Misplaced Pages

#530469

134-425: Echinocactus williamsii Lemaire ex Salm-Dyck Lophophora lewinii (K. Schumann) Rusby Lophophora echinata Croizat Lophophora fricii Habermann L. williamsii var. fricii (Habermann) Grym L. diffusa subsp. fricii (Habermann) Halda Lophophora jourdaniana Haberman The peyote ( / p eɪ ˈ oʊ t i / ; Lophophora williamsii / l ə ˈ f ɒ f ə r ə w ɪ l i ˈ æ m z i aɪ / )

268-453: A pericarpel . Tissue derived from the petals and sepals continues the pericarpel, forming a composite tube—the whole may be called a floral tube, although strictly speaking only the part furthest from the base is floral in origin. The outside of the tubular structure often has areoles that produce wool and spines. Typically, the tube also has small scale-like bracts , which gradually change into sepal-like and then petal-like structures, so

402-485: A visionary sacrament that opens a pathway to the other deities. Peyote is considered sacramental and sacred in the Native American Church, also known as Peyotism. It is used in rituals for "a closer understanding of the spiritual world" and to commune with God and the spirits (including the deceased) in order to receive spiritual power, guidance, reproof, and healing. To many followers, peyote itself

536-454: A Native American patient with a history of alcohol abuse. Peyote is also known to cause potentially serious variations in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and pupillary dilation . Research into the Huichol natives of central-western Mexico, who have taken peyote regularly for an estimated 1,500 years or more, found no evidence of chromosome damage in either men or women. According to

670-523: A burial cave in west central Coahuila , Mexico have been similarly analyzed and dated to 810 to 1070 CE. From earliest recorded time, peyote has been used by indigenous peoples, such as the Huichol of northern Mexico and by various Native American tribes, native to or relocated to the Southern Plains states of present-day Oklahoma and Texas. Its usage was also recorded among various Southwestern Athabaskan-language tribal groups. The Tonkawa ,

804-464: A cactus. Stem shapes vary considerably among cacti. The cylindrical shape of columnar cacti and the spherical shape of globular cacti produce a low surface area-to-volume ratio, thus reducing water loss, as well as minimizing the heating effects of sunlight. The ribbed or fluted stems of many cacti allow the stem to shrink during periods of drought and then swell as it fills with water during periods of availability. A mature saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea )

938-547: A cluster may share a common root. Other cacti have a quite different appearance. In tropical regions, some grow as forest climbers and epiphytes . Their stems are typically flattened and almost leaf-like in appearance, with few or even no spines. Climbing cacti can be very large; a specimen of Hylocereus was reported as 100 meters (330 ft) long from root to the most distant stem. Epiphytic cacti, such as species of Rhipsalis or Schlumbergera , often hang downwards, forming dense clumps where they grow in trees high above

1072-489: A communion breakfast on Sunday morning. Mescaline is listed as a Schedule III controlled substance under the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act , but peyote is specifically exempt. Possession and use of peyote plants is legal. Non-drug uses of peyote in religious ceremonies by the Native American Church and its members is exempt from registration. This law has been codified as a statute in

1206-464: A continuous supply of CO 2 during photosynthesis means the stomata must be open, so water vapor is continuously being lost. Plants using the C 3 mechanism lose as much as 97% of the water taken up through their roots in this way. A further problem is that as temperatures rise, the enzyme that captures CO 2 starts to capture more and more oxygen instead, reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis by up to 25%. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

1340-411: A drought. The concentration of salts in the root cells of cacti is relatively high. All these adaptations enable cacti to absorb water rapidly during periods of brief or light rainfall. Thus, Ferocactus cylindraceus reportedly can take up a significant amount of water within 12 hours from as little as 7 mm (0.3 in) of rainfall, becoming fully hydrated in a few days. Although in most cacti,

1474-587: A dry year, or thick and verdant in a wet year. Thornscrub vegetation tends to grow taller and thicker in the east, benefited by coastal moisture where it can be impenetrable in places, and it is often shorter and more open in interior areas of the region, although soils also influence this throughout the region. Mixtures of sand and clay make up much of the soils with pockets of near pure sand and near pure clay occurring locally. Sandy soils in this region tend to support more open vegetation with widely spaced trees and shrubs in grasslands, while clay soils tend to support

SECTION 10

#1732798381531

1608-547: A form of a form of parthenogenesis . Other fishes found in the area are alligator gar ( Atractosteus spatula ), longnose gar ( Lepisosteus osseus ), Rio Grande cichlid ( Herichthys cyanoguttatus ), sailfin molly ( Poecilia latipinna ), Rio Grande silvery minnow ( Hybognathus amarus ), San Juan minnow ( Dionda couchi ), Tamaulipas shiner ( Notropis braytoni ), Rio Grande shinner ( Notropis jemezanus ), Gulf killifish ( Fundulus grandis ), and Rio Grande darter ( Etheostoma grahami ). Two endemic species from this region,

1742-636: A full species ( Sceloporus marmoratus ). Some representative snakes of the Tamaulipan mezquital include the Tamaulipan hook-nose snake ( Ficimia streckeri ), Mexican milksnake ( Lampropeltis annulata ), and Schott's whipsnake ( Masticophis schotti ). More wide-ranging species include the Great Plains ratsnake ( Pantherophis emoryi ), gopher snake ( Pituophis catenifer ), long-nose snake ( Rhinocheilus lecontei ), and eastern patch-nose snake ( Salvadora grahamiae ). Some tropical species reaching

1876-406: A greater diversity and denser, sometimes even canopied areas of trees and shrubs. Past land usage can also have a significant influence, where recently cleared areas may have a near monoculture of honey mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa ), with pricklypear ( Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri ), and non-native grasses in the understory. Some species of are nearly ubiquitous, occurring in most of

2010-415: A greater volume than the body. Taproots may aid in stabilizing the larger columnar cacti. Climbing, creeping and epiphytic cacti may have only adventitious roots , produced along the stems where these come into contact with a rooting medium. Like their spines, cactus flowers are variable. Typically, the ovary is surrounded by material derived from stem or receptacle tissue, forming a structure called

2144-415: A high surface area-to-volume ratio, at maturity they contain little or no water, being composed of fibers made up of dead cells. Spines provide protection from herbivores and camouflage in some species, and assist in water conservation in several ways. They trap air near the surface of the cactus, creating a moister layer that reduces evaporation and transpiration . They can provide some shade, which lowers

2278-517: A large spectrum of phenethylamine alkaloids. The principal one is mescaline for which the content of Lophophora williamsii is about 0.4% fresh (undried) and 3–6% dried. French botanist Charles Antoine Lemaire described the species as Echinocactus williamsii in 1845. It was placed in the new genus Lophophora in 1894 by American botanist John Merle Coulter . L. williamsii is native to southern North America , mainly distributed in Mexico . In

2412-415: A mesquite grove ), thorny brush, and chaparral vegetation referred to as Tamaulipan thornscrub. In this subtropical environment some plant growth continues through most of the year, particularly in the south. Years with droughts or tropical storms and hurricanes can dramatically affect vegetation at any given locality, particularly the herbaceous ground layer, which may be sparse with patches of bare earth in

2546-418: A normal shoot, nodes bearing leaves or flowers would be separated by lengths of stem (internodes). In an areole, the nodes are so close together, they form a single structure. The areole may be circular, elongated into an oval shape, or even separated into two parts; the two parts may be visibly connected in some way (e.g. by a groove in the stem) or appear entirely separate (a dimorphic areole). The part nearer

