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86-762: The name Partal comes from Arabic al-Barṭal or al-Burtāl ( البرطل or البرطال ). This word was an Arabisation of the Latin word portale ('portal') that was used in Old Castilian to mean " portico ". The Partal Palace was built by the Nasrid ruler Muhammad III who ruled the Emirate of Granada , the last Muslim state in Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula ), from 1302 to 1309. This dating makes it

172-530: A mirador ( lookout chamber) integrated into a decorated building. The Partal Palace is one of the structures that has undergone the most alterations after the Nasrid era. Unlike the neighboring Comares Palace and Palace of the Lions , which were used by Spanish monarchs after the conquest of 1492 , the Partal Palace passed under private ownership and was remodeled into a residence by its owners. It

258-641: A mirador , similar to the Sala Regia in the Generalife , offering views over the city below through the windows on its three sides. Windows also lined other parts of the building. As a result of its open portico and many windows, scholar Arnold Felix describes it as the most "transparent" building in the Islamic architecture of Al-Andalus. The palace structure also includes the Torre de las Damas (Tower of

344-575: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as

430-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By

516-1030: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to

602-487: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic

688-690: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb  [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak

774-536: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from

860-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",

946-470: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for

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1032-409: A substitute to himself he had Ibn al-Jayyab, in his capacity of chief secretary, draft the legal paper to have this done. It is also said that at times he would go against the sultan's decisions if he believed it to be the correct choice. Ibn al-Khatib first came to Ibn al-Jayyab's attention when he was a young boy and his father was a part of the Nasrid court of Granada. Ibn al-Jayyab personally taught

1118-507: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means

1204-507: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as

1290-476: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted

1376-737: Is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic

1462-590: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak

1548-559: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It

1634-478: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in

1720-545: Is covered by a small dome carved with muqarnas (or mocárabes in Spanish), which is the oldest muqarnas vault in the Alhambra today. On the right (east) side of the main tower is a small elevated pavilion structure, entered via a staircase on its northwest side. The small room inside it served as a private mosque or prayer room, as evidenced by its mihrab . The structure is also referred to by its Spanish designation,

1806-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon

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1892-472: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and

1978-574: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference

2064-855: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not

2150-572: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As

2236-432: Is the home of the peaceful and of the warriors; Calahorra that contains a palace. Say that it is at the same time a fortress and a mansion for joy! It is a palace in which magnificence is shared among its ceiling, its floor and its four walls; on the stuccowork and on the glazed tiles there are wonders, but the carved wooden ceilings are even more extraordinary; these were all united and their union gave birth to

2322-590: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that

2408-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into

2494-524: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while

2580-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary

2666-763: The Palacio del Partal Alto to the south and the outer Alhambra walls to the north was a large garden, the Riyad as-Sayyid ("Garden of the Sayyid ", Sayyid being an honorific used by the Nasrids), which may have initially stretched from the Comares Palace in the west to the Torre de las Infantas in the east. Muhammad III built the Partal Palace in this garden area. He re-used a former fortification tower and turned it into

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2752-675: The Tower of the Captive (also known as the Qalahurra of Yusuf I ), the Hall of Ambassadors , and the entrance of the Sala de la Barca . He created between ten and twelve mural poems. In addition all of the poems in the Qalahurra are his, of which there are four. In these poems Ibn al-Jayyab uses badī poetry techniques as a way to help his contemporary Nasrid readers understand his poetry. Like many of

2838-568: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to

2924-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic

3010-496: The oratorio or 'oratory'. The oratory has a rectangular layout measuring 4.16 meters long and 3 meters wide. It is similar in conception to the small oratory attached to the Mexuar . Like the latter, it also enjoyed great views through double-arched windows, a feature which was unique to this type of prayer space in the Alhambra. The room, its mihrab, and the exterior of its southwestern window are richly decorated with carved stucco in

3096-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In

3182-1008: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c.  8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Ibn al-Jayyab Ibn al-Jayyāb al-Gharnāṭī ( ابن الجياب الغرناطي ); Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. Muḥammad b. Suleiman b. ‘Alī b. Suleiman b. Ḥassān al-Anṣārī al-Gharnāṭī ( ابو الحسن علي بن محمد بن سليمان بن علي بن سليمان بن حسن الأنصاري الغرناطي ); Spanish var., Ibn al-Ŷayyab , (1274–1349 AD/673–749 AH); he

