Paolo Antonio Soderini (1448 — after 1500) was a noble Florentine jurist active in the anti-Medicean Florentine republic , who spent some years resident at Rome .
62-538: The Pasquino Group (also known as Menelaus Carrying the Body of Patroclus or Ajax Carrying the Body of Achilles ) is a group of marble sculptures that copy a Hellenistic bronze original, dating to ca. 200–150 BCE. At least fifteen Roman marble copies of this sculpture are known. Many of these marble copies have complex artistic and social histories that illustrate the degree to which improvisatory "restorations" were made to fragments of ancient Roman sculpture during
124-437: A classic model, is distinguished by the twist of her hips. The multi-figure group of statues was a Hellenistic innovation, probably of the 3rd century, taking the epic battles of earlier temple pediment reliefs off their walls, and placing them as life-size groups of statues. Their style is often called " baroque ", with extravagantly contorted body poses, and intense expressions in the faces. The Laocoön Group , detailed below,
186-554: A disordered yet conventional manner, mirroring a late Greek style. In addition, "Cubiculum" paintings found in Villa Boscoreale include vegetation and a rocky setting in the background of detailed paintings of grand architecture. Wall paintings began appearing more prominently in the Pompeian period. These wall paintings were not just displayed in places of worship or in tombs. Often, wall paintings were used to decorate
248-528: A distinctive architectural form language that is often referred to as baroque due to its liberal use of ornamentation and its repurposing of structural elements as ornamental elements. Perhaps partly inspired by traditional Egyptian architecture , Alexandrian architects developed new shapes such as segmental, broken, hollow and volute pediments and curved arched, concave and broken entablatures. These baroque shapes seem to have existed in Alexandria at least by
310-531: A mark of civilization that was extremely prominent in Greek culture during the Hellenistic period and beyond. Living a civilized life involved maintaining a sturdy living space, thus many brick-like materials were used in the construction of the homes. Stone, wood, mudbrick, and other materials were commonly used to build these dwellings. Another element that was increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period
372-503: A royal patronage which differed from those of the city-states. In Alexander's entourage were three artists: Lysippus the sculptor, Apelles the painter, and Pyrgoteles the gem cutter and engraver. The period after his death was one of great prosperity and considerable extravagance for much of the Greek world, at least for the wealthy. Royalty became important patrons of art. Sculpture, painting and architecture thrived, but vase-painting ceased to be of great significance. Metalwork and
434-617: A symposium and banquet or a military escort, and possibly retell historical events. Paolo Antonio Soderini He was the older brother of the statesman Piero Soderini , who was exiled at the return of the Medici in 1512; a third brother was Cardinal Francesco Soderini , bishop of Volterra . Like Piero he had been a pupil of Marsilio Ficino at his informal "academy", patronized by the Medici , but when Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici fled from Florence in 1494, he declared at once in favour of
496-488: A way to add décor to the home and make it more visually appealing. This artistic touch to homes at Olynthus introduces another element of civilized living to this Hellenistic society. Pergamon in particular is a characteristic example of Hellenistic architecture. Starting from a simple fortress located on the Acropolis , the various Attalid kings set up a colossal architectural complex. The buildings are fanned out around
558-509: A well-done face and clasped hands. Another phenomenon of the Hellenistic age appears in its sculpture: privatization, seen in the recapture of older public patterns in decorative sculpture. Portraiture is tinged with naturalism, under the influence of Roman art . New Hellenistic cities were springing up all over Egypt , Syria , and Anatolia , which required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with
620-519: A wide variety of luxury arts produced much fine art. Some types of popular art were increasingly sophisticated. There has been a trend in writing history to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following the Golden Age of Classical Greece . The 18th century terms Baroque and Rococo have sometimes been applied to the art of this complex and individual period. A renewed interest in historiography as well as some recent discoveries, such as
