Misplaced Pages

#176823

113-509: The river is heavily contaminated by heavy metals due to mining operations in the river basin . 69°34′51″N 31°16′05″E  /  69.58083°N 31.26806°E  / 69.58083; 31.26806 This Murmansk Oblast location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a river in Russia is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Heavy metals Heavy metals

226-410: A combination of high-lofted woods (up to 7-wood) and hybrids to replace the 5, 6 and 7-irons, allowing these players to achieve greater carry distances with slower swings. Putters are a special class of clubs with a loft not exceeding ten degrees, designed primarily to roll the ball along the grass, generally from a point on the putting green toward the hole. Contrary to popular belief, putters do have

339-473: A compromise to club-makers after imposing and enforcing a 460cc volume limit on these same club heads. Many recently developed woods have a marked "trampoline effect" (a large deformation of the face upon impact followed by a quick restoration to original dimensions, acting like a slingshot), resulting in very high ball speeds and great lengths of tee shots. As of 1 January 2008, the USGA and R&A have settled on

452-589: A driver, instead using a 3-wood for tee shots and making up the difference on the approach using a lower-lofted iron. The most common omissions are the "long irons", numbered from 2 to 5, which are notoriously difficult to hit well. The player can supplement the gaps in distance with either higher-numbered woods such as the 5 and even the 7-wood, or may replace the long irons with equivalently-numbered hybrid clubs. If hybrids are used, higher-lofted woods are often omitted as redundant, but ladies' and seniors' sets commonly feature both hybrids and high-lofted woods, omitting

565-406: A flat-topped "putter grip". This disqualifies many chipper designs, but there are some USGA-conforming chippers, and non-conforming designs can still be used for informal play. The shafts of the woods were made of different types of wood before being replaced by hickory in the middle of the 19th century. The varieties of woods included ash , purpleheart , orangewood , and blue mahoe . Despite

678-493: A given metal ion. This scheme has been applied to analyze biologically active metals in sea water for example, but it has not been widely adopted. The heaviness of naturally occurring metals such as gold , copper , and iron may have been noticed in prehistory and, in light of their malleability , led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons. In 1817 the German chemist Leopold Gmelin divided

791-422: A gray area. Class A metal ions prefer oxygen donors; class B ions prefer nitrogen or sulfur donors; and borderline or ambivalent ions show either class A or B characteristics, depending on the circumstances. The distinction between the class A metals and the other two categories is sharp. The class A and class B terminology is analogous to the "hard acid" and "soft base" terminology sometimes used to refer to

904-934: A heavy metal rare-earth like series ...". The counterparts to the heavy metals, the light metals , are defined by The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society as including "the traditional ( aluminium , magnesium , beryllium , titanium , lithium , and other reactive metals) and emerging light metals (composites, laminates, etc.)" Trace amounts of some heavy metals, mostly in period 4, are required for certain biological processes. These are iron and copper ( oxygen and electron transport ); cobalt ( complex syntheses and cell metabolism ); zinc ( hydroxylation ); vanadium and manganese ( enzyme regulation or functioning); chromium ( glucose utilisation); nickel ( cell growth ); arsenic (metabolic growth in some animals and possibly in humans) and selenium ( antioxidant functioning and hormone production). Periods 5 and 6 contain fewer essential heavy metals, consistent with

1017-521: A loft (often 5° from truly perpendicular at impact) that helps to lift the ball from any indentation it has made. Newer putters also include grooves on the face to promote roll rather than a skid off the impact. This increases rolling distance and reduces bouncing over the turf. Putters are the only class of club allowed to have certain features, such as two striking faces, non-circular grip cross-sections, bent shafts or hosels, and appendages designed primarily to aid players' aim. Present in some golfers' bags

1130-408: A long shaft for maximum club speed. Historically, woods were made from persimmon wood, although some manufacturers—notably Ping —developed laminated woods. In 1979, TaylorMade Golf introduced the first wood made of steel. Even more recently, manufacturers have started using materials such as carbon fiber , titanium , or scandium . Although most "woods" in golf are constructed from various metals,

1243-443: A low, medium or high kick; a low kick means the shaft will store energy closer to the club head, which means the club head can twist more but also allows for higher club head speeds. A high kick shaft will store energy closer to the grip; such a shaft will feel firmer when swinging it and will give better control over direction, but the same strength swing will flex the shaft less, which will reduce club-head speed. Widely overlooked as

SECTION 10

#1732772818177

1356-511: A lower atomic number) by neutron capture , with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-process and the r-process . In the s-process ("s" stands for "slow"), singular captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta decay , while in the r-process ("rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more or less clear path: for example, stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside

1469-626: A matched set. Irons are typically grouped according to their intended distance (which also roughly corresponds to their shaft length and thus their difficulty to hit the ball); in the numbered irons, there are long irons (2–4), medium irons (5–7), and short irons (8–9), with progressively higher loft angles, shorter shafts, and heavier club heads. As with woods, "irons" get their name because they were originally made from forged iron. Modern irons are investment-cast out of steel alloys, which allows for better-engineered "cavity-back" designs that have lower centers of mass and higher moments of inertia, making

1582-650: A metalloid), have replaced lead and antimony in the green bullets used by some armies and in some recreational shooting munitions. Doubts have been raised about the safety (or green credentials ) of tungsten. Because denser materials absorb more of certain types of radioactive emissions such as gamma rays than lighter ones, heavy metals are useful for radiation shielding and to focus radiation beams in linear accelerators and radiotherapy applications. The strength or durability of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and lead, as well as their alloys, makes them useful for