2680-466: A particular plant is an example of, say, Mammillaria mammillaris , they should be able to compare it with the type specimen to which this name is permanently attached. Type specimens are normally prepared by compression and drying, after which they are stored in herbaria to act as definitive references. However, cacti are very difficult to preserve in this way; they have evolved to resist drying and their bodies do not easily compress. A further difficulty

2814-606: A reduced over-story with black mimosa ( Mimosa asperata ), black willow ( Salix nigra ), and giant reed ( Arundo donax ) an invasive species . Numerous species of vines and epiphytes like Spanish moss ( Tillandsia usneoides ) are frequently encountered as well as rarer Bailey's ballmoss ( Tillandsia baileyi ). The herbaceous layer is often not well developed. In the Nueces River drainage and northward, pecan ( Carya illinoinensis ) and plateau live oak ( Quercus fusiformis ) may be common. Diversity increases southward and

SECTION 20

#1732798381531

2948-655: A specimen, which, according to David Hunt , ensured he "left a trail of nomenclatural chaos that will probably vex cactus taxonomists for centuries." In 1984, it was decided that the Cactaceae Section of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study should set up a working party, now called the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG), to produce consensus classifications down to

3082-522: A statement made by Gertrude Bonnin in 1916 , a member of the Sioux tribe, the use of Peyote had been the direct cause of death among 25 Utes in last two years. The Wixarika religion consists of four principal deities : Corn, Kayumarie (Blue Deer), Hikuri (Peyote), and the Eagle, all descended from their Sun God. Schaefer has interpreted this to mean that peyote is the soul of their religious culture and

3216-433: Is a mechanism adopted by cacti and other succulents to avoid the problems of the C 3 mechanism. In full CAM, the stomata open only at night, when temperatures and water loss are lowest. CO 2 enters the plant and is captured in the form of organic acids stored inside cells (in vacuoles ). The stomata remain closed throughout the day, and photosynthesis uses only this stored CO 2 . CAM uses water much more efficiently at

3350-535: Is a small, spineless cactus which contains psychoactive alkaloids , particularly mescaline (see also: cactus alkaloids ). Peyote is a Spanish word derived from the Nahuatl peyōtl ( [ˈpejoːt͡ɬ] ), meaning "caterpillar cocoon ", from a root peyōni , "to glisten". Peyote is native to Mexico and southwestern Texas . It is found primarily in the Sierra Madre Occidental ,

3484-490: Is also endemic. Other representative lizards include the Texas banded gecko ( Coleonyx brevis ), four-lined skink ( Plestiodon tetragrammus ), common spotted whiptail ( Aspidoscelis gularis ), keeled earless lizard ( Holbrookia propinqua ), Texas horned lizard ( Phrynosoma cornutum ), blue spiny lizard ( Sceloporus cyanogenys ), and the northern rose-belly lizard ( Sceloporus variabilis marmoratus ), regarded by some as

3618-527: Is an important conservation tool for this particular species. Promoting San Pedro as a Peyote substitute may act as an intervention to reduce Peyote consumption. Psychedelic film When used for its psychoactive properties, common doses for pure mescaline range from roughly 200 to 400 mg. This translates to a dose of roughly 10 to 20 g of dried peyote buttons of average potency; however, potency varies considerably between samples, making it difficult to measure doses accurately without first extracting

3752-645: Is classified in a family ( Rhinophrynidae ) by itself. Fishes: Two species, the San Ignacio pupfish ( Cyprinodon bobmilleri ) from the upper Rio San Fernando basin near Linares and the swordtail platyfish ( Xiphophourus xiphidium ) occurring in the upper parts of the Rio Soto La Maria, in Tamaulipas are endemic to this region. The Amazon molly ( Poecilia formosa ), is a unisexual (all female) species that reproduces through gynogenesis ,

3886-401: Is close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved) does have long-lasting leaves, which are, however, thickened and succulent in many species. Other species of cactus with long-lasting leaves, such as the opuntioid Pereskiopsis , also have succulent leaves. A key issue in retaining water is the ratio of surface area to volume. Water loss is proportional to surface area, whereas

4020-546: Is considered close to the ancestral species from which all cacti evolved. In tropical regions, other cacti grow as forest climbers and epiphytes (plants that grow on trees). Their stems are typically flattened, almost leaf-like in appearance, with fewer or even no spines, such as the well-known Christmas cactus or Thanksgiving cactus (in the genus Schlumbergera ). Cacti have a variety of uses: many species are used as ornamental plants, others are grown for fodder or forage, and others for food (particularly their fruit). Cochineal

4154-544: Is derived through Latin from the Ancient Greek κάκτος ( kaktos ), a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant, which may have been the cardoon ( Cynara cardunculus ). Later botanists, such as Philip Miller in 1754, divided cacti into several genera, which, in 1789, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu placed in his newly created family Cactaceae. By the early 20th century, botanists came to feel Linnaeus's name Cactus had become so confused as to its meaning (was it

Peyote - Misplaced Pages Continue

4288-961: Is generally semi-arid however, various wetlands are present. The Laguna Madre is one of only five hypersaline coastal lagoons (or negative estuaries) in the world and a significant ecosystem in itself, laying between the Gulf of Mexico and the Tamaulipan mezquital ecoregion. As one moves inland from the hypersaline lagoon, a relatively narrow band of freshwater marshlands are encountered running north to south, albeit occurring fragmented and irregularly. These marshes are dynamic, fluctuating with rainfall and tropical storm activity, and alternating with wet and dry periods. When and where present, these marshlands can be locally, surprisingly extensive with deep marshes and both permanent and ephemeral freshwater ponds that support populations of salamanders ( Siren intermedia ), turtles ( Trachemys ), and millions of migrating waterfowl , such as redheads ( Aythya americana ) in

4422-407: Is known to occur in the lower Rio Grande, thought to be a distant and isolated population of the greater siren ( Siren lacertina ) by some, or an undescribed species by others. The Rio Grande leopard frog ( Lithobates berlandieri ) and western narrow-mouthed toad ( Gastrophryne olivacea ) occur in the region along with several toads ( Bufonidae ) inhabiting the thorn scrub and grasslands including

4556-835: Is particularly true of tree-living cacti, such as Rhipsalis and Schlumbergera , but also of some ground-living cacti, such as Ariocarpus . The spines of cacti are often useful in identification, since they vary greatly between species in number, color, size, shape and hardness, as well as in whether all the spines produced by an areole are similar or whether they are of distinct kinds. Most spines are straight or at most slightly curved, and are described as hair-like, bristle-like, needle-like or awl-like, depending on their length and thickness. Some cacti have flattened spines (e.g. Sclerocactus papyracanthus ). Other cacti have hooked spines. Sometimes, one or more central spines are hooked, while outer spines are straight (e.g., Mammillaria rekoi ). In addition to normal-length spines, members of

4690-529: Is permissible if found to be used in accordance with Native American cultural practices. Cactus See also Classification of the Cactaceae A cactus ( pl. : cacti , cactuses , or less commonly, cactus ) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae ( / k æ k ˈ t eɪ s i . iː , - ˌ aɪ / ), a family of the order Caryophyllales comprising about 127 genera with some 1,750 known species. The word cactus derives, through Latin, from

4824-479: Is personified as "Peyote Spirit", considered to be either God's equivalent for the Indians to Jesus for mainstream Christians, or Jesus himself. Peyote is consumed during an all-night healing ceremony inside a hogan , a traditional Navajo building, or a tipi . The ritual starts around 8 P.M Saturday, and includes prayer , singing , sacramental eating of peyote, water rites, and contemplation . It concludes with