682-432: Is considered one of the prototypical examples of the Hellenistic baroque style. Pergamon did not distinguish itself with its architecture alone: it was also the seat of a brilliant school of sculpture known as Pergamene Baroque . The sculptors, imitating the preceding centuries, portray painful moments rendered expressive with three-dimensional compositions, often V-shaped, and anatomical hyper-realism. The Barberini Faun
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#1732787209052744-588: Is here intended to show Odysseus carrying the body of the dead Achilles off the battlefield outside Troy (or possibly Ajax doing the carrying), as the other sculptures in the ensemble show scenes from the story of Odysseus. This is an unusual subject, not in Homer, but one that is mentioned by Ovid ( Metamorposes , 13, 282 ff) and fits the rest of the programme. Here Odysseus is shown at his most conventionally virtuous, demonstrating pietas . Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany purchased an ancient marble fragment depicting
806-777: Is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience. One of the defining characteristics of the Hellenistic period was the division of Alexander's empire into smaller dynastic empires founded by the diadochi (Alexander's generals who became regents of different regions): the Ptolemies in Egypt , the Seleucids in Mesopotamia , Persia , and Syria , the Attalids in Pergamon , etc. Each of these dynasties practiced
868-640: Is one example. Attalus I (269–197 BC), to commemorate his victory at Caicus against the Gauls ;— called Galatians by the Greeks ;– had two series of votive groups sculpted: the first, consecrated on the Acropolis of Pergamon, includes the famous Gaul killing himself and his wife , of which the original is lost; the second group, offered to Athens, is composed of small bronzes of Greeks, Amazons, gods and giants, Persians and Gauls. Artemis Rospigliosi in
930-578: Is one of very few non-architectural ancient sculptures that can be identified with those mentioned by ancient writers. It is attributed by Pliny the Elder to the Rhodian sculptors Agesander , Athenodoros , and Polydorus . Johann Joachim Winckelmann , who first articulated the difference between Greek, Greco-Roman and Roman art, drew inspiration from the Laocoön . Gotthold Ephraim Lessing based many of
992-599: Is therefore notable for its portraits : One such is the Barberini Faun of Munich , which represents a sleeping satyr with relaxed posture and anxious face, perhaps the prey of nightmares. The Belvedere Torso , the Resting Satyr , the Furietti Centaurs and Sleeping Hermaphroditus reflect similar ideas. Another famous Hellenistic portrait is that of Demosthenes by Polyeuktos, featuring
1054-700: The Louvre is probably a copy of one of them; as for copies of the Dying Gaul , they were very numerous in the Roman period. The expression of sentiments, the forcefulness of details – bushy hair and moustaches here – and the violence of the movements are characteristic of the Pergamene style. These characteristics are pushed to their peak in the friezes of the Great Altar of Pergamon , decorated under
1116-464: The "Ajax" figure then was wearing a helmet much simpler than the elaborate neoclassical one erroneously provided by Ricci seen on the sculpture today. In 1771, the neoclassic artist Anton Raphael Mengs took moulds of the parts he considered genuinely ancient (and thus original) of this sculpture and the version at the Palazzo Pitti (discussed below) and reassembled them in a plaster model that
1178-593: The 121st Olympiad (296–293 BC). A period of stagnation followed, with a brief revival after the 156th (156–153 BC), but with nothing to the standard of the times preceding it. During this period sculpture became more naturalistic, and also expressive; there is an interest in depicting extremes of emotion. On top of anatomical realism, the Hellenistic artist seeks to represent the character of his subject, including themes such as suffering, sleep or old age. Genre subjects of common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which
1240-418: The 16th and 17th centuries, in which contemporary Italian sculptors made original and often arbitrary and destructive additions in an effort to replace lost fragments of the ancient sculptures. One of the most famous versions of the composition, though so dismembered and battered that the relationship is scarcely recognizable at first glance, is the so-called Pasquin , one of the talking statues of Rome . It