3268-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to

3354-482: The 1890s to be restored and preserved. They are now kept at the Alhambra Museum. Between 1923 and 1924 Leopoldo Torres Balbás restored and partly rebuilt the portico façade, revealing and reconstituting the sebka stucco decoration above the arches. Francisco Prieto Moreno replaced the portico's brick pillars with slender Nasrid-style marble columns in 1965. The palace is only partly preserved, with only

3440-686: The 1930s. They have little relation with any original Nasrid-period elements, but the landscaping allowed for further archeological investigations and replaced what was at that time an unkempt area. Among the gardens are the remains of the foundations of other houses and urban structures. One of these remains, located on the upper terrace of the gardens, belongs to a former palace known as the Palacio del Partal Alto . Arabic Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized :  al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] )

3526-571: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of

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3612-834: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ    [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized

3698-801: The González Pareja House, the Villoslada house, the House of the Balconies, and the House of the Paintings. Although less impressive in design, they still contain some carved stucco decoration and are especially notable for the remnants of painted decoration, which may be the only surviving painted decoration executed by Nasrid artists. (The painted ceilings in the Hall of Kings in the Palace of

3784-526: The House of Astasio de Bracamonte, after the squire of the Count of Tendilla (the governor of the Alhambra after 1492). The house has a three-level layout and a separate entrance on its southwestern side. It was built before the oratory, although its highest floor was added later during the 16th century. Both structures were built on top of an older fortification tower that formed a part of the Alhambra's outer defensive wall. The oratory contains an inscription with

3870-655: The Ladies), a tower to the left (or west) of the main portico and mirador. Its top floor had two chambers. The original wooden cupola ceiling inside the larger chamber was dismantled and moved by its last private owner, Arthur von Gwinner, around the beginning of the 20th century. It is now preserved at the Museum für Islamische Kunst , the Islamic art section of the Pergamon Museum in Berlin , Germany . The other chamber

3956-451: The Lions, by contrast, may have been made by Christian artisans.) The mural paintings were discovered in 1907. Among other things, they depict rows of horsemen as well as tents with musicians, servants, and women of the Nasrid court. The extensive Partal Gardens ( Jardines del Partal ) stretch over the area to the south of the Partal Palace and its pool. They date from the time of Gómez-Moreno (1910s-1920s) and from landscaping carried out in

4042-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around

4128-510: The Nasrid-era tradition, with arabesque motifs and various Arabic inscriptions with religious themes and references to God ( Allah ). The alcove inside the mihrab is covered by a muqarnas cupola. The room is covered by a Nasrid-era timber frame ceiling, constructed independently from the roof above it, which features interlacing eight-pointed star motifs. On the oratory's southeast side is an adjacent and contiguous structure known today as

4214-483: The Partal Palace would have been an essentially outdoor space that could be enjoyed during good weather. The main remaining structure today is also known as the Palacio del Pórtico . Both the arched façade of the external portico and the interior walls are carved or covered with intricate stucco decoration from the time of Muhammad III. Much of this decoration was originally painted with colours, though much of this has faded over time. The calligraphic inscriptions in

4300-690: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from

4386-576: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With

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4472-459: The city from the edge of the palace walls. Another scholarly view holds that the Partal Palace never had an enclosed courtyard, and consisted mainly of the present structure facing an open landscape with the pool. This arrangement would differ from other Nasrid palaces, but it had precedents in earlier Almohad -era country estates such as the Buḥayra of Seville (built in 1171–1172). In this scenario,

4558-574: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after

4644-408: The decoration include poems by Ibn al-Jayyab (d. 1349) dedicated to Muhammad III. The portico was originally supported on brick pillars, but these were replaced in the 20th century by slender marble columns as seen today. The palace still preserves its large reflecting pool in front of the portico. Behind the portico is a chamber projecting outwards and northwards from the Alhambra walls. This acted as

4730-587: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of

4816-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around

4902-607: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From

4988-510: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and

5074-464: The horizon. Ibn al-Jayyab also composed a poem for a recently created Madrasa or university a few months before his death, though this poem was ultimately not inscribed there when the Madrasa was inaugurated. Oh student of science, its open door is open. Enter and witness its radiance; the morning sun has appeared. Thank your benefactor on entering and leaving. For, God has brought near what

5160-597: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward

5246-558: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about

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5332-550: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c.  603 –689)

5418-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA

5504-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya

5590-399: The most perfect construction in the place where the highest mansion already stood; they seem poetic images, paronomasias and transpositions, the decorative branches and inlays. Yusuf's visage appears before us as a sign that is where all the perfections have met. It is from the glorious tribe of Jazray, whose works in favour of the religion are like dawn, when its light appears in