4958-479: Is present in Pereskia species. By studying the ratio of C to C incorporated into a plant—its isotopic signature —it is possible to deduce how much CO 2 is taken up at night and how much in the daytime. Using this approach, most of the Pereskia species investigated exhibit some degree of CAM-cycling, suggesting this ability was present in the ancestor of all cacti. Pereskia leaves are claimed to only have

5092-408: Is primarily in desert scrub, particularly thorn scrub in Tamaulipas. It is common on or near limestone hills. Peyote is extremely slow growing. Cultivated specimens grow considerably faster, sometimes taking less than three years to go from seedling to mature flowering adult. More rapid growth can be achieved by grafting peyote onto mature San Pedro root stock. The top of the above-ground part of

5226-557: Is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U.S. gallons (760 L; 170 imp gal) of water during a rainstorm. A few species differ significantly in appearance from most of the family. At least superficially, plants of the genera Leuenbergeria , Rhodocactus and Pereskia resemble other trees and shrubs growing around them. They have persistent leaves, and when older, bark-covered stems. Their areoles identify them as cacti, and in spite of their appearance, they, too, have many adaptations for water conservation . Leuenbergeria

5360-416: Is said to be able to absorb as much as 200 U.S. gallons (760 L; 170 imp gal) of water during a rainstorm. The outer layer of the stem usually has a tough cuticle , reinforced with waxy layers, which reduce water loss. These layers are responsible for the grayish or bluish tinge to the stem color of many cacti. The stems of most cacti have adaptations to allow them to conduct photosynthesis in

5494-806: Is semi-open with ubiquitous shrubs under 5 m., growing with species like saladillo ( Varilla texana ), knifeleaf condalia ( Condalia spathulata ), Johnston's seaheath ( Frankenia johnstonii ), and screw bean mesquite ( Prosopis reptans ) among others. Soils may have a thin layer of gravel over clay with patchy grasses and cacti such as Fitch's hedgehog cactus ( Echinocereus reichenbachii var. fitchii ) and horse crippler ( Echinocactus texensis ). Internally drained basins with non-salin, or freshwater also occur on clay lined or clay loam soils that hinder drainage. Sometimes called potholes, lagunas, lagunitas, ponds, or copitas, these are ephemeral wetlands but may remain moist over extended periods of time. Riparian zones and floodplains can support luxuriant forest on

Peyote - Misplaced Pages Continue

5628-469: Is that many cacti were given names by growers and horticulturalists rather than botanists; as a result, the provisions of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (which governs the names of cacti, as well as other plants) were often ignored. Curt Backeberg , in particular, is said to have named or renamed 1,200 species without one of his names ever being attached to

5762-724: Is the product of an insect that lives on some cacti. Many succulent plants in both the Old and New World – such as some Euphorbiaceae (euphorbias) – are also spiny stem succulents and because of this are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "cactus". The 1,500 to 1,800 species of cacti mostly fall into one of two groups of "core cacti": opuntias (subfamily Opuntioideae ) and "cactoids" (subfamily Cactoideae ). Most members of these two groups are easily recognizable as cacti. They have fleshy succulent stems that are major organs of photosynthesis . They have absent, small, or transient leaves . They have flowers with ovaries that lie below

5896-801: The American Indian Religious Freedom Act Amendments of 1994, United States federal law (and many state laws ) protects the harvest , possession , consumption and cultivation of peyote as part of " bona fide religious ceremonies" the federal statute is the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, codified at 42 U.S.C.   § 1996a , "Traditional Indian religious use of the peyote sacrament", exempting only use by Native American persons. US v. Boyll expanded permitted use to all persons engaged in traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race. All US states with

6030-670: The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, and made part of the common law in Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh , (5th Cir. 1991); it is also in administrative law at the 21 CFR 1307.31 which states for "Special Exempt Persons": Section 1307.31 Native American Church. The listing of peyote as a controlled substance in Schedule I does not apply to the nondrug use of peyote in bona fide religious ceremonies of

6164-571: The Ancient Greek word κάκτος ( káktos ), a name originally used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant whose identity is now not certain. Cacti occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes. They are native to the Americas, ranging from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north, with the exception of Rhipsalis baccifera , which is also found in Africa and Sri Lanka . Cacti are adapted to live in very dry environments, including

6298-613: The Atacama Desert , one of the driest places on Earth. Because of this, cacti show many adaptations to conserve water. For example, almost all cacti are succulents , meaning they have thickened, fleshy parts adapted to store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of most cacti where this vital process takes place. Most species of cacti have lost true leaves, retaining only spines , which are highly modified leaves. As well as defending against herbivores , spines help prevent water loss by reducing air flow close to

6432-402: The C 3 mechanism with CAM restricted to stems. More recent studies show that "it is highly unlikely that significant carbon assimilation occurs in the stem"; Pereskia species are described as having "C 3 with inducible CAM." Leafless cacti carry out all their photosynthesis in the stem, using full CAM. As of February 2012 , it is not clear whether stem-based CAM evolved once only in

6566-519: The Chihuahuan Desert and in the states of Nayarit , Coahuila , Nuevo León , Tamaulipas , and San Luis Potosí among scrub. It flowers from March to May, and sometimes as late as September. The flowers are pink, with thigmotactic anthers (like Opuntia ). Known for its psychoactive properties when ingested, peyote has at least 5,500 years of entheogenic and medicinal use by indigenous North Americans . The various species of

6700-476: The Ghost Dance . Today the Native American Church is one among several religious organizations to use peyote as part of its religious practice. Some users claim the drug connects them to God. Traditional Navajo belief or ceremonial practice did not mention the use of peyote before its introduction by the neighboring Utes . The Navajo Nation now has the most members of the Native American Church. Since 1846,

6834-913: The Las Palomas Wildlife Management Area comprised 18 units with tracts ranging from two to 604 acres (3,311 acres total). The U. S. Federal Government also administers lands in the Lower Rio Grande Valley including the Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge (2,088 acres) and western and higher elevation areas of the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge on the Gulf Coast (>97, 000 acres). The multi-unit Lower Rio Grande Valley National Wildlife Refuge has nearly 40,000 acres open to

SECTION 50

#1732798381531

6968-592: The Mescalero , and Lipan Apache were the source or first practitioners of peyote religion in the regions north of present-day Mexico. They were also the principal group to introduce peyote to newly arrived migrants, such as the Comanche and Kiowa from the Northern Plains. The religious, ceremonial, and healing uses of peyote may date back over 2000 years. Under the auspices of what came to be known as

7102-563: The Native American Church , in the 19th century, American Indians in more widespread regions to the north began to use peyote in religious practices, as part of a revival of native spirituality. Its members refer to peyote as "the sacred medicine", and use it to combat spiritual, physical, and other social ills. Concerned about the drug's psychoactive effects, between the 1880s and 1930s, U.S. authorities attempted to ban Native American religious rituals involving peyote, including

7236-659: The alkaloid , hordenine (also called peyocactin). In 2005, researchers used radiocarbon dating and alkaloid analysis to study two specimens of peyote buttons found in archaeological digs from a site called Shumla Cave No. 5 on the Rio Grande in Texas . The results dated the specimens to between 3780 and 3660 BCE . Alkaloid extraction yielded approximately 2% of the alkaloids including mescaline in both samples. This indicates that native North Americans were likely to have used peyote since at least 5500 years ago. Specimens from