1302-561: The 20th century, but more severe and careful modern criteria for restoration have led historians to avoid trying to restore them as a completed figural group, as past individuals attempted to do with the Pasquino group. Five fragments of a Pasquino group were excavated from Hadrian's Villa by Gavin Hamilton in 1769. This sculpture was a part of the Roman emperor Hadrian's collection of copies of Greek masterpieces. Unlike other copies,
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#17327872090521364-548: The 2nd century BC. Many of them were later adopted across the Roman Empire and also significantly influenced the rock-cut tombs of Petra . Alexandrian architecture also made heavy use of Corinthian capitals , both on exteriors and interiors. (The earliest known example of a Corinthian exterior in Alexandria is Ptolemy III 's temple of Sarapis in the Sarapeion which was constructed sometime between 246-221 BC, though
1426-408: The Acropolis to take into account the nature of the terrain. The agora , located to the south on the lowest terrace, is bordered by galleries with colonnades (columns) or stoai . It is the beginning of a street which crosses the entire Acropolis: it separates the administrative, political and military buildings on the east and top of the rock from the sanctuaries to the west, at mid-height, among which
1488-695: The Americas Art of Oceania Hellenistic art is the art of the Hellenistic period generally taken to begin with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and end with the conquest of the Greek world by the Romans , a process well underway by 146 BC, when the Greek mainland was taken, and essentially ending in 30 BC with the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt following the Battle of Actium . A number of
1550-414: The Great . Bernhard Schweitzer's 1936 Das Original der sogennanten Pasquino-Gruppe identifies the subject of the group as Menelaus carrying the body of Patroclus ; however, this identification has been questioned and the subject of Ajax carrying the body of Achilles is now widely accepted for most of the Roman copies. In the case of the very fragmentary group from Sperlonga , most scholars agree it
1612-503: The Greeks to create large works. Many of the large bronze statues were lost – with the majority being melted to recover the material. Discovered in Rome in 1506 and seen immediately by Michelangelo , beginning its huge influence on Renaissance and Baroque art. Laocoön , strangled by snakes, tries desperately to loosen their grip without affording a glance at his dying sons. The group
1674-572: The Hellenistic influences in Roman frescoes , for example those of Pompeii or Herculaneum . In addition, some of the paintings in Villa Boscoreale clearly echo lost Hellenistic, Macedonian royal paintings. Recent excavations from the Mediterranean have revealed the technology used in Hellenistic painting. Wall art of this period utilized two techniques: secco technique and fresco technique. Fresco technique required layers of lime-rich plaster to then decorate walls and stone supports. On
1736-494: The Laocoön group, or possibly their relations. The "Baroque" traits in Hellenistic art, predominately sculpture, have been contrasted with a contemporary trend that has been described as "Rococo". The concept of a Hellenistic "Rococo" was coined by Wilhelm Klein in the early 20th century. Unlike the dramatic "Baroque" sculptures, the "Rococo" trend emphasized playfull motifs, such as satyrs and nymphs . Wilhelm Klein considered
1798-457: The Olynthus city site. Interestingly, the homes and other architecture were incredibly well preserved. This allows us to better understand the activities that took place in the homes and how space inside the homes was organized and utilized. Homes in Olynthus were typically squarer in shape. The desired home was not necessarily large or extravagant, but rather comfortable and practical. This was
1860-400: The Roman market, which preferred copies of Classical rather than Hellenistic pieces. Paintings and mosaics were important mediums in art, but no examples of paintings on panels have survived the fall to the Romans. It is possible to get some idea of what they were like from related media, and what seem to be copies of or loose derivations from paintings in a wider range of materials. Perhaps
1922-551: The Roman mosaic " Nile Mosaic of Palestrina " which demonstrates fantastical narratives with a color scheme and commonplace components that illustrate the Nile in its passage from Ethiopia to the Mediterranean. The inclusion of Hellenistic backgrounds can also be seen in works throughout Pompeii, Cyrene, Alexandria. Moreover, specifically in Southern Russia, floral features and branches can be found on walls and ceilings strewn in
