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116-664: Candi Panataran is a Shiva (Siwa) temple. It is notable for including one of the largest Indonesian collections of reliefs showing the life stories of the Hindu god Vishnu in different avatar . In particular, the temple site includes the Rama story in the Javanese version of the epic Ramayana , as well Krishna story as depicted Triguna's Krishnayana epic poem. Comparative studies of reliefs related to Hindu epics at Penataran and Prambanan temple (Yogyakarta) complexes have attracted

232-506: A Bodhi tree, a riderless horse with a parasol floating above an empty space (at Sanchi ), Buddha's footprints , and the dharma wheel . However, other persons and their surroundings are often depicted in great numbers and care, and the scenes are often crowded, but with an empty space in the centre. In relation to the image of the Buddha, this aniconistic tradition could have been based on an ancient Buddhist rule which prohibited images of

348-544: A Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm . He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras ", a group of storm gods. Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins. Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Wodan ,

464-496: A prophet , saints , or sages , or even depictions of living beings and anything in existence generally. It is generally codified by religious traditions and as such, it becomes a taboo . When it is enforced by the physical destruction of images, aniconism becomes iconoclasm . Aniconism has historical phases in both Buddhism and Christianity , though these movements have been largely rejected as Buddha in art , life of Buddha in art , Buddhas and bodhisattvas in art , God

580-604: A German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart. Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting

696-399: A Jewish art. It is Kaufmann's own merit to have uncovered this art. Not only did he have to prove that such an art existed, he also had to prove that it could exist, as he showed that the idea that the prohibition of images would obstruct the development of such an art was mistaken, and even established it as an irrefutable fact that the art in wide areas was not prohibited insofar as no worship

812-448: A couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man. The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley , for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account". Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as

928-531: A fatwa declaring the depiction of Muhammad , Islamic prophets and other characters considered holy, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect. Neither is the representation of living beings in Islamic countries a modern phenomenon or due to current technology, westernization or the cult of the personality. Statues of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Ummayad era, while frescoes were common under

1044-645: A fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi . The horns of Agni , who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature. According to Wendy Doniger , the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra . Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare,

1160-434: A householder with his wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya . In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first Yogi ), regarded as the patron god of yoga , meditation and the arts. The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent king Vasuki around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair,

1276-475: A manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva. A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra , and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen –

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1392-647: A part of ritual. In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions. The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair. The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation. The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme,

1508-505: A proto-Shiva would "go too far". The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion , and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion. The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva, or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on

1624-773: A single major deity. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in India , Nepal , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali ). Saiddhantika Non - Saiddhantika According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, the word " śiva " ( Devanagari : शिव , also transliterated as shiva ) means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly". The root words of śiva in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace". The word Shiva

1740-595: A stricter attitude towards images, at least in synagogues. There is also evidence that from about 570 new synagogue mosaics were aniconic. An alternative explanation for the removals is that they were done after the Muslim conquest , and related to the decree of Caliph Yazid II in 721 (although this referred to Christian images). The decoration of cave walls and sarcophagi at the Jewish cemetery at Beit She'arim also uses images, some drawn from Hellenistic pagan mythology, in

1856-590: A subject of debate, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha are frequently considered a result of the Greco-Buddhist interaction, a cultural exchange which was particularly widespread in Gandhara , a theory which was first fully expounded upon by Alfred A. Foucher , but from the start, it was criticized by Ananda Coomaraswamy . Foucher also accounted for the origins of the aniconistic symbols by collecting small souvenirs which he removed from

1972-452: Is צלם tselem , used in such verses as Genesis 1:26: "let us make man in our image", where this word for 'image' was not associated with idols.) Based on these prohibitions, the Hebrew prophets, such as Isaiah , Jeremiah , Amos , and others, preached very strongly against idolatry. In many of their sermons, as recorded in the biblical books bearing their names, the prophets regarded

2088-592: Is a patron deity of farming and herding castes . The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri . Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya . Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early Christianity " existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he

2204-663: Is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds, Sira al-Nabi . Of no less interest is the validity of sightings of holy personages made during dreams. In practice, the core of normative religion in Islam is consistently aniconic. Its embodiment are spaces such as the mosque and objects like the Qur'an or the white dress of pilgrims entering Mecca , deprived of figurative images. Other spheres of religion – schisms, mysticism, popular piety, private level – exhibit in this regard significant variability. Profane aniconism

2320-532: Is better known in connection to Abrahamic religions , basic patterns are shared between various religious beliefs including Hinduism, which also has aniconistic beliefs. For example, although Hinduism is commonly represented by such anthropomorphic religious murtis , aniconism is equally represented with such abstract symbols of God such as the Shiva linga and the saligrama . Moreover, Hindus have found it easier to focus on anthropomorphic icons, because Krishna in