1695-418: A one-piece "sleeve" made of rubber, synthetic or composite material that is slid over the shaft and secured with an adhesive. These sleeve grips allow club makers and golfers to customize the grip's diameter, consistency (softness/firmness) and texturing pattern to best fit the player. Clubs with an outer "wrap" of leather or leather-like synthetic still typically have a "sleeve" form underneath to add diameter to

1808-434: A part of the club, the shaft is considered by many to be the engine of the modern club head. Shafts range in price from a mere US$ 4 to over US$ 1200. Current graphite shafts weigh considerably less than their steel counterparts (sometimes weighing less than 50 grams (1.8 oz) for a driver shaft), allowing for lighter clubs that can be swung at greater speed. Beginning in the late 1990s, custom shafts have been integrated into

1921-483: A putt, which is more difficult with a lofted iron due to a difference in lie angle. Most chippers have a loft greater than 10 degrees, which is the maximum loft permitted by the Rules of Golf for a club to be classed as a putter, so these clubs are actually classed as irons. To be legal for sanctioned play, a chipper cannot have any feature that is defined in the rules as allowable only on putters, e.g. two striking faces or

2034-420: A putter may have two such faces if their characteristics are the same, and they are opposite each other. Page 127 of the USGA rules of golf states: A putter is a club with a loft not exceeding ten degrees designed primarily for use on the putting green. Therefore, any double sided club with a loft greater than 10 degrees is not legal. The trim ring, usually black (It may have additional trim colors), that

2147-511: A regulation that limits the acceptable "trampoline effect" to a coefficient of restitution (COR)—a measurement of the efficiency of the transfer of energy from the club head to the ball—of .830. Other large scale USGA rulings involve a 1990 lawsuit, and subsequent settlement, against Karsten Manufacturing, makers of the PING brand, for their use of square, or U-grooves in their immensely popular Ping Eye2 irons. The USGA argued that players who used

2260-412: A result of a neutron star merger, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium . When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse, new stars and planets are formed . The Earth's crust is made of approximately 5% of heavy metals by weight, with iron comprising 95% of this quantity. Light metals (~20%) and nonmetals (~75%) make up

2373-532: A set. They are primarily utilized from the tee box and, on longer holes, may be employed for the second or even third shot. The largest wood, often referred to as the driver or one wood, is frequently crafted from hollow titanium and incorporates feather-light shafts. The length of the woods has been increasing in recent decades, and a typical driver with a graphite shaft is now 45.5 inches (1,160 mm) long. The woods may also have very large heads, up to 460 cm (28 cu in) in volume (the maximum allowed by

SECTION 20

#1732772818177

2486-402: A siderophile, is most commonly recovered by dissolving the ores in which it is found in a cyanide solution . The gold forms a dicyanoaurate(I), for example: 2 Au + H 2 O +½ O 2 + 4 KCN → 2 K[Au(CN) 2 ] + 2 KOH . Zinc is added to the mix and, being more reactive than gold, displaces the gold: 2 K[Au(CN) 2 ] + Zn → K 2 [Zn(CN) 4 ] + 2 Au. The gold precipitates out of solution as

2599-575: A significant degree, of heavy metals such as chromium, nickel, cadmium, or lead. Copper, zinc, tin, and lead are mechanically weaker metals but have useful corrosion prevention properties. While each of them will react with air, the resulting patinas of either various copper salts, zinc carbonate , tin oxide , or a mixture of lead oxide , carbonate , and sulfate , confer valuable protective properties . Copper and lead are therefore used, for example, as roofing materials ; zinc acts as an anti-corrosion agent in galvanised steel ; and tin serves

2712-1352: A similar purpose on steel cans . The workability and corrosion resistance of iron and chromium are increased by adding gadolinium ; the creep resistance of nickel is improved with the addition of thorium. Tellurium is added to copper ( tellurium copper ) and stainless steel to improve their machinability; and to lead to make it harder and more acid-resistant. The biocidal effects of some heavy metals have been known since antiquity. Platinum, osmium, copper, ruthenium, and other heavy metals, including arsenic, are used in anti-cancer treatments, or have shown potential. Antimony (anti-protozoal), bismuth ( anti-ulcer ), gold ( anti-arthritic ), and iron ( anti-malarial ) are also important in medicine. Copper, zinc, silver, gold, or mercury are used in antiseptic formulations; small amounts of some heavy metals are used to control algal growth in, for example, cooling towers . Depending on their intended use as fertilisers or biocides, agrochemicals may contain heavy metals such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, or lead. Selected heavy metals are used as catalysts in fuel processing (rhenium, for example), synthetic rubber and fibre production (bismuth), emission control devices (palladium and platinum), and in self-cleaning ovens (where cerium(IV) oxide in

2825-438: A sludge, and is filtered off and melted. Heavy metals are present in nearly all aspects of modern life. Iron may be the most common as it accounts for 90% of all refined metals. Platinum may be the most ubiquitous given it is said to be found in, or used to produce, 20% of all consumer goods. Some common uses of heavy metals depend on the general characteristics of metals such as electrical conductivity and reflectivity or

2938-399: A star until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life 30,000 times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to form tin-116, and so on. In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of

3051-974: A statistically significant correlation between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime in the United States; taking into account a 22-year time lag (for the average age of violent criminals), the violent crime curve virtually tracked the lead exposure curve. Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage); cobalt and nickel (carcinogens); copper, zinc, selenium and silver ( endocrine disruption, congenital disorders , or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as organotin (central nervous system damage); antimony (a suspected carcinogen); and thallium (central nervous system damage). A few other non-essential heavy metals have one or more toxic forms. Kidney failure and fatalities have been recorded arising from