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1984-589: The Western World through their art. Three main qualities unique to Hellenistic painting style were three-dimensional perspective, the use of light and shade to render form, and trompe-l'œil realism. Very few forms of Hellenistic Greek painting survive except for wooden pinakes panels and those painted on stone. The most famously known stone paintings are found on the Macedonian Tomb at Agios Athanasios . Researchers have been limited to studying
2046-474: The best-known works of Greek sculpture belong to this period, including Laocoön and His Sons , Venus de Milo , and the Winged Victory of Samothrace . It follows the period of Classical Greek art , while the succeeding Greco-Roman art was very largely a continuation of Hellenistic trends. The term Hellenistic refers to the expansion of Greek influence and dissemination of its ideas following
2108-679: The blows of the gods. One of the few city states who managed to maintain full independence from the control of any Hellenistic kingdom was Rhodes . After holding out for one year under siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes (305–304 BC), the Rhodians built the Colossus of Rhodes to commemorate their victory. With a height of 32 meters, it was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Progress in bronze casting made it possible for
2170-523: The consequent standardization and some lowering of quality. For these reasons many more Hellenistic statues have survived than is the case with the Classical period. Hellenistic sculpture repeats the innovations of the so-called "second classicism": nude sculpture- in-the-round , allowing the statue to be admired from all angles; study of draping and effects of transparency of clothing, and the suppleness of poses. Thus, Venus de Milo , even while echoing
2232-643: The death of Alexander – the "Hellenizing" of the world, with Koine Greek as a common language. The term is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean Sea , rather than the Classical Greece focused on the Poleis of Athens and Sparta , but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which
2294-895: The deceased figure in Hadrian's copy is wounded on the back. This has been interpreted as evidence that Hadrian's copy was meant to represent Menelaus and Patroclus, since the Iliad states that he was killed by a blow to the back. These fragments are in the Vatican Museums . The head of Menelaus is on display in the museum's Hall of Busts. [REDACTED] Media related to Pasquino Group at Wikimedia Commons 43°46′09″N 11°15′20″E / 43.76917°N 11.25556°E / 43.76917; 11.25556 Hellenistic art Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of
2356-460: The former kingdom of Macedonia , where many friezes have been unearthed. For example, in Tomb II archaeologists found a Hellenistic-style frieze depicting a lion hunt. This frieze found in the tomb supposedly that of Philip II is remarkable by its composition, the arrangement of the figures in space and its realistic representation of nature. Other friezes maintain a realistic narrative, such as
2418-412: The headless torso of a man in armor supporting a heroically nude dying comrade soon after it was discovered in the vigna of Antonio Velli, half a Roman mile beyond Porta Portese , Rome. With the consent of Pope Pius V , it was taken immediately to Florence, where it appears in the inventory taken at Cosimo's death in 1574. The project for completing the truncated torso of the "Ajax" figure, missing above
2480-523: The home. Wall paintings were common in private homes in Delos, Priene, Thera, Pantikapaion, Olbia, and Alexandria. Few examples of Greek wall paintings have survived the centuries. The most impressive, in terms of showing what high-quality Greek painting was like, are those at the Macedonian royal tombs at Vergina . Though Greek painters are given tribute to bringing fundamental ways of representation to
2542-486: The ideas in his 'Laocoon' (1766) on Winckelmann's views on harmony and expression in the visual arts. The fragmentary Sperlonga sculptures are another series of "baroque" sculptures in the Hellenistic style, perhaps made for the Emperor Tiberius , who was certainly present at the collapse of the seaside grotto in southern Italy that they decorated. The inscriptions suggest the same sculptors made it who made
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2604-502: The later Hellenistic period, and in such collections there seems to have been a preference for the kinds of motifs characterized as "Rococo". From the 2nd century the Neo-Attic or Neo-Classical style is seen by different scholars as either a reaction to baroque excesses, returning to a version of Classical style, or as a continuation of the traditional style for cult statues. Workshops in the style became mainly producers of copies for