7370-486: The alluvial soils of the major rivers. These can sometimes have a dense canopy up to 15 meters high. Dominant canopy species may include many of the ubiquitous and common species noted above, as well as granjeno ( Celtis ehrenbergiana ), sugar hackberry ( Celtis laevigata ), Texas ebony ( Ebenopsis ebano ), anacua ( Ehretia anacua ), Mexican ash ( Fraxinus berlandierana ), tepeguaje ( Leucaena pulverulenta ), and cedar elm ( Ulmus crassifolia ). Riverbanks may have

7504-443: The monophyly of three of these subfamilies (not Pereskioideae), but have not supported all of the tribes or even genera below this level; indeed, a 2011 study found only 39% of the genera in the subfamily Cactoideae sampled in the research were monophyletic . Classification of the cacti currently remains uncertain and is likely to change. A 2005 study suggested the genus Pereskia as then circumscribed ( Pereskia sensu lato)

7638-441: The sepals and petals , often deeply sunken into a fleshy receptacle (the part of the stem from which the flower parts grow). All cacti have areoles —highly specialized short shoots with extremely short internodes that produce spines , normal shoots, and flowers. The remaining cacti fall into only two groups: three tree-like genera, Leuenbergeria , Pereskia and Rhodocactus (all formerly placed in Pereskia ), and

7772-484: The "columns" may be horizontal rather than vertical. Thus, Stenocereus eruca can be described as columnar even though it has stems growing along the ground, rooting at intervals. Cacti whose stems are even smaller may be described as globular (or globose). They consist of shorter, more ball-shaped stems than columnar cacti. Globular cacti may be solitary, such as Ferocactus latispinus , or their stems may form clusters that can create large mounds. All or some stems in

7906-807: The Laguna Madre y Delta del Rio Bravo and Parras de la Fuente, Reserva de la Paloma de Ala Blanca (ca. 23.8888°N, 98.5000°W), and in Coahuila , Mexico the Parque Nacional Los Novillos. Many of the protected lands in Mexico are actually "paper parks" owned and administer by local ejidos and municipalities, with few resources devoted to their management, no accommodations, no facilities or trails for visitors, and little management or enforcement of wildlife regulations. Nonetheless, such parks do limit land usage and development, and thus provide

8040-748: The Mid- Tertiary with a few minor sierras of alkaline basalt flows occurring locally (e.g. in the vicinity of Llera, Tamaulipas ). The Coastal Sand Plain, sometimes referred to as the "Wild Horse Desert", is a region of Quaternary sand deposits extending about 60 miles inland from the Laguna Madre . It is bordered by Baffin Bay to the north and the Lower Rio Grande Valley to the south. Quaternary to Tertiary marine sedimentary strata, which may be exposed in western areas, underlie

8174-421: The Native American Church, and members of the Native American Church so using peyote are exempt from registration. Any person who manufactures peyote for or distributes peyote to the Native American Church, however, is required to obtain registration annually and to comply with all other requirements of law. U.S. v. Boyll , 774 F.Supp. 1333 (D.N.M. 1991) addresses this racial issue specifically and concludes: For

SECTION 60

#1732798381531

8308-844: The Nueces River drainage in the USA; Amistad International Reservoir and Falcon International Reservoir on the Rio Grande; Presa Venustiano Carranza in Coahuila on the Rio Salado, Presa El Cuchillo in Nuevo Leon and Presa Marte R. Gómez in Tamaulipas on the Rio San Juan, and Presa Vicente Guerrero in Tamaulipas on the Rio Soto La Marina drainage in Mexico. This semi-arid region is dominated by Mezquital (Spanish for

8442-548: The Rio Grande Delta has a denser understory with a sub-canopy layer at 4 to 5 meters including Sierra Madre torchwood ( Amyris madrensis ), Texas torchwood ( Amyris texana ), Barbados cherry ( Malpighia glabra ), catclaw acacia ( Senegalia wrightii ), brushholly ( Xylosma flexuosa ), and others. Monumental Montezuma cypresses ( Taxodium mucronatum ) once lined portions of the Rio Grande and other southern rivers, but few remain today. Parque Nacional El Sabinal in

8576-611: The United States, it grows in Southern Texas . In Mexico, it grows in the states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas in the north to San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas . It is primarily found at elevations of 100 to 1,500 m (330 to 4,920 ft) and exceptionally up to 1,900 m (6,200 ft) in the Chihuahuan desert , but is also present in the milder climate of Tamaulipas. Its habitat

8710-403: The absence of leaves. This is discussed further below under Metabolism . Many cacti have roots that spread out widely, but only penetrate a short distance into the soil. In one case, a young saguaro only 12 cm (4.7 in) tall had a root system with a diameter of 2 m (7 ft), but no more than 10 cm (4 in) deep. Cacti can also form new roots quickly when rain falls after

8844-413: The amount of water present is proportional to volume. Structures with a high surface area-to-volume ratio, such as thin leaves, necessarily lose water at a higher rate than structures with a low area-to-volume ratio, such as thickened stems. Spines , which are modified leaves, are present on even those cacti with true leaves, showing the evolution of spines preceded the loss of leaves. Although spines have

8978-506: The border have been converted to agricultural use. West of the Bordas Escarpment the topography changes to gently rolling hills with a thin layer of high calcium soil over a thick layer of caliche . Some large portions of the west are poorly suited for cultivation but good for ranching and excellent wildlife habitat. A series of Cenozoic strata of limestone , sandstone , siltstone , and claystone occur throughout most of

9112-573: The cactus and providing some shade. In the absence of true leaves, cacti's enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis . Cactus spines are produced from specialized structures called areoles , a kind of highly reduced branch. Areoles are an identifying feature of cacti. As well as spines, areoles give rise to flowers , which are usually tubular and multipetaled. Many cacti have short growing seasons and long dormancies and are able to react quickly to any rainfall, helped by an extensive but relatively shallow root system that quickly absorbs any water reaching

9246-482: The cactus, the crown, consists of disc-shaped buttons. These are cut above the roots and sometimes dried. When done properly, the top of the root forms a callus and the root does not rot. When poor harvesting techniques are used, however, the entire plant dies. Currently in South Texas, peyote grows naturally but has been over-harvested, to the point that the state has listed it as an endangered species . Cultivation

9380-600: The core cacti, or separately in the opuntias and cactoids; CAM is known to have evolved convergently many times. To carry out photosynthesis, cactus stems have undergone many adaptations. Early in their evolutionary history, the ancestors of modern cacti (other than Leuenbergeria species) developed stomata on their stems and began to delay developing bark. However, this alone was not sufficient; cacti with only these adaptations appear to do very little photosynthesis in their stems. Stems needed to develop structures similar to those normally found only in leaves. Immediately below

9514-804: The cusp areoles arises a tuft of soft, yellowish or whitish woolly hairs. Spines are absent. Flowers are pink or white to slightly yellowish, sometimes reddish. They open during the day, are from 1 to 2.4 cm (0.39 to 0.94 in) long, and reach a diameter from 1 to 2.2 cm (0.39 to 0.87 in). The cactus produces flowers sporadically; these are followed by small edible pink fruit. The club-shaped to elongated, fleshy fruits are bare and more or less rosy colored. At maturity, they are brownish-white and dry. The fruits do not burst open on their own and they are between 1.5 to 2 cm (0.59 to 0.79 in) long. They contain black, pear-shaped seeds that are 1 to 1.5 mm long and 1 mm wide. The seeds require hot and humid conditions to germinate. Peyote contains