3164-423: A strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as relatively low density silicate minerals . Chalcophile heavy metals are mainly the less reactive d-block elements, and period 4–6 p-block metals and metalloids. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals . Being denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than

3277-400: A subclass of irons with greater loft than the numbered irons (generally starting at 47°–48° of loft, above the 9-irons of 44°–45°), and other features such as high-mass club heads and wide soles that allow for easier use in tricky lies. Wedges are used for a variety of short-distance, high-altitude, high-accuracy "utility" shots, such as hitting the ball onto the green ("approach" shots), placing

3390-422: A term for toxic substances To be an acceptable term in scientific papers, a strict definition has been encouraged. Even in applications other than toxicity, there no widely agreed criterion-based definition of a heavy metal. Reviews have recommended that it not be used. Different meanings may be attached to the term, depending on the context. For example, a heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density ,

3503-431: A variety of shots from all over the course, from the tee box on short or dog-legged holes, to the fairway or rough on approach to the green, to tricky situations like punching through or lobbing over trees, getting out of hazards, or hitting from tight lies requiring a compact swing . Most of the irons have a number from 1 to 9 (the numbers in most common use are from 3 to 9), corresponding to their relative loft angle within

Pechenga (river) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3616-524: Is a controversial and ambiguous term for metallic elements with relatively high densities , atomic weights , or atomic numbers . The criteria used, and whether metalloids are included, vary depending on the author and context and has been argued should not be used. A heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density, atomic number or chemical behaviour . More specific definitions have been published, none of which have been widely accepted. The definitions surveyed in this article encompass up to 96 out of

3729-533: Is a deliberately low upper limit such as four clubs, or three clubs plus putter, with a typical load being a wood or hybrid, middle iron, wedge and putter, although often with significant variation between players with regards to which specific clubs are favored in each role. The ruling authorities of golf, The R&A (formerly part of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews ) and the United States Golf Association (USGA), reserve

3842-414: Is a large gap but not unplayable). Other clubs may be omitted as well. On courses where bags must be carried by the player, the player may take only the odd-numbered irons; without the 4, 6 or 8 irons (the 3 is sometimes removed instead of the 4) the bag's weight is considerably reduced. Carrying only a driver, 3-wood, 4-hybrid, 5-7-9 irons, pitching and sand wedges, and a putter reduces the number of clubs in

3955-442: Is a maximum, it is not a minimum; players are free to use any lesser number of clubs they prefer, so substitutions for the common omissions above are not always made; a player may simply choose to play without a 5-wood or 2–4 irons, instead using a 4-wood and moving directly to their 5-iron as desired distance decreases (a 4-wood in a skilled golfer's hands averages 200 yards; a 5-iron in the same player's hands would be about 160, which

4068-491: Is a tapered steel tube or a series of stepped steel tubes in telescopic fashion. This has improved the accuracy of golfers. The grips of the clubs are made from leather or rubber. The shaft is a tapered tube made of metal (usually steel) or carbon fiber composite (referred to as graphite). The shaft is roughly 0.5 inches (13 mm) in diameter near the grip and from 34 to 48 inches (86 to 122 cm) in length. Shafts weigh from 45 to 150 grams (1.6 to 5.3 oz), depending on

4181-523: Is about 0.01% heavy metals (~7 g, equivalent to the weight of two dried peas, with iron at 4 g, zinc at 2.5 g, and lead at 0.12 g comprising the three main constituents), 2% light metals (~1.4 kg, the weight of a bottle of wine) and nearly 98% nonmetals (mostly water ). A few non-essential heavy metals have been observed to have biological effects. Gallium , germanium (a metalloid), indium, and most lanthanides can stimulate metabolism, and titanium promotes growth in plants (though it

4294-629: Is also a kidney and nerve poison. Bismuth compounds can cause liver damage if taken in excess; insoluble uranium compounds, as well as the dangerous radiation they emit, can cause permanent kidney damage. Heavy metals can degrade air, water, and soil quality , and subsequently cause health issues in plants, animals, and people, when they become concentrated as a result of industrial activities. Common sources of heavy metals in this context include vehicle emissions; motor oil; fertilisers; glassworking; incinerators; treated timber ; aging water supply infrastructure ; and microplastics floating in

4407-624: Is both meaningless and misleading". The IUPAC report focuses on the legal and toxicological implications of describing "heavy metals" as toxins when there is no scientific evidence to support a connection. The density implied by the adjective "heavy" has almost no biological consequences and pure metals are rarely the biologically active substance. This characterization has been echoed by numerous reviews. The most widely used toxicology textbook, Casarett and Doull’s toxicology uses "toxic metal" not "heavy metals". Nevertheless many scientific and science related articles continue to use "heavy metal" as

4520-494: Is for players with a slower swing speed (70–79 mph (113–127 km/h)), and the stiffer shafts, such as S-Flex and X-Flex (Stiff and Extra-Stiff shafts) are reserved only for those players with an above average swinging speed, usually above 100 mph (160 km/h). Some companies also offer a "stiff-regular" or "firm" flex for players whose club speed falls in the upper range of a Regular shaft (90–100 mph (140–160 km/h)), allowing golfers and club makers to fine-tune