2436-576: Is common among fundamentalist Sunni sects such as Salafis and Wahhabis (which are also often iconoclastic ), and less prevalent among liberal movements in Islam . Shi'a and mystical orders also have less stringent views on aniconism. On the individual level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith (e.g. Submitters do not believe in any hadith), and how liberal or strict they are in personal practice. Aniconism in Islam not only deals with

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2552-410: Is even more fluctuating. Generally speaking aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in modern times to specific religious contexts, while its prevalence in the past wasn't enforced in numerous areas and during extended periods. Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized with noteworthy differences. Factors are the epoch considered,

2668-853: Is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions. Shiva is also Part of 'Om' (ॐ) as a 'U' (उ). The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts. The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist ( Advaita ) and devotional traditions ( Dvaita ), such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism . Shiva temples feature items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within

2784-641: Is fashionable to celebrate and advertise the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses. Sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Taliban fighters from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography ). For Shi'a communities, portraits of the major figures of Shi'ite history are important elements of religious devotion. Portraits of ' Ali – with veiled and unveiled face alike – can be bought in Iran around shrines and in

2900-498: Is forbidden to make complete solid or raised images of people or angels, or any images of heavenly bodies except for purposes of study". ("Heavenly bodies" are included here because the stars and planets were worshipped by some religions in human forms. Astronomical models for scientific purposes are permitted under the category of "study.") A breakdown can be found in the Shulkhan Aruch, section Yoreh De'ah , which takes

3016-529: Is forbidden to make the four faces on the Divine Chariot of the Book of Ezekiel or the ministering angels, because these are believed to be real beings that actually exist "in the heaven above." ( Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 168:1) Although the prohibition mainly applies to sculpture , there are some authorities who also prohibit two-dimensional full-face depictions. Some base this upon their understanding of

3132-467: Is kind and tranquil (Shiva). The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in

3248-535: Is known today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath: Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent

3364-455: Is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu. Aniconic Aniconism is the cultural absence of artistic representations ( icons ) of the natural and supernatural worlds, or it is the absence of representations of certain figures in religions . The prohibition of material representations may only extend to a specific supreme deity, or it can encompass an entire pantheon , it can also include depictions of

3480-476: Is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)". Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms), and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism

3596-453: Is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull . John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but

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3712-520: Is not related to prohibitions against idolatry, but, rather, to the content of network and cable programming. Hasidim of all groups regularly display portraits of their Rebbes , and, in some communities, the children trade "rabbi cards" that are similar to baseball cards. In both Hasidic and Orthodox Judaism , taking photographs or filming are forbidden on the Shabbat and Jewish holy days , but this prohibition has nothing to do with idolatry. Rather, it

3828-756: Is one of the principal deities of Hinduism . He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism , one of the major traditions within Hinduism. Shiva is known as The Destroyer within the Trimurti , the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu . In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe. In the goddess-oriented Shakta tradition,

3944-537: Is one of the four major sects of Hinduism , the others being Vaishnavism , Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition . Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he

4060-412: Is present in various illustrated manuscripts. However, there are no known figurative depictions of God. Medieval Muslim artists found various ways not to infringe any prohibition of the image, while still representing living beings. It can be argued that since God is absolute, the act of depiction is his own and not that of a human; and miniatures are obviously very crude representations of the reality, so

4176-487: Is prohibited. Having images or sculptures of Jesus, Jehovah (God), and angels is also considered a taboo according to their interpretation of Exodus 20:4,5 and 1 Corinthians 10:14. Followers are also admonished to avoid any objects portraying depictions of the supernatural. The Quran , the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; it merely condemns idolatry (e.g.: 5:92 , 21:52 ). Interdictions of figurative representation are present in

4292-652: Is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"), Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"), and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord"). Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama , devotional hymns ( stotras ) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 ( Anuśāsanaparvan ) of

4408-545: Is related to the prohibition against working or creating on these days. Many art historians have long believed that in antiquity , there was a tradition, with no surviving examples, of scroll production in which luxuriously illuminated manuscript scrolls which contained the texts of the books of the Tanakh were produced by Hellenized Jews . Evidence of this tradition exists in the form of Late Ancient and Early Medieval Christian works which contain iconography which

4524-511: Is the Birds' Head Haggadah (Germany, circa 1300). Because such creatures as gryphons , harpies , sphinxes , and the phoenix do not actually exist, no violation of the prohibition is perceived in such depictions. This is based on the fact that the commandment, as stated in Exodus, refers specifically to "anything in the heaven above, on the earth below, or in the water below the land." However, it

4640-535: Is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver". Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv - , which means "to injure" or "to kill", interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness". The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It

4756-406: Is thought of now, and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him. For instance, he and the other gods , from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating emotions they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through asceticism like humans. In that era, Shiva

