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38-673: The Peace Palace Library is a collection of studies and references specializing in international law . It is located in The Hague , Netherlands , and was established to support the Permanent Court of Justice . The library is one of the oldest libraries dedicated to international law. Its main objective is to service the institutions residing in the Peace Palace , including the International Court of Justice,

76-629: A comparison of the Institutes of Justinian with those of Gaius shows that the whole method and arrangement of the later work were copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous passages are word for word the same. The Digest and the Institutes of Justinian are part of the Corpus Juris Civilis . Probably, for the greater part of the period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and Justinian, his Institutes had been

114-433: A flood of light on portions of the history of Roman law which had previously been most obscure. Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of the ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be traced "survivals" from the most primitive times, which provide the science of comparative law with valuable illustrations, which may explain

152-477: A greater state of immediate awareness. However, it can also lead to circular reasoning , preventing evolution of thought. According to Perceptual Control Theory (PCT), a reference condition is the state toward which a control system's output tends to alter a controlled quantity. The main proposition is that "All behavior is oriented all of the time around the control of certain quantities with respect to specific reference conditions." In academics and scholarship,

190-403: A knowledge of the terms of these formulae it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the ancient law of Rome were modified by what has been called the equitable jurisdiction of the praetors, and made applicable to new conditions, and brought into harmony with the notions and the needs of a more developed society. It

228-434: A material object, a person, an event, an activity, or an abstract concept. References can take on many forms, including: a thought, a sensory perception that is audible ( onomatopoeia ), visual (text), olfactory , or tactile, emotional state , relationship with other, spacetime coordinates, symbolic or alpha-numeric , a physical object, or an energy projection. In some cases, methods are used that intentionally hide

266-464: A palimpsest was discovered by B. G. Niebuhr in the chapter library of Verona, in which some of the works of St. Jerome were written over some earlier writings, which proved to be the lost work of Gaius. The greater part of the palimpsest has, however, been deciphered with the help of August von Bethmann-Hollweg , and the text is now fairly complete. More recently, two sets of papyrus fragments have been found. The discovery of Gaius' work has thrown

304-510: A reference is a value that enables a program to directly access the particular data item. Most programming languages support some form of reference. For the specific type of reference used in the C++ language, see reference (C++) . The notion of reference is also important in relational database theory ; see referential integrity . References to many types of printed matter may come in an electronic or machine-readable form. For books, there exists

342-450: A reference or bibliographical reference is a piece of information provided in a footnote or bibliography of a written work such as a book, article, essay, report, oration or any other text type , specifying the written work of another person used in the creation of that text. A bibliographical reference mostly includes the full name of the author , the title of their work and the year of publication. The primary purpose of references

380-399: A sentence. These could be the agent (actor) and patient (acted on), as in "The man washed himself", the theme and recipient, as in "I showed Mary to herself", or various other possible combinations. In computer science , references are data types that refer to an object elsewhere in memory and are used to construct a wide variety of data structures , such as linked lists . Generally,

418-482: Is a relationship between objects in which one object designates, or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to, another object. The first object in this relation is said to refer to the second object. It is called a name for the second object. The next object, the one to which the first object refers, is called the referent of the first object. A name is usually a phrase or expression, or some other symbolic representation . Its referent may be anything –

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456-476: Is also difficult to ascertain the span of his life, but it is assumed he lived from AD 110 to at least AD 179, as he wrote on legislation passed within that time. From internal evidence in his works it may be gathered that he flourished in the reigns of the emperors Hadrian , Antoninus Pius , Marcus Aurelius and Commodus . His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180. After his death, however, his writings were recognized as of great authority, and

494-420: Is called " exemplification "; the object exemplifies what the word denotes. In syntactic analysis, if a word refers to a previous word, the previous word is called the " antecedent ". Gottlob Frege argued that reference cannot be treated as identical with meaning : " Hesperus " (an ancient Greek name for the evening star) and " Phosphorus " (an ancient Greek name for the morning star) both refer to Venus , but

532-526: Is clear from evidence of Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an independent set of courts administering, as in England previous to the Judicature Acts , a system different from that of the ordinary courts, but by the manipulation of the formulae . In the time of Justinian the work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared. The work was lost to modern scholars, until, in 1816,