9648-1247: The development of the ground layer. Cacti: This region is rich in cacti diversity. In addition to wide-ranging species like lace cactus ( Echinocereus reichenbachii ), and horse-crippler cactus ( Echinocactus texensis ), other species found in the province include: root cactus ( Sclerocactus scheeri ), triangle or barbed wire cactus ( Acanthocereus tetragonus ), star cactus ( Astrophytum asterias ), Runyon's beehive cactus ( Coryphantha macromeris var. runyonii ), Berlandier's hedgehog ( Echinocereus berlandieri ), pitaya ( Echinocereus enneacanthus var. brevispinus ), Allicoche hedgehog cactus ( Echinocereus papillosus ), ladyfinger hedgehog ( Echinocereus pentalophus ), Dahlia cactus ( Echinocereus poselgeri ), Junior Tom Thumb cactus ( Escobari emskoetteraana ), Turk's head barrel cactus ( Ferocactus hamatacanthus var. sinuatus ), peyote ( Lophophora williamsii ), Heyder's pincushion cactus ( Mammillaria heyderi ), hair-covered cactus or Texas pincushion ( Mammillaria prolifera var. texana ), pale mammillaria ( Mammillaria sphaerica ), twisted rib cactus ( Thelocactus setispinus ) and several others. Some of these species have very limited distributions and are endemic to

9782-404: The ecoregion is an Endemic Bird Area and is home to the red-crowned amazon ( Amazona viridigenalis ), tawny-collared nightjar ( Caprimulgus salvini ), Tamaulipas crow ( Corvus imparatus ), long-billed thrasher ( Toxostoma longirostre ), Altamira yellowthroat ( Geothlypis flavovelata ), and crimson-collared grosbeak ( Rhodothraupis celaeno ). Other species occurring in this region include

9916-669: The end into more than one stigma . The stamens usually arise from all over the inner surface of the upper part of the floral tube, although in some cacti, the stamens are produced in one or more distinct "series" in more specific areas of the inside of the floral tube. The flower as a whole is usually radially symmetrical ( actinomorphic ), but may be bilaterally symmetrical ( zygomorphic ) in some species. Flower colors range from white through yellow and red to magenta. All cacti have some adaptations to promote efficient water use. Most cacti— opuntias and cactoids —specialize in surviving in hot and dry environments (i.e. are xerophytes ), but

10050-495: The ends of stems, which are still growing and forming new areoles. In Pereskia , a genus close to the ancestor of cacti, areoles remain active for much longer; this is also the case in Opuntia and Neoraimondia . The great majority of cacti have no visible leaves ; photosynthesis takes place in the stems (which may be flattened and leaflike in some species). Exceptions occur in three (taxonomically, four) groups of cacti. All

10184-609: The exception of Idaho, Utah, and Texas allow usage by non-native, non-enrolled persons in the context of ceremonies of the Native American Church . Some states such as Arizona additionally exempt any general bona fide religious activity or spiritual intent. US jurisdictions enacted these specific statutory exemptions in reaction to the US Supreme Court 's decision in Employment Division v. Smith , 494 U.S. 872 (1990), which held that laws prohibiting

10318-729: The finest old growth riparian zones and sabal palm groves ( Sabal mexicana ) remaining. Beyond the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas protected lands include the Chaparral Wildlife Management Area (15,200 acres), Lake Corpus Christi State Park (356 acres), and Choke Canyon State Park : including the Calliham unit (1,100 acres), the South Shore unit (385-acres), and the adjoining James E. Daughtrey Wildlife Management Area (34,000 acres). In Tamaulipas , Mexico protected areas include western portions of

10452-404: The first ancestors of modern cacti were already adapted to periods of intermittent drought. A small number of cactus species in the tribes Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae have become adapted to life as climbers or epiphytes , often in tropical forests, where water conservation is less important. The absence of visible leaves is one of the most striking features of most cacti. Pereskia (which

10586-576: The genera Leuenbergeria , Pereskia and Rhodocactus , the branches are covered with leaves, so the species of these genera may not be recognized as cacti. In most other cacti, the branches are more typically cactus-like, bare of leaves and bark and covered with spines, as in Pachycereus pringlei or the larger opuntias . Some cacti may become tree-sized but without branches, such as larger specimens of Echinocactus platyacanthus . Cacti may also be described as shrubby , with several stems coming from

10720-442: The genus Lophophora grow low to the ground and they often form groups with numerous, crowded shoots. The blue-green, yellow-green or sometimes reddish-green shoots are mostly flattened spheres with sunken shoot tips. They can reach heights of 2 to 7 centimeters (0.79 to 2.76 in) and diameters of 4 to 12 cm (1.6 to 4.7 in). There are often significant, vertical ribs consisting of low and rounded or hump-like bumps. From

10854-880: The genus Mammillaria and outgrowths almost like leaves in Ariocarpus species. The stem may also be ribbed or fluted in shape. The prominence of these ribs depends on how much water the stem is storing: when full (up to 90% of the mass of a cactus may be water), the ribs may be almost invisible on the swollen stem, whereas when the cactus is short of water and the stems shrink, the ribs may be very visible. The stems of most cacti are some shade of green, often bluish or brownish green. Such stems contain chlorophyll and are able to carry out photosynthesis; they also have stomata (small structures that can open and close to allow passage of gases). Cactus stems are often visibly waxy. Areoles are structures unique to cacti. Although variable, they typically appear as woolly or hairy areas on

10988-529: The genus or the family?) that it should not be used as a genus name. The 1905 Vienna botanical congress rejected the name Cactus and instead declared Mammillaria was the type genus of the family Cactaceae. It did, however, conserve the name Cactaceae, leading to the unusual situation in which the family Cactaceae no longer contains the genus after which it was named. The difficulties continued, partly because giving plants scientific names relies on " type specimens ". Ultimately, if botanists want to know whether

11122-588: The great kiskadee ( Pitangus sulphuratus ). Reptiles: The American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ) and the red-eared slider ( Trachemys scripta ) occur in the north of this region and the Morelet's crocodile ( Crocodylus moreletii ) and Mesoamerican slider ( Trachemys venusta ) in the south. Other turtles such as the Mexican box turtle ( Terrapene mexicana ), Rio Grande cooter ( Pseudemys gorzugi ), spiny softshell ( Apalone spinifera ), and

11256-450: The green toad ( Anaxyrus debilis ), Texas toad ( Anaxyrus speciosus ), Gulf Coast toad ( Incilius nebulifer ), and cane toad ( Rhinella horribilis ). Many tropical species reach the northern limits of their distributions there such as the Mexican treefrog ( Smilisca baudinii ), white-lipped frog ( Leptodactylus fragilis ), sheep frog ( Hypopachus variolosus ), and the unusual burrowing toad ( Rhinophrynus dorsalis ), so unique it

11390-564: The ground or from branches very low down, such as in Stenocereus thurberi . Smaller cacti may be described as columnar. They consist of erect, cylinder-shaped stems, which may or may not branch, without a very clear division into trunk and branches. The boundary between columnar forms and tree-like or shrubby forms is difficult to define. Smaller and younger specimens of Cephalocereus senilis , for example, are columnar, whereas older and larger specimens may become tree-like. In some cases,

11524-557: The ground surface. Cactus stems are often ribbed or fluted with a number of ribs which corresponds to a number in the Fibonacci numbers (2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 etc.). This allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain, followed by retention over long drought periods. Like other succulent plants, most cacti employ a special mechanism called " crassulacean acid metabolism " (CAM) as part of photosynthesis. Transpiration , during which carbon dioxide enters