2666-505: The most prominent is that which shelters the monumental Pergamon Altar , known as "of the twelve gods" or "of the gods and of the giants", one of the masterpieces of Greek sculpture. A colossal theatre, able to contain nearly 10,000 spectators, has benches embedded in the flanks of the hill. Pliny the Elder , after having described the sculpture of the classical period notes: Cessavit deinde ars ("then art disappeared"). According to Pliny's assessment, sculpture declined significantly after
2728-411: The most striking element of Hellenistic paintings and mosaics is the increased use of landscape. Landscapes in these works of art are representative of familiar naturalistic figures while also displaying mythological and sacro-idyllic elements. Landscape friezes and mosaics were commonly used to display scenes from Hellenistic poetry such as that by Herondas and Theocritos. These landscapes that expressed
2790-581: The natural setting. One notes the appearance of many places of amusement and leisure, notably the multiplication of theatres and parks. The Hellenistic monarchies were advantaged in this regard in that they often had vast spaces where they could build large cities: such as Antioch , Pergamon , and Seleucia on the Tigris . It was the time of gigantism: thus it was for the second temple of Apollo at Didyma , situated twenty kilometers from Miletus in Ionia . It
2852-414: The order of Eumenes II (197–159 BC) with a gigantomachy stretching 110 metres in length, illustrating in the stone a poem composed especially for the court. The Olympians triumph in it, each on his side, over Giants – most of which are transformed into savage beasts: serpents, birds of prey, lions or bulls. Their mother Gaia comes to their aid, but can do nothing and must watch them twist in pain under
2914-617: The other hand, no base was necessary for the secco technique, which used gum arabic and egg tempera to paint finalizing details on marble or other stone. This technique is exemplified in the Masonry friezes found in Delos. Both techniques used mediums that were locally accessible, such as terracotta aggregates in the base layers and natural inorganic pigments, synthetic inorganic pigments, and organic substances as colorants. Recent discoveries include those of chamber tombs in Vergina (1987) in
2976-640: The populist party, he shared his brother's exile when the radical friar was arrested. In Rome he established himself in a house and garden close to Castel Sant'Angelo , where he undertook some informal excavations and assembled a notable collection of antiquities, including Roman sculpture (including the Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus that passed from his heir to the Medici and can be seen today in Loggia dei Lanzi , Florence) and inscriptions. This article about an Italian lawyer, judge or jurist
3038-443: The private sectors of the home were dark and closed off which complicated housework. Courtyards were typically the focus of the home as they provided a space for entertaining and a source of light from the very interior of the home. They were paved with cobblestones or pebbles most often, but there have been discoveries of mosaicked courtyards. Mosaics were a wonderful way for the family to express their interests and beliefs as well as
3100-728: The propylon of the Sanctuary of the Great Gods on Samothrace , which was sponsored by Ptolemy II sometime between 285-246 BC, also already featured Corinthian columns on one of its facades.) Corinthian capitals were sometimes paired with Doric entablatures, a combination that was rarely seen elsewhere in the Hellenistic world. Alexandrian Corinthian capitals exhibited a large variety of shapes and compositions which historians have divided into four distinct types. Other typical features of Hellenistic Alexandrian architecture were acanthus leaf column bases, which were sometimes inserted between
3162-482: The revived Florentine republic and served as Florentine Ambassador to Venice. Philippe de Commines , unsympathetic to his policy, declared him, nevertheless, "one of the wisest statesmen in all Italy". On his return he was elected gonfaloniere of justice in 1497. The institution of a Grand Council in republican Florence, on the Venetian model, was largely on his initiative. As republican supporters of Savonarola and
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#17327872090523224-521: The sculpture group "The Invitation to the Dance" to be a prime example of the trend. Also lighthearted depictions of Aphrodite , the goddess of love, and Eros , were seen as typical (as seen, for instance, in the so-called Slipper Slapper Group depicted below). It has later been argued that the preference for the "Rococo" motifs in Hellenistic sculpture can be tied to a changed use of sculpture in general. Private sculpture collecting became more common during
