 18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006

14464-415: The world's highest concentration of white marble buildings. The extraction of marble is performed by quarrying . Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods. Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition. In 1998, marble production

14592-753: Was China with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%. White marbles throughout the Mediterranean basin were widely utilized during the Roman period. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across the Italian Peninsula , mainland Greece , the Aegean Islands , Asia Minor , and smaller hubs like those in the Iberian Peninsula . The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to

14720-465: Was 11.8 million tons valued at $ 116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate . For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $ 58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown

14848-522: Was a hallmark of Athens' democracy, but it frequently encountered obstacles like the influence of mob mentality and hurried decision-making. Modern democratic regimes, on the other hand, place a strong emphasis on the necessity of checks and balances between the several departments of government. By ensuring that decisions are based on thoughtful discussion and careful consideration, these organizations aim to reduce rash decisions influenced by public opinion. Modern democracies have also created systems to include

14976-598: Was afterwards cracked open for the counting of the ballots. Ostracism , a unique feature of Athenian democracy introduced in the early 5th century BCE, allowed the Assembly to exile citizens deemed threats to the state's stability. This annual practice, conducted through a vote, was a preventive measure against potential tyrants and factions. As noted by Starr, ostracism exemplified Athens' efforts to safeguard democracy by placing constraints on influential figures without resorting to more severe punitive actions, thereby balancing political stability with democratic freedom. In

15104-554: Was chosen by lot each day, who was required to stay in the tholos for the next 24 hours, presiding over meetings of the Boule and Assembly. The boule also served as an executive committee for the assembly, and oversaw the activities of certain other magistrates. The boule coordinated the activities of the various boards and magistrates that carried out the administrative functions of Athens and provided from its own membership randomly selected boards of ten responsible for areas ranging from naval affairs to religious observances. Altogether,

15232-447: Was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and China were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively. In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018

15360-479: Was forfeited to the state. With participation in Athenian Democracy only being available to adult male Athenian citizens, women were always left out of government and public roles. Even in the case of citizenry, the term was rarely used in reference to women. Rather, women were often referred to as an astē which meant "a woman belonging to the city" or Attikē gunē which meant 'an Attic woman/wife'. Even

15488-537: Was governed by an oligarchy ; he deposed the oligarchy and restored the democracy. Paros was included in the second Athenian confederacy (the Second Athenian League 378–355 BC). In c.  357 BC , along with Chios , it severed its connection with Athens. From the inscription of Adule, it is understood that the Cyclades, which are presumed to include Paros, were subjected to the Ptolemies ,

15616-525: Was instigated by Ephialtes in 462/1. While Ephialtes's opponents were away attempting to assist the Spartans, he persuaded the Assembly to reduce the powers of the Areopagus to a criminal court for cases of homicide and sacrilege. At the same time or soon afterward, the membership of the Areopagus was extended to the lower level of the propertied citizenship. In the wake of Athens's disastrous defeat in

15744-542: Was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides ; the most detailed accounts of the system are of this fourth-century modification, rather than the Periclean system. Democracy was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but how close they were to the original forms of democracy is debated. The word " democracy " (Greek: dēmokratia , δημοκρατία ) combines

15872-400: Was one of the first of its kind and considered to be one of the earliest developments of Athenian democracy. In 594 BC, Solon was appointed premier archon and began issuing economic and constitutional reforms in an attempt to alleviate some of the conflict that was beginning to arise from the inequities that permeated throughout Athenian society. His reforms ultimately redefined citizenship in

16000-485: Was open to all the male citizens. Solon also made significant economic reforms including cancelling existing debts, freeing debtors, and no longer allowing borrowing on the security of one's own person as a means of restructuring enslavement and debt in Athenian society. In 561 BC, the nascent democracy was overthrown by the tyrant Peisistratos but was reinstated after the expulsion of his son, Hippias , in 510. Cleisthenes issued reforms in 508 and 507 BC that undermined

16128-401: Was possible. There was however a mechanism for prosecuting the witnesses of a successful prosecutor, which it appears could lead to the undoing of the earlier verdict. Payment for jurors was introduced around 462 BC and is ascribed to Pericles , a feature described by Aristotle as fundamental to radical democracy ( Politics 1294a37). Pay was raised from two to three obols by Cleon early in

16256-449: Was tended to disguise itself; it was possible to pay for the services of a speechwriter or logographer ( logographos ), but this may not have been advertised in court. Jurors would likely be more impressed if it seemed as though litigants were speaking for themselves. As the system evolved, the courts (that is, citizens under another guise) intruded upon the power of the assembly. Starting in 355 BC, political trials were no longer held in

16384-452: Was therefore publicly hanged, becoming a symbol of resistance. In retaliation, 125 Parians were condemned to execution. However, Major Georg Graf von Merenberg, the German commander, was persuaded by Abbot Philotheos Zervakos to spare them, influenced by Stellas' sacrifice and the abbot's appeal to his humanity. British commandos and local partisans conducted a successful operation that led to

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