4633-419: Is found directly on top of the hosel on many woods and irons. The ferrule is mostly decorative, creating a continuous line between the shaft and the wider hosel, but in some cases it can form part of the securing mechanism between hosel and shaft. Ferrules of differing weights can fine-tune the center of mass of the overall club head, but for these minute adjustments, screw-in weighted inserts at specific points on

Pechenga (river) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4746-487: Is important in the construction of mirrors , including precision astronomical instruments . Headlight reflectors rely on the excellent reflectivity of a thin film of rhodium. Heavy metals or their compounds can be found in electronic components , electrodes , and wiring and solar panels where they may be used as either conductors, semiconductors, or insulators. Molybdenum powder is used in circuit board inks. Ruthenium(IV) oxide coated titanium anodes are used for

4859-464: Is instead obtained from spent nuclear fuels . The chalcophile platinum group metals (PGM) mainly occur in small (mixed) quantities with other chalcophile ores. The ores involved need to be smelted , roasted, and then leached with sulfuric acid to produce a residue of PGM. This is chemically refined to obtain the individual metals in their pure forms. Compared to other metals, PGM are expensive due to their scarcity and high production costs. Gold,

4972-411: Is not always considered a heavy metal). Heavy metals are often assumed to be highly toxic or damaging to the environment. Some are, while certain others are toxic only if taken in excess or encountered in certain forms. Inhalation of certain metals, either as fine dust or most commonly as fumes, can also result in a condition called metal fume fever . Chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead have

5085-422: Is not practicable to define 'plain in shape' precisely and comprehensively." These two rules are used as the basis for most of the more specific rules of Appendix II, including that no club may have a concave face (1931) and various rules defining what is "traditional" about the shapes of specific clubs, while allowing for the progression of technology. The "traditional and customary" rule was originally used to ban

5198-402: Is the chipper , a club designed to feel like a putter but with a more lofted face, used with a putting motion to lift the ball out of the higher grass of the rough and fringe and drop it on the green, where it will then roll like a putt. This club replaces the use of a high-lofted iron to make the same shot, and allows the player to make the shot from a stance and with a motion nearly identical to

5311-407: Is the primary determinant of the ascending trajectory of the golf ball, with the tangential angle of the club head's swing arc at impact being a secondary and relatively minor consideration (though these small changes in swing angle can nevertheless have a significant influence on launch angle when using low-lofted clubs). The impact of the club compresses the ball, while grooves on the club face give

5424-410: Is treated as a nonmetal. The United States Pharmacopeia includes a test for heavy metals that involves precipitating metallic impurities as their coloured sulfides . On the basis of this type of chemical test, the group would include the transition metals and post-transition metals . A different chemistry-based approach advocates replacing the term "heavy metal" with two groups of metals and

5537-451: Is used as a voltage controller in microchips ; tantalum oxide , another insulator, is used in capacitors in mobile phones . Heavy metals have been used in batteries for over 200 years, at least since Volta invented his copper and silver voltaic pile in 1800. Magnets are often made of heavy metals such as manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, niobium, bismuth, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, and dysprosium . Neodymium magnets are

5650-555: Is used in armour plating and armour piercing projectiles , as well as in nuclear weapons to increase efficiency (by reflecting neutrons and momentarily delaying the expansion of reacting materials). In the 1970s, tantalum was found to be more effective than copper in shaped charge and explosively formed anti-armour weapons on account of its higher density, allowing greater force concentration, and better deformability. Less- toxic heavy metals , such as copper, tin, tungsten, and bismuth, and probably manganese (as well as boron ,

5763-458: The Earth's magnetic field . Broadly speaking, and with some exceptions, lithophile heavy metals can be extracted from their ores by electrical or chemical treatments , while chalcophile heavy metals are obtained by roasting their sulphide ores to yield the corresponding oxides, and then heating these to obtain the raw metals. Radium occurs in quantities too small to be economically mined and

SECTION 50

#1732772818177

5876-463: The hammer throw and shot put events are filled with lead in order to attain the minimum weight required under international rules. Tungsten was used in hammer throw balls at least up to 1980; the minimum size of the ball was increased in 1981 to eliminate the need for what was, at that time, an expensive metal (triple the cost of other hammers) not generally available in all countries. Tungsten hammers were so dense that they penetrated too deeply into

5989-476: The periodic table has an atomic number of 37 but a density of only 1.532 g/cm , which is below the threshold figure used by other authors. The same problem may occur with definitions which are based on atomic weight. Six elements near the end of periods (rows) 4 to 7 sometimes considered metalloids are treated here as metals: they are germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), selenium (Se), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), and astatine (At). Oganesson (Og)

6102-467: The platinum group metals ( ruthenium , rhodium, palladium , osmium, iridium , and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle and crust), rather the crust. These metals otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form ). Concentrations of heavy metals below

6215-567: The traditional and customary form and make . The club must be composed of a shaft and a head and it may also have material added to the shaft to enable the player to obtain a firm hold (see 3 below). All parts of the club must be fixed so that the club is one unit, and it must have no external attachments." In addition, Appendix II-4a states, regarding club heads, that "the club head must be generally plain in shape . All parts must be rigid, structural in nature and functional. The club head or its parts must not be designed to resemble any other object. It

6328-490: The vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis . In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers. Heavier heavy metals are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy. Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with

6441-444: The "flop wedge" or FW, 64°–68°). Hybrids are a cross between a wood and an iron, giving these clubs the wood's long distance and higher launch, with the iron's familiar swing. The club head of a hybrid has a wood-inspired, slightly convex face, and is typically hollow like modern metal woods to allow for high impulse on impact and faster swing speeds. The head is usually smaller than true woods, however, not extending as far back from