3286-454: The standard Attic column base and the column shaft of a Corinthian column, and cornices featuring the distinctive Alexandrian flat grooved and/or hollow square modillions. Roman Second Style frescoes are thought to be inspired by Alexandrian architecture. The ancient city of Olynthus was one of the architectural and artistic keystones in establishing a connection between the Classical and Hellenistic worlds. Over 100 homes were found at
3348-429: The stories of Hellenistic writers were utilized in the home to emphasize that family's education and knowledge about the literary world. Sacro-idyllic means that the most prominent elements of the artwork are those related to sacred and pastoral themes. This style that emerged most prevalently in Hellenistic art combines sacred and profane elements, creating a dreamlike setting. Sacro-idyllic influences are conveyed in
3410-439: The tombs of Vergina , may allow a better appreciation of the period. In the architectural field, the dynasties following Hector resulted in vast urban plans and large complexes which had mostly disappeared from city-states by the 5th century BC. The Doric Temple was virtually abandoned. This city planning was quite innovative for the Greek world; rather than manipulating space by correcting its faults, building plans conformed to
3472-529: The waist when it was found according to the Memorie (1594) of the sculptor and antiquarian Flaminio Vacca , was commissioned by Ferdinando II ; the "restoration" was worked out by Pietro Tacca and executed by Lodovico Salvetti from Tacca's model, according to Filippo Baldinucci . It was set up in a niche on the south end of the Ponte Vecchio . Paolo Alessandro Maffei 's engraving of 1704 shows that
3534-672: Was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens; the Boy with Thorn is an example. Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. The world of Dionysus , a pastoral idyll populated by satyrs , maenads , nymphs and sileni , had been often depicted in earlier vase painting and figurines, but rarely in full-size sculpture. The Old Drunkard at Munich portrays without reservation an old woman, thin, haggard, clutching against herself her jar of wine. The period
3596-491: Was designed by Daphnis of Miletus and Paionios of Ephesus at the end of the fourth century BC, but the construction, never completed, was carried out up until the 2nd century AD. The sanctuary is one of the largest ever constructed in the Mediterranean region: inside a vast court (21.7 metres by 53.6 metres), the cella is surrounded by a double colonnade of 108 Ionic columns nearly 20 metres tall, with richly sculpted bases and capitals . Hellenistic Alexandria originated
3658-775: Was in fact part of the Tacca-Salvetti restoration. Other errors in restoration are the lifted left leg of the bearer, the raised right knee of Patroclus, and the mounded ground that serves as a base. The second version was a gift in 1570 from the Florentine Paolo Antonio Soderini of Rome. It was said to have been found at the Mausoleum of Augustus . Identified as Ajax, it stands in the Cortile del Ajaco of Palazzo Pitti . Further fragments of other Roman copies of this group have appeared during
3720-486: Was intended to be more faithful to the Roman original. It was taken away to be further repaired in 1798 and remained in obscurity, undergoing further adjustments by Stefano Ricci in the 1830s, until it was finally re-erected in 1838, in the Loggia dei Lanzi in the Piazza della Signoria , Florence. The feature which still draws most attention is the lifeless hanging left arm of the "Achilles" figure, seemingly dislocated, which
3782-490: Was set up on a pedestal in 1501 and remains unrestored. A version of the group, probably intended to represent other Homeric figures, is part of the Sperlonga sculptures found in 1957. Ancient Roman copies of the original Greek sculptural group were first documented in Rome ca. 1500. During the 16th century, various authors proposed different identifications for the dead figure, including Hercules , Geryon , and Alexander
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#17327872090523844-449: Was the addition of a courtyard to the home. Courtyards served as a light source for the home as Greek houses were closed off from the outside to maintain a level of privacy. There have been windows found at some home sites, but they are typically high off the ground and small. Because of the issue of privacy, many individuals were forced to compromise on light in the home. Well-lit spaces were used for entertaining or more public activity while
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