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50-540: Pedernales may refer to: Geography Salar de Pedernales , Chile Pedernales Province , Dominican Republic Pedernales, Dominican Republic , its capital Pedernales Canton , Manabí Province, Ecuador Pedernales, Ecuador , its capital Pedernales, Vizcaya , Vizcaya, Spain Pedernales River , Texas, United States Pedernales Falls State Park , Texas, United States Pedernales (Cabo Rojo) ,

100-536: A barrio in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico Pedernales, Delta Amacuro (Delta Amacuro State), Venezuela Transport SS Pedernales , a tanker ship attacked by the German submarine U-156 in 1942, during World War II Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Pedernales . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

150-472: A concentrated solution of replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. After treatment, ion-exchange resin beads saturated with calcium and magnesium ions from the treated water, are regenerated by soaking in brine containing 6–12% NaCl. The sodium ions from brine replace the calcium and magnesium ions on the beads. In lower temperatures, a brine solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. Quenching

200-423: A discharge is generated, commonly called brine. The characteristics of the discharge depend on different factors, such as the desalination technology used, salinity and quality of the water used, environmental and oceanographic characteristics, desalination process carried out, among others. The discharge of desalination plants by seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO), are mainly characterized by presenting

250-418: A process known as pickling . Meat and fish are typically steeped in brine for shorter periods of time, as a form of marination , enhancing its tenderness and flavor , or to enhance shelf period. Elemental chlorine can be produced by electrolysis of brine ( NaCl solution). This process also produces sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H 2 ). The reaction equations are as follows: Brine

300-416: A salinity concentration that can, in the worst case, double the salinity of the seawater used, and unlike of thermal desalination plants, have practically the same temperature and dissolved oxygen as the seawater used. The discharge could contain trace chemical products used during the industrial treatments applies,such as antiscalants , coagulants , flocculants which are discarded together with

350-465: A series of mandatory requirements that are mainly related to the monitoring of discharge, using a series of measurements and characterizations based on physical-chemical and biological information. In addition, the PVAs could also include different requirements related to monitoring the effects of seawater intake and those that may potentially be related to effects on the terrestrial environment . Brine

400-451: A significant environmental hazard, both due to corrosive and sediment-forming effects of salts and toxicity of other chemicals diluted in it. Unpolluted brine from desalination plants and cooling towers can be returned to the ocean. From the desalination process, reject brine is produced, which proposes potential damages to the marine life and habitats. To limit the environmental impact, it can be diluted with another stream of water, such as

450-539: A tributary of the Rio Salado, almost eroded into the salt flat but current erosion is minimal and the valleys are filling in. Water seeps underground and through an artificial discharge dug in the 1930s from the salt flat into the Rio de la Sal. The water has deposited salt in the valley, forming cascades and terraces. Ludwig Darapsky in 1900 thought that the barrier between the two was a moraine . The oldest rocks in

500-549: A water source for nearby mining operations, and other natural resources of Salar de Pedernales have been prospected. Salar de Pedernales lies in the Diego Almagro municipality, Chañaral province, Atacama Region of Chile. It is 180 km (110 mi) east of Chañaral and is accessible through a dirt road that departs from Chile Route C-173 . Covering a surface of 243 square kilometres (94 sq mi) –335 km (129 sq mi), Salar de Pedernales

550-449: Is water with a high-concentration solution of salt (typically sodium chloride or calcium chloride ). In diverse contexts, brine may refer to the salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawater , on the lower end of that of solutions used for brining foods) up to about 26% (a typical saturated solution , depending on temperature). Brine forms naturally due to evaporation of ground saline water but it

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600-514: Is a byproduct of many industrial processes, such as desalination , power plant cooling towers , produced water from oil and natural gas extraction, acid mine or acid rock drainage , reverse osmosis reject, chlor-alkali wastewater treatment, pulp and paper mill effluent, and waste streams from food and beverage processing. Along with diluted salts, it can contain residues of pretreatment and cleaning chemicals, their reaction byproducts and heavy metals due to corrosion. Wastewater brine can pose

650-426: Is a heat-treatment process when forging metals such as steel. A brine solution, along with oil and other substances, is commonly used to harden steel. When brine is used, there is an enhanced uniformity of the cooling process and heat transfer. The desalination process consists of the separation of salts from an aqueous solution to obtain fresh water from a source of seawater or brackish water ; and in turn,

700-504: Is also generated in the mining of sodium chloride. Brine is used for food processing and cooking ( pickling and brining ), for de-icing of roads and other structures, and in a number of technological processes. It is also a by-product of many industrial processes, such as desalination , so it requires wastewater treatment for proper disposal or further utilization ( fresh water recovery). Brines are produced in multiple ways in nature. Modification of seawater via evaporation results in