6554-1238: The 118 known chemical elements ; only mercury , lead and bismuth meet all of them. Despite this lack of agreement, the term (plural or singular) is widely used in science. A density of more than 5 g/cm is sometimes quoted as a commonly used criterion and is used in the body of this article. The earliest known metals—common metals such as iron , copper , and tin , and precious metals such as silver , gold , and platinum —are heavy metals. From 1809 onward, light metals , such as magnesium , aluminium , and titanium , were discovered, as well as less well-known heavy metals including gallium , thallium , and hafnium . Some heavy metals are either essential nutrients (typically iron, cobalt , copper and zinc ), or relatively harmless (such as ruthenium , silver and indium ), but can be toxic in larger amounts or certain forms. Other heavy metals, such as arsenic , cadmium , mercury, and lead, are highly poisonous. Potential sources of heavy metal poisoning include mining , tailings , smelting , industrial waste , agricultural runoff , occupational exposure , paints and treated timber . Physical and chemical characterisations of heavy metals need to be treated with caution, as

6667-565: The Eye2 had an unfair advantage in imparting spin on the ball, which helps to stop the ball on the putting greens. The USGA utilized John L. Saksun , founder of Canadian golf company Accuform Golf, as a consultant to set up methods of measuring the unique grooves and determining PING's compliance with the rulings. Saksun, by proposing a cost-effective solution to help PING change the design of subsequent Eye2s, saved PING hundreds of millions. PING subsequently withdrew their US$ 100 million lawsuit against

6780-404: The USGA in sanctioned events; drivers with even larger club-head volumes are available for long-drive competitions and informal games). The shafts range from senior to extra-stiff depending upon each player's preference. Irons are clubs with a solid, all-metal head featuring a flat angled face, and a shorter shaft and more upright lie angle than a wood, for ease of access. Irons are designed for

6893-867: The USGA. Ping’s older clubs were "grandfathered in" and allowed to remain in play as part of the settlement. However, the USGA has begun phasing in a ban on square grooves in golf. Manufacturers were required to discontinue noncompliant clubs by January 1, 2011. According to the USGA, as January 1, 2010, professional golfers on one of the top tours, or those attempting to qualify for one of the three Open Championships (since then four) will need to use new conforming wedges (those without square grooves). Moreover, those who plan to qualify for any other USGA championship (Amateur championships—under 18, Amateur, over 25, and over 50 in both sexes, and four-ball, along with international team championships), will need new conforming wedges by 2014. In addition, this regulation includes IGF and USGA-sanctioned regional amateur events as well, as

SECTION 60

#1732772818177

7006-418: The adhesive cures, it creates a very strong bond between grip and shaft and the grip is usually impossible to remove without cutting it off. The hosel is the portion of the club head to which the shaft attaches. Though largely ignored by players, hosel design is integral to the balance, feel and power of a club. Modern hosels are designed to place as little mass as possible over the top of the striking face of

7119-530: The aquatic environments of industrialised societies have been estimated to be two to three times those of pre-industrial levels. As a component of tetraethyl lead , (CH 3 CH 2 ) 4 Pb , it was used extensively in gasoline from the 1930s until the 1970s. Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America by 1996, soils next to roads built before this time retain high lead concentrations. Later research demonstrated

7232-475: The average female player's height and swing speed. Variations on this basic set abound; several club options usually exist for almost any shot depending on the player's skill level and playing style, and the only club universally considered to be indispensable is the putter. Some consider the modern deep-faced driver to be equally irreplaceable; this is cause for some debate, as professional players including Tiger Woods have played and won tournaments without using

7345-417: The bag to 9; this is a common load-out for a "Sunday bag" taken to the driving range or to an informal game. A skilled player can usually overcome the lesser selection of club lofts by reducing their swing speed on a lower-loft iron and/or placing the ball further forward in their stance to get the same carry distance and/or launch angle as the next higher loft number. Another increasingly common informal format

7458-399: The ball backspin . Together, the compression and backspin create lift . The majority of woods and irons are labeled with a number; higher numbers usually indicate shorter shafts and higher lofts, which give the ball a higher and shorter trajectory. Woods are long-distance clubs, meant to drive the ball a great distance down the fairway towards the hole. They generally have a large head and

7571-443: The ball accurately on the fairway for a better shot at the green ("lay-up" shots), or hitting the ball out of hazards or rough onto the green (chipping). There are five main types of wedges, with lofts ranging from 45° to 64°: pitching wedge (PW, 48–50°), gap wedge (GW, also "approach", "attack", "utility", or "dual" wedge, typically 52–54°), sand wedge (SW, 55–56°), lob wedge (LW, 58°–60°), and ultra lob wedge (sometimes called

7684-436: The behaviour of metal ions in inorganic systems. The system groups the elements by X m 2 r {\displaystyle X_{m}^{2}r} where X m {\displaystyle X_{m}} is the metal ion electronegativity and r {\displaystyle r} is its ionic radius . This index gauges the importance of covalent interactions vs ionic interactions for

7797-440: The characteristics of heavier metals. Heavy metals are relatively rare in the Earth's crust but are present in many aspects of modern life. They are used in, for example, golf clubs , cars , antiseptics , self-cleaning ovens , plastics , solar panels , mobile phones , and particle accelerators . The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which standardizes nomenclature, says "the term heavy metals