11658-507: The ground. The leafless, spiny stem is the characteristic feature of the majority of cacti (all belonging to the largest subfamily, the Cactoideae ). The stem is typically succulent, meaning it is adapted to store water. The surface of the stem may be smooth (as in some species of Opuntia ) or covered with protuberances of various kinds, which are usually called tubercles. These vary from small "bumps" to prominent, nipple-like shapes in

11792-441: The growing season and then lost (as in many species of Opuntia ). The small genus Maihuenia also relies on leaves for photosynthesis. The structure of the leaves varies somewhat between these groups. Opuntioids and Maihuenia have leaves that appear to consist only of a midrib. Even those cacti without visible photosynthetic leaves do usually have very small leaves, less than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) long in about half of

11926-401: The highest possible volume for water storage with the lowest possible surface area for water loss from transpiration . The tallest free-standing cactus is Pachycereus pringlei , with a maximum recorded height of 19.2 m (63 ft), and the smallest is Blossfeldia liliputiana , only about 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter at maturity. A fully grown saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea )

12060-578: The jaguar ( Panthera onca ) in Texas, USA are from the early 1950s, but the species still lingers, although at risk of extinction in Mexico. Similarly, jaguarondi ( Herpailurus yaguarondi ), ocelot ( Leopardus pardalis ), and margay ( Leopardus wiedii ) are all threatened or endangered in the US and Mexico. Some puma or mountain lion ( Puma concolor ), White-nosed coati ( Nasua narica ), and American Badger ( Taxidea taxus ) populations still persist, apparently in stable numbers in some remote areas, although

12194-617: The latter is considered a threatened species in Mexico. A few other species such as the Northern Raccoon ( Procyon lotor ), Coyote ( Canis latrans ), and to a lesser extent Bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) have adapted to human encroachment and development. Other mammals found in the region include the collared peccary ( Pecari tajacu ), white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), black-tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus californicus ), nine-banded armadillo ( Dasypus novemcinctus ), Mexican long-tongued bat ( Choeronycteris mexicana ), and

12328-483: The level of genera. Their system has been used as the basis of subsequent classifications. Detailed treatments published in the 21st century have divided the family into around 125–130 genera and 1,400–1,500 species, which are then arranged into a number of tribes and subfamilies. The ICSG classification of the cactus family recognized four subfamilies, the largest of which was divided into nine tribes. The subfamilies were: Molecular phylogenetic studies have supported

12462-565: The major drainage Rio Conchos of Chihuahua); the Rio Soto La Marina and its tributaries Rio San Carlos, Rio Pilón, San Antonio, Rio Purificacion, Rio Corona, Rio Santa Ana, form the approximate southern border. A number of large lakes occur in the region, but they were all constructed in the decades fallowing the Second World War in the 20th century. These include: Choke Canyon Reservoir and Lake Corpus Christi in

12596-499: The mescaline. The concentration of mescaline is typically highest at the sides of the peyote button. The effects last about 10 to 12 hours. Peyote is reported to trigger rich visual or auditory effects (see synesthesia ) and spiritual or philosophical insights. In addition to psychoactive use, some Native American tribes use the plant in folk medicine . They employ peyote for varied ailments. Although uncommon, use of peyote and mescaline has been associated with poisoning. Peyote contains

12730-455: The much smaller Maihuenia . These two groups are rather different from other cacti, which means any description of cacti as a whole must frequently make exceptions for them. Species of the first three genera superficially resemble other tropical forest trees. When mature, they have woody stems that may be covered with bark and long-lasting leaves that provide the main means of photosynthesis. Their flowers may have superior ovaries (i.e., above

12864-501: The north, and the East Central Texas forests and Texas blackland prairies to the northeast. The Bordas Escarpment transects this ecoregion, running from near the southern limit northwest to the vicinity of Rio Grande City, Texas , arching back northeast to the vicinity of Choke Canyon Reservoir in Texas. The region east of the Bordas Escarpment is flat with deep, sandy soils, of which vast areas both north and south of

12998-399: The northern margin of their ranges including the regal black-striped snake ( Coniophanes imperialis ), Central American indigo snake ( Drymarchon melanurus ), speckled racer ( Drymobius margaritiferus ), northern cat-eyed Snake ( Leptodeira septentrionalis ). Venoumous snakes include the Texas coralsnake ( Micrurus tener ) and western diamond-back rattlesnake ( Crotalus atrox ), with

13132-610: The official Mexican Pharmacopoeia recommended the use of peyote extract in “microdose” as a tonic for the heart. John Raleigh Briggs (1851–1907) was the first to draw scientific attention of the Western scientific world to peyote. Louis Lewin described Anhalonium lewinii in 1888. British sexologist Havelock Ellis self experimented with it on Good Friday 1896, publishing details in 1898. Arthur Heffter conducted self experiments on its effects in 1897. Similarly, Norwegian ethnographer Carl Sofus Lumholtz studied and wrote about

13266-421: The outer epidermis, a hypodermal layer developed made up of cells with thickened walls, offering mechanical support. Air spaces were needed between the cells to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse inwards. The center of the stem, the cortex, developed " chlorenchyma " – a plant tissue made up of relatively unspecialized cells containing chloroplasts , arranged into a "spongy layer" and a " palisade layer " where most of

13400-788: The phantom shinner ( Notropis orca ) and the Salado shinner ( Notropis saladonis ), are believed to be extinct. Nature preserves are numerous in the region, however many are relatively small tracts of land concentrated on the north side of the Lower Rio Grande Valley . The state of Texas administers the following lands in the Lower Rio Grande Valley: Lake Casa Blanca International State Park (525-acres); Falcon State Park (576 acres); Bentsen-Rio Grande Valley State Park (764 acres); Estero Llano Grande State Park (230 acres); Resaca de la Palma State Park (1,200 acres); and

13534-449: The photosynthesis occurs. Naming and classifying cacti has been both difficult and controversial since the first cacti were discovered for science. The difficulties began with Carl Linnaeus . In 1737, he placed the cacti he knew into two genera, Cactus and Pereskia . However, when he published Species Plantarum in 1753—the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature—he relegated them all to one genus, Cactus . The word "cactus"

13668-442: The plant and water escapes, does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis, but instead occurs at night. The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid , retaining it until daylight returns, and only then using it in photosynthesis. Because transpiration takes place during the cooler, more humid night hours, water loss is significantly reduced. Many smaller cacti have globe-shaped stems, combining

13802-453: The points of attachment of the sepals and petals) and areoles that produce further leaves. The two species of Maihuenia have succulent but non-photosynthetic stems and prominent succulent leaves. Cacti show a wide variety of growth habits , which are difficult to divide into clear, simple categories. Cacti can be tree-like (arborescent), meaning they typically have a single more-or-less woody trunk topped by several to many branches . In

13936-456: The price of limiting the amount of carbon fixed from the atmosphere and thus available for growth. CAM-cycling is a less water-efficient system whereby stomata open in the day, just as in plants using the C 3 mechanism. At night, or when the plant is short of water, the stomata close and the CAM mechanism is used to store CO 2 produced by respiration for use later in photosynthesis. CAM-cycling

14070-693: The public [e.g. the Boca Chica tract (10,680-acres), East Lake unit (1,700 acres), La Puerta unit (4,000 acres), Teniente Lake unit (5,600 acres), Yturria Brush unit (1,800 acres)] and an additional 6,000 acres open to hunting [as of 2020]. Also of note is the Sabal Palm Sanctuary (557-acres), cooperatively manage by the Gorgas Science Foundation and the National Audubon Society , preserving some of