750-519: Is fully ionized. Other cations found in various brines include K , Mg , Ca , and Sr . The latter three are problematic because they form scale and they react with soaps. Aside from chloride, brines sometimes contain Br and I and, most problematically, SO 4 . Purification steps often include the addition of calcium oxide to precipitate solid magnesium hydroxide together with gypsum (CaSO 4 ), which can be removed by filtration. Further purification

800-400: Is not involved in the purification process itself, but used for regeneration of ion-exchange resin on cyclical basis. The water being treated flows through the resin container until the resin is considered exhausted and water is purified to a desired level. Resin is then regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with

850-455: Is required, both for the construction and operational phases. During its development, the most important legal management tools are established within the local environmental regulation, to prevent and adopt mitigation measures that guarantee the sustainable development of desalination projects. This includes a series of administrative tools and periodic environmental monitoring, to adopt preventive, corrective and further monitoring measures of

900-534: Is the largest salt flat in the Atacama Region. The salt flat lies east of the Cordillera Domeyko at an elevation of 3,370 m (11,060 ft). Doña Ines mountain lies to its north, Cerro Agua Helada to its east, and Sierra Aragonesa south. The salt flat has an irregular shape. Most of the surface is gypsum and rock salt watered by brine , with a hydrologically "active" zone in

950-455: Is used as a secondary fluid in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy . Most commonly used brines are based on inexpensive calcium chloride and sodium chloride . It is used because the addition of salt to water lowers the freezing temperature of the solution and the heat transport efficiency can be greatly enhanced for the comparatively low cost of the material. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine

1000-457: Is −21.1 °C (−6.0 °F) at the concentration of 23.3% NaCl by weight. This is called the eutectic point. Because of their corrosive properties salt-based brines have been replaced by organic liquids such as ethylene glycol . Sodium chloride brine spray is used on some fishing vessels to freeze fish. The brine temperature is generally −5 °F (−21 °C). Air blast freezing temperatures are −31 °F (−35 °C) or lower. Given

1050-657: The Pacific Ocean in May to June and falls in the form of snow and rain. During summer, occasionally precipitation extends from Argentina to Salar de Pedernales. Estimates of the evaporation of water have a wide range. Vegetation occurs where there is water available, often in the form of wetlands , and consists of cushion plants , grass, trees and tussock grass . Birds include Cormorants , ducks , egrets and flamingos . Crustaceans and lizards and toads have been reported at Salar de Pedernales. The birds nest on

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1100-582: The Salar de Pedernales watershed and joins the salt flat at its southeastern end. The Leoncito and Juncalito rivers join it (partly underground ) from the east, and its flow peaks during July and August. Other tributaries come from the southwest, east and northwest. To the west, the watershed borders on the Río Salado  [ es ] basin, which drains to the Pacific Ocean. The Rio de la Sal,

1150-546: The area are the Paleozoic batholiths . In the southern part of the salt flat, they are overlaid by breccias and tuffs of the La Tabla Formation . Both units crop out at the western end of the salt flat. At the northwestern end are several faulted Jurassic rock units, while the northern and eastern side are formed by Oligocene and Miocene volcanic units and volcanoes including large calderas . Among

1200-408: The area, and borate , lithium and potassium deposits occur at the margins of Salar de Pedernales; there is one report of asphalt occurrence. Borate mines at its southwestern margin were active in the second half of the 19th century, but by 1990 had been abandoned. They, along with the flamingo population, form a potential target for tourism . The damming of the river has caused a decline in

1250-481: The concentration level. Using one of several classification of groundwater based on total dissolved solids (TDS), brine is water containing more than 100,000 mg/L TDS. Brine is commonly produced during well completion operations, particularly after the hydraulic fracturing of a well. Brine is a common agent in food processing and cooking. Brining is used to preserve or season the food. Brining can be applied to vegetables , cheeses , fruit and some fish in

1300-403: The concentration of salts in the residual fluid, a characteristic geologic deposit called an evaporite is formed as different dissolved ions reach the saturation states of minerals, typically gypsum and halite . Dissolution of such salt deposits into water can produce brines as well. As seawater freezes, dissolved ions tend to remain in solution resulting in a fluid termed a cryogenic brine. At

1350-499: The construction of desalination plants with more corrosion-resistant coatings . Therefore, the concentration values of heavy metals in the discharge of SWRO plants are much lower than the acute toxicity levels to generate environmental impacts on marine ecosystems. The discharge is generally dumped back into the sea, through an underwater outfall or coastal release, due to its lower energy and economic cost compared to other discharge methods. Due to its increase in salinity,