7910-418: The club easier to hit and giving better distance than older forged "muscle-back" designs. Forged irons with less perimeter weighting are still seen, especially in sets targeting low-handicap and scratch golfers, because this less forgiving design allows a skilled golfer to intentionally hit a curved shot (a "fade" or "draw"), to follow the contour of the fairway or "bend" a shot around an obstacle. Wedges are

8023-402: The club head are usually used instead. The rules of golf limit each player to a maximum of 14 clubs in their bag. Strict rules prohibit sharing of clubs between players that each have their own set (if two players share clubs, they may not have more than 14 clubs combined), and while occasional lending of a club to a player is generally overlooked, habitual borrowing of other players' clubs or

8136-480: The club, which lowers the center of gravity of the club for better distance. Each head has one face which contacts the ball during the stroke. Putters may have two striking faces, as long as they are identical and symmetrical. Some chippers (a club similar in appearance to a double-sided putter but having a loft of 35–45 degrees) have two faces, but are not legal. Page 135 of the 2009 USGA rules of golf states: The club head must have only one striking face, except that

8249-450: The club-making process. These shafts will, within a given flex rating, address specific criteria, such as to launch the ball higher or lower or to adjust for the timing of a player's swing to load and unload the shaft at the correct moments of the swing for maximum power. Whereas in the past each club could come with only one shaft, today's club heads can be fitted with dozens of different shafts, each with slight variation in behavior, creating

8362-428: The crust are generally higher, with most being found in the largely iron-silicon-nickel core. Platinum , for example, comprises approximately 1 part per billion of the crust whereas its concentration in the core is thought to be nearly 6,000 times higher. Recent speculation suggests that uranium (and thorium) in the core may generate a substantial amount of the heat that drives plate tectonics and (ultimately) sustains

8475-583: The distinguishing criterion might be atomic number , or the chemical behaviour. Density criteria range from above 3.5 g/cm to above 7 g/cm . Atomic weight definitions can range from greater than sodium (atomic weight 22.98); greater than 40 (excluding s- and f-block metals, hence starting with scandium ); or more than 200, i.e. from mercury onwards. Atomic numbers are sometimes capped at 92 ( uranium ). Definitions based on atomic number have been criticised for including metals with low densities. For example, rubidium in group (column) 1 of

8588-442: The elements into nonmetals, light metals, and heavy metals. Light metals had densities of 0.860–5.0 g/cm ; heavy metals 5.308–22.000. The term heavy metal is sometimes used interchangeably with the term heavy element . For example, in discussing the history of nuclear chemistry , Magee notes that the actinides were once thought to represent a new heavy element transition group whereas Seaborg and co-workers "favoured ...

8701-406: The everyday "wrap"-style grip are generally bought and installed by a clubsmith. Re-gripping used to require toxic, flammable solvents to soften and activate the adhesive, and a vise to hold the club steady while the grip was forced on. The newest replacement kits, however, use double-sided tape with a water-activated adhesive that is slippery when first activated, allowing easier installation. Once

8814-558: The face, and the lie and shaft length are similar to an iron giving similar swing mechanics. These clubs generally replace low-numbered irons in a standard set (between 2 and 5, most commonly 3–4), which are typically the hardest clubs in a player's bag to hit well. By doing so they also generally make higher-lofted woods redundant as well. However, some manufacturers produce "iron replacement" sets that use hybrid designs to replace an entire set of traditional irons, from 3 to pitching wedge. Sets designed for less muscular players commonly feature

8927-437: The flex for a stronger amateur-level player. At impact, the club head can twist as a result of torque applied to the shaft, reducing accuracy as the face of the club is not square to the player's stance. The ability of a shaft to twist along its length due to this torque is fundamentally a function of the flex of the shaft itself; a stiffer shaft will also torque less. To counter torque in more flexible shafts, club makers design

9040-407: The following six categories. Some uses of heavy metals, including in sport, mechanical engineering , military ordnance , and nuclear science , take advantage of their relatively high densities. In underwater diving , lead is used as a ballast ; in handicap horse racing each horse must carry a specified lead weight, based on factors including past performance, so as to equalize the chances of

9153-493: The formation of coloured compounds; the capacity of most heavy metal ions (such as platinum, cerium or bismuth ) to exist in different oxidation states and are used in catalysts; strong exchange interactions in 3d or 4f orbitals (in iron, cobalt, and nickel, or the lanthanide heavy metals) that give rise to magnetic effects; and high atomic numbers and electron densities that underpin their nuclear science applications. Typical uses of heavy metals can be broadly grouped into

9266-407: The general characteristics of heavy metals such as density, strength, and durability. Other uses depend on the characteristics of the specific element, such as their biological role as nutrients or poisons or some other specific atomic properties. Examples of such atomic properties include: partly filled d- or f- orbitals (in many of the transition, lanthanide, and actinide heavy metals) that enable

9379-661: The general pattern that heavier elements tend to be less abundant and that scarcer elements are less likely to be nutritionally essential. In period 5 , molybdenum is required for the catalysis of redox reactions; cadmium is used by some marine diatoms for the same purpose; and tin may be required for growth in a few species. In period 6 , tungsten is required by some archaea and bacteria for metabolic processes . A deficiency of any of these period 4–6 essential heavy metals may increase susceptibility to heavy metal poisoning (conversely, an excess may also have adverse biological effects ). An average 70 kg human body

9492-450: The greatest potential to cause harm on account of their extensive use, the toxicity of some of their combined or elemental forms, and their widespread distribution in the environment. Hexavalent chromium , for example, is highly toxic as are mercury vapour and many mercury compounds. These five elements have a strong affinity for sulfur; in the human body they usually bind, via thiol groups (–SH), to enzymes responsible for controlling