5676-443: The name of Yusuf I (ruled 1333–1354), indicating that it was finished or decorated by this ruler. As a result, the oratory's construction has been widely attributed to Yusuf I. Art historian Marianne Barrucand states that the structure itself was likely built earlier by Muhammad III, like the rest of the Partal. Recent dendrochonological analyses, published in 2014, indicate that several of the original timber pieces used to construct

5762-624: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum  [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve

5848-466: The oldest remaining palace in the Alhambra today. It was also the first of several palaces that were eventually built along the northern perimeter of the Alhambra. Another palace, called the Palacio del Partal Alto by archeologists , once stood to the south in an area now occupied by gardens. Though traditionally attributed to Yusuf III (r. 1408–1417), it was most likely built by Muhammad III's predecessor, Muhammad II (r. 1273–1302). The space between

5934-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on

6020-452: The oratory's ceiling were cut in the winter of 1332–1333. This dating suggests that Yusuf I was only responsible for completing the oratory's construction, while the construction was initiated instead by one of his predecessors, most likely Isma’il I (r. 1314–1325). In modern times, the oratory was restored in 1846 by Rafael Contreras and in 1930 by Leopoldo Torres Balbás. The most recent restoration occurred between 2013 and 2017 and focused on

6106-401: The other poems in the Alhambra Ibn al-Jayyab's works often refer to the architecture on which they are written, in some of these poems he writes from the point of view of the building itself creating the idea that the walls themselves are speaking and not the author of the poem. Below is one of his poems from the Tower of the Captive: This piece of art has come to decorate the Alhambra; which

6192-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on

6278-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within

6364-460: The restoration of its wooden ceiling. The restoration uncovered, among other things, a previously obscured Arabic inscription frieze painted along the upper boards around the base of the ceiling, containing part of a surah from the Qur'an . On the left (west) side of the tower are four Nasrid-period houses from the 14th century, which did not have their own internal courtyards. They are known today as

6450-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there

6536-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of

6622-563: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of

6708-406: The tower and portico on its north side remaining. According to some scholarly views, this was originally part of an enclosed rectangular courtyard rather than the open garden it appears as today. It would have thus had the typical layout seen in other palaces nearby: a private courtyard centered on a large reflective pool with porticoes at either end and a mirador tower at one end that looked down on

6794-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to

6880-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study

6966-403: The young boy poetry which he would continue to write throughout his life. Ibn al-Jayyab imparted his advice multiple times to the young man including subjects like court politics 'When Ibn al-Jayyab talked about how firmly he behaved with the sultan who had appointed him, even though he was very intimidating  and authoritarian, he mentioned facts that showed his decisiveness. One of these cases

7052-575: Was Ibn al-Khaṭīb , who succeeded him as vizier . He wrote his qasidas (poems) in a neo-classical style, and some still decorate the walls of the summer palace of the Nasrid sultans, the Alhambra . Ibn al-Jayyab was one of three poets including Ibn al-Khatib, and Ibn Zamrak who had their poems etched onto the walls of the Alhambra, largely built in the 13th and 14th centuries. Ibn al-Jayyab's poems are etched into multiple areas of Alhambra including

7138-616: Was an Andalusian writer, poet and minister from the Nasrid court of the Emirate of Granada in what is now Spain . He was of Arab heritage descending from the Ansar tribe and was born in Granada, where he grew up and became involved with a group of distinguished scholars in that city. He died of the Black Death plague in Granada. His substantial legacy of poetry and prose was posthumously collated by his many students, among whom

7224-458: Was far off in your aiming. The capital of Islam has founded a madrasa in which the path of good guidance and of science has become clear. The works and doings of our Sovereign Yusuf decorated its pages, tipped its scale. Ibn al-Jayyab was a vizier of the Nasrid sultan Yusuf I. In addition he was the chief secretary of the sultan as well. It is recorded that when the Yusuf was going to create

7310-528: Was only ceded to the Spanish government in 1891 and then incorporated into the rest of the Alhambra historical site. Over the course of the 20th century it underwent multiple restorations by archeologists and architects in charge of the Alhambra. Two large 14th-century marble lions, originating from the now-demolished Maristan in the Albaicin , had previously been moved to the Partal Palace but were removed in

7396-551: Was the following: The sultan ordered the release of  a prisoner who the judge had imprisoned. But the Qadi, in the presence of the sultan, ordered the jailer to keep him in prison and threatened him if he freed him.' Ibn al-Jayyab's fatal contraction of the Black Death would have a profound effect on Ibn al-Khatib and cause him to study medicine and write a treatise on the plague. Upon his death his protégé would succeed him as

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