1400-436: The discharge has a greater density compared to the surrounding seawater. Therefore, when the discharge reaches the sea, it can form a saline plume that can tends to follow the bathymetric line of the bottom until it is completely diluted. The distribution of the salt plume may depend on different factors, such as the production capacity of the plant, the discharge method, the oceanographic and environmental conditions of

1450-554: The discharge point, among others. Brine discharge might lead to an increase in salinity above certain threshold levels that has the potential to affect benthic communities , especially those more sensitive to osmotic pressure, finally having an effect on their abundance and diversity. However, if appropriate mitigation measures are applied, the potential environmental impacts of discharges from SWRO plants can be correctly minimized. Some examples can be found in countries such as Spain , Israel , Chile or Australia , in which

1500-493: The discharge, and which could affect the physical-chemical quality of the effluent . However, these are practically consumed during the process and the concentrations in the discharge are very low, which are practically diluted during the discharge, without affecting marine ecosystems . The materials used in SWRO plants are dominated by non-metallic components and stainless steels , since lower operating temperatures allow

1550-469: The eastern margin of Salar de Pedernales, while rivers formed deltas on its southern side. The watershed of Salar de Pedernales has an area of 3,596.2 km (1,388.5 sq mi), with the highest elevations exceeding 6,000 m (20,000 ft) reached at the Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas . The major inflow to Salar de Pedernales comes from Rio Ola, which drains the southern part of

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1600-620: The eastern margin of the salt flat and along the Ola river. The early habitation has been correlated to the Huentelauquén cultural complex from the Pacific coast; it exploited rodents and birds as food sources and constructed numerous animal traps around Salar de Pedernales. During the middle Holocene , prolonged drought led to the abandonment of the region, until about 3000 years ago. Obsidian findings indicate that Salar de Pedernales

1650-555: The flat. The fauna is concentrated along the La Ola river. Animal and freshwater sources close to the salt flat were used by early inhabitants in the region. The earliest human activity has been dated to 11,612–11,201 years ago. Archaeological sites close to the salt flat indicate that it was populated in the early Holocene , with sites found at the Quebrada de Pedernales at the southwestern margin, on lacustrine terraces at

1700-460: The formation of the Andes , the former course of the Río Salado  [ es ] was blocked. Presently, the main water source of Salar de Pedernales is the Ola river, which enters from the southeast. The salt flat is a habitat for birds (mainly flamingoes ) and lizards. Prehistoric people used resources around the area, leaving numerous archaeological sites. Presently, the Ola river is used as

1750-441: The higher temperature of brine, the system efficiency over air blast freezing can be higher. High-value fish usually are frozen at much lower temperatures, below the practical temperature limit for brine. Brine is an auxiliary agent in water softening and water purification systems involving ion exchange technology. The most common example are household dishwashers , utilizing sodium chloride in form of dishwasher salt . Brine

1800-669: The late Pleistocene , the climate was much wetter in the Central Andes as part of the Central Andean Pluvial Event , leading to the formation of lakes like Lake Minchin in the Altiplano . This may have raised water levels in Salar de Pedernales by about 30 m (98 ft); carbonates from a highstand have been dated to about 29,730 ± 1,440 years ago. This lake may have covered an area of 540 km (210 sq mi) and left shorelines along

1850-480: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedernales&oldid=876771859 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Salar de Pedernales Rocks around Salar de Pedernales range in age from Paleozoic to Miocene . The salt flat formed when during

1900-608: The mitigation measures adopted reduce the area affected by the discharge, guaranteeing a sustainable development of the desalination process without significant impacts on marine ecosystems. When noticeable effects have been detected on the environment surrounding discharge areas, it generally corresponds to old desalination plants in which the correct mitigation measures were not implemented. Some examples can be found in Spain, Australia or Chile, where it has been shown that saline plumes do not exceed values of 5% with respect to

1950-414: The natural salinity of the sea in a radius less than 100 m from the point of discharge when proper measures are adopted. The mitigation measures that are typically employed to prevent negatively impact sensitive marine environment are listed below: Currently, in many countries, such as Spain , Israel , Chile and Australia , the development of a rigorous environmental impact assessment process

2000-515: The northwest during the Quaternary . Windblown silt and sediment transported by rivers has buried part of the salt flat. Oil seeps out of the salt flat in several places. Wind has formed salt dunes southeast of Salar de Pedernales. About 0.6 km (0.23 sq mi) –1.1 km (0.42 sq mi) of the salt flat is open water, mostly in its northern part in the form of lagoons. The ponds reach diameters of several metres;