9605-407: The green to roll the ball into the hole. A set of clubs is limited by the rules of golf to a maximum of 14 golf clubs, and while there are traditional combinations sold at retail as matched sets, players are free to use any combination of legal clubs. The most significant difference between clubs of the same type is loft , or the angle between the club's face and the vertical plane. It is loft that

9718-584: The grip and give it its basic profile. According to the rules of golf , all club grips must have the same cross-section shape along their entire length (the diameter can vary), and with the exception of the putter, must have a circular cross-section. The putter may have any cross section that is symmetrical along the length of the grip through at least one plane; "shield" profiles with a flat top and curved underside are common. Grips may taper from thick to thin along their length (and virtually all do), but they are not allowed to have any waisting (a thinner section of

9831-615: The grip surrounded by thicker sections above and below it) or bulges (thicker sections of the grip surrounded by thinner sections). Minor variations in surface texture (such as the natural variation of a "wrap"-style grip) are not counted unless significant. Advances in materials have resulted in more durable, longer-lasting soft grips, but nevertheless grips do eventually dry out, harden, or are otherwise damaged and must be replaced. Replacement grips sold as do-it-yourself kits are generally inexpensive and of high quality, although custom grips that are larger, softer, or textured differently from

9944-417: The head not to be square at impact, resulting in lower accuracy. Most shaft makers offer a variety of flexes. The most common are: L/W (Lady/Women's), A/I (Soft Regular, Intermediate or Senior), R (Regular), S (Stiff), and X (Tour Stiff, Extra Stiff or Strong). A regular flex shaft is generally appropriate for those with an average head speed (80–94 mph (129–151 km/h)), while an A-Flex (or senior shaft)

10057-412: The industrial production of chlorine . Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties. Silver and gold are used in electrical and electronic devices, particularly in contact switches , as a result of their high electrical conductivity and capacity to resist or minimise the formation of impurities on their surfaces. Hafnium oxide , an insulator,

10170-449: The ingestion of germanium dietary supplements (~15 to 300 g in total consumed over a period of two months to three years). Exposure to osmium tetroxide (OsO 4 ) may cause permanent eye damage and can lead to respiratory failure and death. Indium salts are toxic if more than few milligrams are ingested and will affect the kidneys, liver, and heart. Cisplatin (PtCl 2 (NH 3 ) 2 ), an important drug used to kill cancer cells ,

10283-512: The introduction of steel club shafts (patented in 1910), as that material was not traditional for shafts; that specific ban was rescinded in 1924 by the USGA (the R&;A would continue to ban steel shafts until 1929), and steel would become universal until the development of graphite shafts whose introduction was less controversial. The "plain in shape" rule was more recently bent to allow for non-traditional driver club head shapes, such as squares, as

10396-580: The lanthanides are also extensively employed in lasers. Gallium, indium, and arsenic; and copper, iridium, and platinum are used in LEDs (the latter three in organic LEDs ). Niche uses of heavy metals with high atomic numbers occur in diagnostic imaging , electron microscopy , and nuclear science. In diagnostic imaging, heavy metals such as cobalt or tungsten make up the anode materials found in x-ray tubes . In electron microscopy, heavy metals such as lead, gold, palladium, platinum, or uranium have been used in

10509-451: The latter case). Definition and usage Golf club A golf club is a club used to hit a golf ball in a game of golf . Each club is composed of a shaft with a grip and a club head. Woods are mainly used for long-distance fairway or tee shots; irons , the most versatile class, are used for a variety of shots; hybrids that combine design elements of woods and irons are becoming increasingly popular; putters are used mainly on

10622-421: The lithophiles. In contrast, gold is a siderophile , or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either oxygen or sulfur. At the time of the Earth's formation , and as the most noble (inert) of metals, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic alloys. Consequently, it is a relatively rare metal. Some other (less) noble heavy metals—molybdenum, rhenium ,

10735-406: The long irons entirely in favor of the lofted woods, and replacing the mid-irons (5–7) with hybrids. The combination allows for higher launch angles on the long-distance clubs, which gives better distance with slower swing speeds. Where a club is omitted and not replaced with a club of similar function, players may add additional clubs of a different function such as additional wedges. While 14 clubs

10848-601: The manufacture of tools, machinery, appliances , utensils, pipes, railroad tracks , buildings and bridges, automobiles, locks, furniture, ships, planes, coinage and jewellery. They are also used as alloying additives for enhancing the properties of other metals. Of the two dozen elements that have been used in the world's monetised coinage only two, carbon and aluminium, are not heavy metals. Gold, silver, and platinum are used in jewellery as are, for example, nickel, copper, indium, and cobalt in coloured gold . Low-cost jewellery and children's toys may be made, to

10961-548: The material and length. Shafts are quantified in a number of different ways. The most common is the shaft flex. Simply, the shaft flex is the amount that the shaft will bend when placed under a load. A stiffer shaft will not flex as much, which requires more power to flex and "whip" through the ball properly (which results in higher club speed at impact for more distance), while a more flexible shaft will whip with less power required for better distance on slower swings, but may torque and over-flex if swung with too much power causing

11074-508: The metals involved are not always consistently defined. As well as being relatively dense, heavy metals tend to be less reactive than lighter metals and have far fewer soluble sulfides and hydroxides . While it is relatively easy to distinguish a heavy metal such as tungsten from a lighter metal such as sodium , a few heavy metals, such as zinc, mercury, and lead, have some of the characteristics of lighter metals; and lighter metals such as beryllium , scandium , and titanium, have some of