570-430: Is generally construed as the relationships between nouns or pronouns and objects that are named by them. Hence, the word "John" refers to the person John. The word "it" refers to some previously specified object. The object referred to is called the referent of the word. Sometimes the word-object relation is called " denotation "; the word denotes the object. The converse relation, the relation from object to word,

608-450: Is similarly accessible. In art , a reference is an item from which a work is based. This may include: Another example of reference is samples of various musical works being incorporated into a new one. Gaius (jurist) Gaius ( / ˈ ɡ eɪ ə s / ; fl. AD 130–180) was a Roman jurist . Little is known about his personal life, including his name ( Gaius or Caius being merely his personal name ( praenomen )). It

646-580: Is to allow readers to examine the sources of a text, either for validity or to learn more about the subject. Such items are often listed at the end of a work in a section marked References or Bibliography . References are particularly important as for the use of citations , since copying of material by another author without proper reference and / or without required permissions is considered plagiarism , and may be tantamount to copyright infringement , which can be subject to legal proceedings . A reference section contains only those works indeed cited in

684-563: The ISBN and for journal articles, the Digital object identifier (DOI) is gaining relevance. Information on the Internet may be referred to by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) . In terms of mental processing, a self-reference is used in psychology to establish identification with a mental state during self-analysis. This seeks to allow the individual to develop own frames of reference in

722-637: The Permanent Court of Arbitration , and The Hague Academy of International Law . The library is open to all scholars and students of international law . In 2022, Karin Lodder became the Manager of the Library. Jeroen Vervliet is the Head Librarian. The Dutch Carnegie Foundation was created in 1903. It received a financial donation of $ 1.5 million by Andrew Carnegie , which made the construction of

760-468: The Permanent Court of Arbitration , but Carnegie insisted that room be made available also for a legal library. The Peace Palace Library resided in the palace itself until 2007, when it moved to the new Academy and Library Building in the rear of the Peace Palace. The Peace Palace Library has collected publications since 1913, and now offers over a million titles. A large part is searchable through

798-580: The Sabinians , who were said to be followers of Ateius Capito , of whose life we have some account in the Annals of Tacitus , and to advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules, and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of Gaius occur in the Digest , created by Tribonian at the direction of Justinian I , and so acquired a permanent place in the system of Roman law; while

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836-475: The prefix re - and ferre , "to bear". A number of words derive from the same root, including refer , referee , referential , referent , referendum . The verb refer (to) and its derivatives may carry the sense of "connect to" or "link to", as in the meanings of reference described in this article. Another sense is "consult"; this is reflected in such expressions as reference work , reference desk , job reference , etc. In semantics , reference

874-440: The 19th century. In patent law, a reference is a document that can be used to show the state of knowledge at a given time and that therefore may make a claimed invention obvious or anticipated . Examples of references are patents of any country, magazine articles, Ph.D. theses that are indexed and thus accessible to those interested in finding information about the subject matter, and to some extent Internet material that

912-609: The Latin text by Seckel and Kuebler. A comparison of the early forms of action mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive societies will be found in Sir Henry Maine 's Early Institutions , chapter 9. For further information see M. Glasson, Étude sur Gaius et sur le jus respondendi . In the 1950s, the Polish-American sculptor Joseph Kiselewski was commissioned to create four marble reliefs located over

950-691: The Peace Palace Library and the Institute for Environmental Security began compiling a research database on the proposed Law of Ecocide . The library also collects books on topics of national law, such as comparative law , domestic public and constitutional law , criminal law and criminal procedure . The library houses a few special collections, of which the Grotius Collection and the Peace Movement collection are

988-540: The Peace Palace possible. The palace was completed in 1913, just before the outbreak of the First World War . The Carnegie Foundation is subsidized by the Dutch Ministry for Foreign Affairs . Since 1913 the foundation has remained the owner of the palace, and it still runs the Peace Palace Library. The Peace Palace is located at Carnegieplein, The Hague, Netherlands. The palace was built to accommodate