14204-464: The reasons set out in this Memorandum Opinion and Order, the Court holds that, pursuant to 21 C.F.R. § 1307.31 (1990), the classification of peyote as a Schedule I controlled substance, see 21 U.S.C. § 812(c), Schedule I(c)(12), does not apply to the importation, possession or use of peyote for 'bona fide' ceremonial use by members of the Native American Church, regardless of race. Following the passage of

14338-534: The region such as Astrophytum caput-medusae from Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Mammals: This region once hosted an impressive number of carnivores but, most were very rare, or entirely extirpated by the early to mid 20th century. The gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) is extirpated and black bears ( Ursus americanus ) are now largely restricted to the Sierra de Picachos in Nuevo Leon , Mexico. The most recent records of

14472-621: The region, isolated on the coastal plain between the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Gulf of Mexico. These ranges are not part of the strata of the Gulf Coast Plain or the complexly folded and faulted Jurassic and Cretaceous formations of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The Sierra de San Carlos , (and Sierra de Tamaulipas just beyond the southern limit of this ecoregion) are plutons , igneous rock intrusions of nepheline syenite to gabbroic composition, emplaced during

14606-581: The region. These strata are slightly tilted, gently slanting seaward, with increasingly recent exposures to the east, including some Quaternary bodies at the coast transitioning into the sea, and a few older Cretaceous exposures and outcrops appearing in some far western interior areas. Elevations generally range from near sea level to 300 meters, transitioning at ca. 300–500 meters into the Sierra Madres , Edwards Plateau , and Chihuahua Desert in western areas. A series of small mountain ranges occur in

14740-523: The sand plain where seacoast bluestem ( Schizachyrium littorale ) is dominant in all but the wettest areas. These grasslands are banded with live oak ( Quercus virginiana ) groves, forming dense forest in spots, and smaller honey mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa ) mottes in discontinuous belts which are sometimes connected with one another and collectively cover at least a quarter of the sand sheet. Numerous ephemeral, internally drained ponds form where subsidence and blow-outs occur. Hydrology: The region

14874-399: The sand sheet. The sand sheet is six feet deep in many places with maximum dune elevations reaching 30 feet. Although the area is generally flat, the unstable sands often form a dune and swale topography where vegetated dunes are interspersed with active, unstable, wind-blow dunes. The active dunes attain areas as large as 250 acres, predominantly in the eastern third. Grasslands cover much of

15008-431: The sepals and petals cannot be clearly differentiated (and hence are often called " tepals "). Some cacti produce floral tubes without wool or spines (e.g. Gymnocalycium ) or completely devoid of any external structures (e.g. Mammillaria ). Unlike the flowers of most other cacti, Pereskia flowers may be borne in clusters. Cactus flowers usually have many stamens , but only a single style , which may branch at

15142-1505: The soils and vegetation communities, although varying in levels of dominance, some of these include honey mesquite, spiny hackberry ( Celtis ehrenbergiana ), desert Christmas cholla ( Cylindropuntia leptocaulis ), Texas persimmon ( Diospyros texana ), Texas prickly pear ( Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri ), and black brush ( Vachellia rigidula ). Other common trees and shrubs more often found on clay soils include white bush ( Aloysia gratissima ), goat bush ( Castela erecta ), brasil ( Condalia hookeri ), knackaway ( Ehretia anacua ). Texas lignum-vitae ( Guaiacum angustifolium ), Texas purple sage ( Leucophyllum frutescens ), retama ( Parkinsonia aculeata ), Berlandier acacia ( Senegalia berlandieri ), and huisache ( Vachellia farnesiana var. farnesiana ). Grasslands with sparsely scattered trees and shrubs occur on level to gently rolling sites with sandy soils. These are dominated by dense graminoids such as Texas grama ( Bouteloua rigidiseta ), little bluestem ( Schizachyrium scoparium ), sand dropseed ( Sporobolus cryptandrus ), and many others. Wildflowers include bull-nettle ( Cnidoscolus texanus ), shrubby blue sage ( Salvia ballotiflora ), hairy tubetongue ( Justicia pilosella ), Texas palafoxia ( Palafoxia texana ), and hairy zexmania ( Wedelia texana ). Shrub-dominated patches may develop within these grassy sites where tighter, clay soils occur, reaching six meters or higher, often dominated by several of

15276-785: The south. The San Antonio River (a major tributary of the Guadalupe River) runs at the approximate northeastern border of this region. Other major rivers (north to south) include: the Nueces River and its tributary the Frio River; Rio Grande (referred to as Rio Bravo in Mexico) and its tributaries Rio Salado, Rio San Juan; the Rio San Fernando (sometimes called the Rio Conchos and not to be confused with

15410-477: The southern yellow bat ( Lasiurus ega ). Rodents include the predatory northern grasshopper mouse ( Onychomys leucogaster ), the Mexican prairie dog ( Cynomys mexicanus ), Rio Grande ground squirrel ( Ictidomys parvidens ) and others such as Coue's rice rat ( Oryzomys couesi ), southern plains woodrat ( Neotoma micropus ), Mexican spiny pocket mouse ( Liomys irroratus ), and Merriam's pocket mouse ( Perognathus merriami ). Birds: The southern part of

15544-487: The species of Leuenbergeria , Pereskia and Rhodocactus are superficially like normal trees or shrubs and have numerous leaves with a midrib and a flattened blade (lamina) on either side. This group is paraphyletic , forming two taxonomic clades . Many cacti in the opuntia group (subfamily Opuntioideae ) also have visible leaves, which may be long-lasting (as in Pereskiopsis species) or produced only during

15678-666: The species studied and almost always less than 1.5 mm (0.06 in) long. The function of such leaves cannot be photosynthesis; a role in the production of plant hormones, such as auxin , and in defining axillary buds has been suggested. Botanically, " spines " are distinguished from "thorns": spines are modified leaves, and thorns are modified branches. Cacti produce spines, always from areoles as noted above. Spines are present even in those cacti with leaves, such as Pereskia , Pereskiopsis and Maihuenia , so they clearly evolved before complete leaflessness. Some cacti only have spines when young, possibly only when seedlings. This

15812-513: The stem acts as the main organ for storing water, some cacti have in addition large taproots . These may be several times the length of the above-ground body in the case of species such as Copiapoa atacamensis , which grows in one of the driest places in the world, the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. Photosynthesis requires plants to take in carbon dioxide gas (CO 2 ). As they do so, they lose water through transpiration . Like other types of succulents , cacti reduce this water loss by

15946-433: The stems from which spines emerge. Flowers are also produced from areoles. In the genus Leuenbergeria , believed similar to the ancestor of all cacti, the areoles occur in the axils of leaves (i.e. in the angle between the leaf stalk and the stem). In leafless cacti, areoles are often borne on raised areas on the stem where leaf bases would have been. Areoles are highly specialized and very condensed shoots or branches. In

16080-493: The subfamily Opuntioideae have relatively short spines, called glochids , that are barbed along their length and easily shed. These enter the skin and are difficult to remove due to being very fine and easily broken, causing long-lasting irritation. Most ground-living cacti have only fine roots , which spread out around the base of the plant for varying distances, close to the surface. Some cacti have taproots ; in genera such as Ariocarpus , these are considerably larger and of

16214-410: The temperature of the surface of the cactus, also reducing water loss. When sufficiently moist air is present, such as during fog or early morning mist, spines can condense moisture, which then drips onto the ground and is absorbed by the roots. The majority of cacti are stem succulents , i.e., plants in which the stem is the main organ used to store water. Water may form up to 90% of the total mass of