2050-494: The ones in the northeastern sector are the deepest. At the western margin there are shallow freshwater channels bordered with grass. Seepage water from the salt flat has produced dark slope streaks. These been compared to dark slope streaks on Mars , and may constitute a model for the "wet" origin of Martian streaks. South of the salt flat lies the Llano Pedernales, which is covered by waterborne sediments. During

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2100-1072: The outfall of a wastewater treatment or power plant. Since brine is heavier than seawater and would accumulate on the ocean bottom, it requires methods to ensure proper diffusion, such as installing underwater diffusers in the sewerage . Other methods include drying in evaporation ponds , injecting to deep wells, and storing and reusing the brine for irrigation, de-icing or dust control purposes. Technologies for treatment of polluted brine include: membrane filtration processes, such as reverse osmosis and forward osmosis ; ion exchange processes such as electrodialysis or weak acid cation exchange ; or evaporation processes, such as thermal brine concentrators and crystallizers employing mechanical vapour recompression and steam. New methods for membrane brine concentration, employing osmotically assisted reverse osmosis and related processes, are beginning to gain ground as part of zero liquid discharge systems (ZLD). Brine consists of concentrated solution of Na and Cl ions. Sodium chloride per se does not exist in water: it

2150-520: The river recaptured part of its former watershed in the Precordillera . Salar de Pedernales features a high-desert climate, with mean annual precipitation of 100 mm (3.9 in)–125 mm (4.9 in) and an annual average temperature of 4 °C (39 °F), with high temperature differences between night and day. Salar de Pedernales lies in the transition area between the summer and winter rain region; precipitation originates from

2200-611: The salt flat. Thrust faults have raised the Paleozoic rocks over more recent units, while normal faults form grabens and raised area under the salt flat. The deformation of the rocks probably took place in the Cretaceous and Paleogene , during the orogeny of the Andes. It caused the upper parts of the Rio Salado watershed to separate from the river, generating Salar de Pedernales which then filled with evaporites . Later,

2250-470: The state of the surrounding marine environment. Under the context of this environmental assessment process, numerous countries require compliance with an Environmental Monitoring Program (PVA), in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the preventive and corrective measures established during the environmental assessment process, and thus guarantee the operation of desalination plants without producing significant environmental impacts. The PVAs establishes

2300-582: The time of formation, these cryogenic brines are by definition cooler than the freezing temperature of seawater and can produce a feature called a brinicle where cool brines descend, freezing the surrounding seawater. The brine cropping out at the surface as saltwater springs are known as "licks" or "salines". The contents of dissolved solids in groundwater vary highly from one location to another on Earth, both in terms of specific constituents (e.g. halite , anhydrite , carbonates , gypsum , fluoride -salts, organic halides , and sulfate -salts) and regarding

2350-556: The volcanic rocks are the 16 million years old Los Cristales ignimbrite and the 9 million years old San Andrés ignimbrite. The Jurassic rocks contain ammonite fossils . Together with the Salar de Atacama and the Salar de Punta Negra , Salar de Pedernales forms one of the pre-Andean basins of the Andes. The local geology is largely hidden below the salt surface and can be discerned mainly through field work and seismic tomography . The Potrerillos thrust-and-fold belt extends below

2400-669: The water supply to the salt flat and a decline of its vegetation and that of the Quebrada Pedernales. Allegations of damages caused by overexploitation of the salt flat's water resources led to lawsuits against the National Copper Corporation of Chile in the 2020s, which forced the company to develop a wetland management plan for Salar de Pedernales. 26°13′42″S 69°08′51″W  /  26.22833°S 69.14750°W  / -26.22833; -69.14750 Brine Brine (or briny water )

2450-448: The western part of the salt flat and a less active part at its centre. Surface features of the salt flat include tubes, polygons, pinnacles, and conical mounds formed by salt. The salt flat is zoned, with the central portion containing halite and the marginal ones sulfate . Under the surface lie layers of compacted halite and lagoon sediments. Tilted layers indicate older salt flat surfaces, as Salar de Pedernales has been tilted to

2500-808: Was on a trade route leading into the Andes. Later still, the Inca extended part of their road system , which passed on the western side of Salar de Pedernales, to the region and built ceremonial platforms. For some time, Salar de Pedernales may have been a stopping point for caravans. Beginning in 1927, the Rio Ola was dammed and most of its flow diverted to copper processing plants at Potrerillos and El Salvador. The National Copper Corporation of Chile acquired mining rights at Salar de Pedernales in 1977, and in 2017 created another company that aimed at developing lithium reserves at Salar de Pedernales in cooperation with private companies. Oil wells have been dug in

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