11187-407: The next two elements, polonium and astatine, which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements such as thorium and uranium. Heavy metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as

11300-426: The other 95% of the crust. Despite their overall scarcity, heavy metals can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain building , erosion , or other geological processes . Heavy metals are found primarily as lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile heavy metals are mainly f-block elements and the more reactive of the d-block elements. They have

11413-506: The past to make conductive coatings and to introduce electron density into biological specimens by staining , negative staining , or vacuum deposition . In nuclear science, nuclei of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, or zinc are sometimes fired at other heavy metal targets to produce superheavy elements ; heavy metals are also employed as spallation targets for the production of neutrons or isotopes of non-primordial elements such as astatine (using lead, bismuth, thorium, or uranium in

11526-416: The potential for a much better fit for the average golfer. The grip of the club is attached to the opposite end of the shaft from the club head, and is the part of the club the player holds on to while swinging. Originally, the grip was composed of one or more leather strips wrapped around the shaft. The leather outer wrap on a grip is still seen on some clubs, most commonly putters, but most modern grips are

11639-547: The right to define what shapes and physical characteristics of clubs are permissible in tournament play. The current rules for club design, including the results of various rulings on clubs introduced for play, are defined in Appendix II of the Rules of Golf. The overarching principle of club design used by both authorities is defined in Appendix II-1a, which states: "The club must not be substantially different from

11752-452: The shafts with varying degrees of torque through their length, particularly along the thinnest part of the shaft where it joins with the club head. This results in a point at which the shaft is most flexible, called the "kick point"; above that point the increasing diameter of the shaft makes it more rigid, while below that point the shaft is reinforced internally to reduce torquing of the club head. Shafts have typically been classified as having

11865-455: The sharing of a single bag of clubs slows play considerably when both players need the same club. The most common set of men's clubs is: The above set is only 12 clubs; these (or equivalent hybrid substitutes) are found in virtually every golf bag. To this, players typically add two of the following: Women's club sets are similar in overall makeup, but typically have higher lofts and shorter, more flexible shafts in retail sets to accommodate

11978-404: The speed of metabolic reactions. The resulting sulfur-metal bonds inhibit the proper functioning of the enzymes involved; human health deteriorates, sometimes fatally. Chromium (in its hexavalent form) and arsenic are carcinogens ; cadmium causes a degenerative bone disease ; and mercury and lead damage the central nervous system . Lead is the most prevalent heavy metal contaminant. Levels in

12091-413: The strength of hickory, the long-nose club of the mid nineteenth century was still prone to breaking at the top of the back swing. The club heads were often made from woods including apple , pear , dogwood , and beech in the early times until persimmon became the main material. Golf clubs have been improved and the shafts are now made of steel, titanium, other types of metals or carbon fiber. The shaft

12204-506: The strongest type of permanent magnet commercially available. They are key components of, for example, car door locks, starter motors , fuel pumps , and power windows . Heavy metals are used in lighting , lasers , and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Flat panel displays incorporate a thin film of electrically conducting indium tin oxide . Fluorescent lighting relies on mercury vapour for its operation. Ruby lasers generate deep red beams by exciting chromium atoms in aluminum oxide ;

12317-407: The term "woods" persists to characterize their general shape and intended use on the golf course. Contemporary woods commonly feature a graphite shaft paired with a predominantly hollow head made of titanium, composite materials, or steel. This design emphasizes light weight, enabling faster club-head speeds. Woods, being the longest and most powerful clubs, typically consist of three to four options in

12430-701: The turf. The higher the projectile density, the more effectively it can penetrate heavy armor plate ... Os , Ir , Pt , and Re  ... are expensive ... U offers an appealing combination of high density, reasonable cost and high fracture toughness. AM Russell and KL Lee Structure–property relations in nonferrous metals (2005, p. 16) Heavy metals are used for ballast in boats, aeroplanes, and motor vehicles; or in balance weights on wheels and crankshafts , gyroscopes , and propellers , and centrifugal clutches , in situations requiring maximum weight in minimum space (for example in watch movements ). In military ordnance, tungsten or uranium

12543-458: The various competitors. In golf , tungsten, brass , or copper inserts in fairway clubs and irons lower the centre of gravity of the club making it easier to get the ball into the air; and golf balls with tungsten cores are claimed to have better flight characteristics. In fly fishing , sinking fly lines have a PVC coating embedded with tungsten powder, so that they sink at the required rate. In track and field sport, steel balls used in

12656-741: The walls of such ovens helps oxidise carbon -based cooking residues). In soap chemistry, heavy metals form insoluble soaps that are used in lubricating greases , paint dryers, and fungicides (apart from lithium, the alkali metals and the ammonium ion form soluble soaps). The colours of glass , ceramic glazes , paints , pigments , and plastics are commonly produced by the inclusion of heavy metals (or their compounds) such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, zirconium , molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium , neodymium , erbium , tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium. Tattoo inks may contain heavy metals, such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper. The high reflectivity of some heavy metals

12769-605: The world's oceans. Recent examples of heavy metal contamination and health risks include the occurrence of Minamata disease , in Japan (1932–1968; lawsuits ongoing as of 2016); the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster in Brazil, high levels of lead in drinking water supplied to the residents of Flint , Michigan, in the north-east of the United States and 2015 Hong Kong heavy metal in drinking water incidents . Heavy metals up to

#176823