16348-422: The top of the stem then produces flowers, the other part spines. Areoles often have multicellular hairs ( trichomes ) that give the areole a hairy or woolly appearance, sometimes of a distinct color such as yellow or brown. In most cacti, the areoles produce new spines or flowers only for a few years and then become inactive. This results in a relatively fixed number of spines, with flowers being produced only from

16482-571: The town of Ciudad Cerraivo, Nuevo Leon preserves some fine examples of old Montezuma cypress in an urban environment. Only a few, small groves of Mexican sabal palm ( Sabal mexicana ) remain on the Rio Grande Delta, but it is believed they once occurred as far as 120 km. inland. Palms may dominate the canopy or share dominance with other floodplain species reaching 15 meters. The herbaceous layer may include bunch cutgrass ( Leersia monandra ), tropical sage ( Salvia coccinea ), and blue boneset ( Tamaulipa azurea ), or dead palm fronds may restrict

16616-2167: The ubiquitous species noted above. Woodlands occur in places with a well-developed canopy over an understory of grasses. The grasses in these communities contain a layer of taller species such as hooded windmill grass ( Chloris cucullata ) and four-flower trichloris ( Trichloris pluriflora ), and a layer of shorter species such as grama ( Bouteloua spp.) and curly mesquite grass ( Hilaria belangeri ). In some places dense stands of Texas prickly pear occur instead of shrubs and grasses. Canopy species include many ubiquitous trees along with huisache ( Acacia farnesiana ), desert hackberry ( Celtis pallida ), brasil ( Condalia hookeri ), Texas hogplum ( Colubrina texensis ), colima ( Zanthoxylum fagara ), and others. Other shrubs include desert yaupon ( Schaefferia cuneifolia ), desert olive ( Forestiera angustifolia ), and lotebush ( Ziziphus obtusifolia ). Xeric rocky uplands with shallow calcareous soils on caliche and gravel substrates support shrublands one half to two meters high. Species such as cenizo ( Leucophyllum frutescens ), guajillo ( Acacia berlandieri ), Texas kidneywood ( Eysenhardtia texana ), twisted acacia ( Vachellia schaffneri ), Spanish dagger ( Yucca treculeana ), and baretta ( Helietta parvifolia ) and others grow with ubiquitous trees and shrubs. The creosote bush ( Larrea tridentata ) grows in western areas. The herbaceous layer may be sparse in places where rocky exposures occur. Forbs and wildflowers can be conspicuous in rocky areas, including narrowleaf thryallis ( Galphimia angustifolia ), peonia ( Acourtia runcinata ), Gregg's senna ( Chamaecrista greggii ), plateau rocktrumpet ( Macrosiphonia macrosiphon ), and hairy zexmania ( Wedelia hispida ). Saline lakes and saline thornscrub occur in some interior, low-lying areas with interior draining basins, created by runoff and evaporation. Lakebeds (often dry) may lack vegetation or have sparse halophytic grasses and forbs like alkali sacaton ( Sporobolus airoides ), sea ox-eye daisy ( Borrichia frutescens ), and saltwort ( Batis maritima ). Surrounding saline thornscrub

16750-657: The use of peyote among the Indians of Mexico. Lumholtz also reported that, lacking other intoxicants, Texas Rangers captured by Union forces during the American Civil War soaked peyote buttons in water and became "intoxicated with the liquid". A study published in 2007 found no evidence of long-term cognitive problems related to peyote use in Native American Church ceremonies, but researchers stressed their results may not apply to those who use peyote in other contexts. A four-year large-scale study of Navajo who regularly ingested peyote found only one case where peyote

16884-722: The use of peyote that do not specifically exempt religious use nevertheless do not violate the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment . Though use in Native American Church ceremonies or traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race, is legal under US federal law and additional uses are legal under some state laws, peyote is listed by the United States DEA as a Schedule I controlled substance. The US military prohibits inductees from enlistment for prior drug usage, however past usage of peyote

17018-460: The way in which they carry out photosynthesis. "Normal" leafy plants use the C 3 mechanism : during daylight hours, CO 2 is continually drawn out of the air present in spaces inside leaves and converted first into a compound containing three carbon atoms ( 3-phosphoglycerate ) and then into products such as carbohydrates . The access of air to internal spaces within a plant is controlled by stomata , which are able to open and close. The need for

17152-600: The west separates the Tamaulipan mezquital from the drier Chihuahuan Desert . The Tamaulipan matorral is a transitional ecoregion between the mezquital and the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests to the west and the Veracruz moist forests to the south. The Western Gulf coastal grasslands , known as the Tamaulipan pastizal south of the border, fringe the Gulf of Mexico . The Edwards Plateau savannas lie to

17286-463: The western massasauga rattlesnake ( Sistrurus tergeminus ) occurring in the north and the Totonacan rattlesnake ( Crotalus totonacus ) occurring in the south. Amphibians: In spite of the semi-arid environment, enough wetlands are present to support salamanders such as the black-spotted newt ( Notophthalmus meridionalis ) and the lesser siren ( Siren intermedia ). A second species of siren

17420-502: The white-tailed hawk ( Buteo albicaudatus ), plain chachalaca ( Ortalis vetula ), green parakeet ( Psittacara holochlorus ), buff-bellied hummingbird ( Amazilia yucatanensis ), Couch's kingbird ( Tyrannus couchii ), and Audubon's oriole ( Icterus graduacauda ) as well as wide-ranging tropical species such as the green jay ( Cyanocorax yncas ), least grebe ( Tachybaptus dominicus ), Ferruginous pygmy owl ( Glaucidium brasilianum ), ringed kingfisher ( Megaceryle torquata ), and

17554-491: The winter. Several rivers cross the region, all flowing eastward to the Gulf of Mexico . Many of these river have created innumerable oxbow lakes , resacas , and abandoned channels with associated marshes and swamps as they meander across the flat coastal plain east of the Bordas Escarpment. The few remaining riparian zones in this region that have not been cleared for agriculture, housing, and industry, can support unexpectedly lush tropical jungle vegetation, particularly in

17688-434: The yellow mud turtle ( Kinosternon flavescens ) occur there. The geographic distribution of the Texas tortoise ( Gopherus berlandieri ) nearly matches that of the Tamaulipan mezquital ecoregion. The Laredo striped whiptail ( Aspidoscelis laredoensis ) is a species complex of all female lizards that reproduce by parthenogenesis that is endemic to this region. The reticulate collared lizard ( Crotaphytus reticulatus )

17822-474: Was basal within the Cactaceae, but confirmed earlier suggestions it was not monophyletic , i.e., did not include all the descendants of a common ancestor. The Bayesian consensus cladogram from this study is shown below with subsequent generic changes added. Pereskia s.l. Clade A → Leuenbergeria Pereskia s.l. Clade B → Rhodocactus + Pereskia s.s. Opuntioideae Maihuenia Tamaulipan mezquital The Sierra Madre Oriental range to

17956-740: Was associated with a psychotic break in an otherwise healthy person; other psychotic episodes were attributed to peyote use in conjunction with pre-existing substance abuse or mental health problems. Later research found that those with pre-existing mental health issues are more likely to have adverse reactions to peyote. Peyote use does not appear to be associated with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (a.k.a. "flashbacks") after religious use. Peyote also does not seem to be associated with physical dependence , but some users may experience psychological dependence . Peyote can have strong emetic effects, and one death has been attributed to esophageal bleeding caused by vomiting after peyote ingestion in

#530469