1026-593: The astronomical fact that '"Hesperus" is "Phosphorus"' can still be informative, even if the "meanings" of "Hesperus" and "Phosphorus" are already known. This problem led Frege to distinguish between the sense and reference of a word. The very concept of the linguistic sign is the combination of content and expression, the former of which may refer entities in the world or refer more abstract concepts, e.g. thought. Certain parts of speech exist only to express reference, namely anaphora such as pronouns . The subset of reflexives expresses co-reference of two participants in

1064-459: The emperor Theodosius II named him in the Law of Citations , along with Papinian , Ulpian , Modestinus and Paulus , as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be followed by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these jurists accordingly became most important sources of Roman law . Besides the Institutes , which are a complete exposition of the elements of Roman law, Gaius

1102-413: The familiar textbook for all students of Roman law. The Institutes of Gaius, written about the year AD 161, was an introductory textbook of legal institutions divided into four books: the first treating of persons and the differences of the status they may occupy in the eye of the law; the second of things, and the modes in which rights over them may be acquired, including the law relating to wills ;

1140-469: The library's online catalogue, which also classifies book items. In its classification the library tries to remain faithful, as much as possible, to the Catalogue de la bibliothèque du Palais de la paix , designed in 1916 by Elsa Oppenheim, daughter of the international lawyer Jacques Oppenheim  [ nl ] . The library also uses a modern classification system with around 4,500 keywords. Most of

1178-617: The main text of a work. In contrast, a bibliographical section often contains works not cited by the author, but used as background reading or listed as potentially useful to the reader. Keeping a diary allows an individual to use references for personal organization, whether or not anyone else understands the systems of reference used. However, scholars have studied methods of reference because of their key role in communication and co-operation between different people, and also because of misunderstandings that can arise. Modern academic study of bibliographical references has been developing since

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1216-551: The most important. The library has the world's largest collection of works by Hugo Grotius , including a rare early edition of De Iure Belli ac Pacis ( On the Law of War and Peace ), his most famous work written in 1625. It also holds a special collection of pacifist images, under the title ‘’Peace Movement, Images and Posters and League of Nations philately’’. The library maintains the Peace Palace Library Blog,

1254-587: The news service International Law News, and the Peace Palace Library Research Guides, introducing researchers to various topics of international law. During its centenary celebrations in 2013, the Library acquired a 1499 edition of Gaius ’s Institutes . In 2005, the Library won the IALL award for communications. [REDACTED] Media related to Peace Palace Library at Wikimedia Commons Reference A reference

1292-447: The publications of the library are about public international law , addressing topics such as the law of state responsibility , human rights , international humanitarian law , international criminal law , law of international organizations, and European law . The collection of the palace further includes private international law , international commercial law , international bankruptcy law, and international law of procedure. In 2012

1330-422: The reference from some observers, as in cryptography . References feature in many spheres of human activity and knowledge, and the term adopts shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used. Some of them are described in the sections below. The word reference is derived from Middle English referren , from Middle French référer , from Latin referre , "to carry back", formed from

1368-707: The strange forms of legal procedure found in other early systems. There are several editions of the Institutes , beginning with the editio princeps of I. F. L. Göschen (Berlin, 1820). The author of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article recommends the English edition of Edward Poste published in 1885, which includes an English translation and copious commentary. More recent editions include E. Seckel and B. Kuebler (8th edition; Leipzig, 1939); Francis de Zulueta , containing his own Latin text with an English translation and commentary (1946); and W. M. Gordon and O. F. Robinson (London, 1988), with an English translation and

1406-428: The third of intestate succession and of obligations; and the fourth of actions and their forms. Another circumstance which renders the work of Gaius more interesting to the historical student than that of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time when actions were tried by the system of formulae , or formal directions given by the praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to whom he referred it. Without

1444-600: Was the author of treatises on the Edicts of the Magistrates , on the Twelve Tables ( Ad Legem XII Tabularum ), on the important Lex Papia Poppaea , and on several other topics. His interest in the antiquities of Roman law is apparent, and for this reason his work is most valuable to the historian of early institutions. In the disputes between the two schools of Roman jurists he generally attached himself to that of

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