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4872-620: Is thought to be derived from older iconography which was contained in works which were produced in accordance with this Hellenistic Jewish tradition. Examples of the later works include the Joshua Roll and, more controversially, the Utrecht Psalter . The 3rd century CE Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria has large areas of wall paintings with figures of the prophets and others, and narrative scenes. There are several representations of

4988-599: Is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda ( c.  1700–1100 BCE ), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities , including Rudra . The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who

5104-683: Is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun ( śivan , "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda. The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who

5220-465: Is widely-believed that the large free-standing iconic images of the Buddha which are so prevalent in later works of Buddhist art are not prevalent in works of Buddhist art which were produced during the earliest period of the history of Buddhism ; discussion is focused on smaller figures in relief panels, conventionally considered to represent scenes from the life of the Buddha, and now re-interpreted by Huntington and her supporters. Although aniconism

5336-728: The Mahabharata provides one such list. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa . The Shri Rudram Chamakam , also known as the Śatarudriya , is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names. The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent , such as India, Nepal , Sri Lanka , and Southeast Asia , such as Bali, Indonesia . Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots, having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols." The figure of Shiva as he

5452-547: The Nirukta , an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch: The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination. In the Śatarudrīya , some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest

5568-503: The Bactria–Margiana Culture . According to Anthony, Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from

5684-546: The Bhagavad Gita , chapter 12, verse 5, said that it is much more difficult to focus on God as the unmanifested than God with form, because human beings have a need to perceive via the senses. There were two periods of iconoclasm, or icon-destruction, in the Byzantine Empire , in the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. The political aspects of the conflicts are complex, dealing with the relationship between

5800-612: The Hadith , among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of Muhammad , they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in any general manner. Sunni exegetes , from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and using any representation of living beings. There are variations between religious schools and marked differences between different branches of Islam. Aniconism

5916-692: The Hand of God , suggesting that this motif reached Christian art from Judaism. A virtually unique Christian mosaic depiction of the Ark of the Covenant (806) at Germigny-des-Prés , which includes the hand, is believed also to be derived from Jewish iconography; the Ark also appears at Dura-Europos. Several ancient synagogues in the land of Israel have also been excavated, revealing large floor-mosaics with figurative elements, especially animals and representations of

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6032-647: The International Archives building, where the Baháʼís view it as part of an organized Baháʼí pilgrimage . In Africa aniconism varies from culture to culture from elaborate masks and statues of humans and animals to their total absence. A common feature, however, across the continent, is the refusal to give the "High God" a material shape. About the Germanic tribes , the Roman historian Tacitus writes

6148-464: The Linga Purana , present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage ( Tirtha ) associated with him. The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti . Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita ), are

6264-797: The Talmud , and others based it upon Kabbalah . Of note is the portrait of Rabbi Tzvi Ashkenazi (known as "the Hakham Tzvi"), which is housed in the Jewish Museum in London . Based on his interpretation of this prohibition, Tzvi refused to sit for his portrait. However, the London Jewish Community wanted a portrait, so they commissioned the portrait to be done without the Tzvi's knowledge. Tzvi's son, Rabbi Jacob Emden , says it

6380-743: The Zodiac . Some of these, notably at Naaran in the West Bank , have had the living figures removed, leaving inanimate symbols such as the Temple menorah intact. It has been proposed that this was done by the Jewish community in the 6th or early 7th century, as part of a controversy within Judaism over images that paralleled that within Christianity leading to the Byzantine iconoclasm , leading to

6496-492: The third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the trishula or trident as his weapon, and the damaru . He is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of lingam . Shiva has pre-Vedic roots, and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also have non-Vedic origins, into

6612-484: The 15th and 17th century representations of Muhammad (veiled, unveiled ) and other prophets or Biblical characters, like Adam, Abraham or Jesus; and Solomon and Alexander the Great, became common in painted manuscripts from Persia, India and Turkey. Extreme rarities are an illustrated Qur'an depicting Muhammad and, in a Spanish-Muslim manuscript datable from the 16th century, five Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. Iblis too

6728-522: The 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his tandava dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining

6844-551: The 20th century, Judaism was always believed to have been an aniconistic religion. This view was probably first challenged by David Kaufmann , who marshalled a large and comprehensive corpus of data in order to prove that this belief was untenable. He was the first person to use the term "Jewish art" in an article which he published in 1878, and he is also considered the founder of the scholarly discipline of Jewish art history . In 1901, his disciple Dr. Samuel Krauss wrote: As late as ten years ago it would have been absurd to speak about

6960-566: The 2nd to 4th centuries CE. There are many later Jewish illuminated manuscripts from the Middle Ages, and some other works with human figures. The " Birds' Head Haggadah " (German, now in Jerusalem) gives all the human figures the heads of birds, presumably in an attempt to mitigate any breach of the prohibition. In a refutation of the belief in an aniconistic form of Judaism, and more generally in an underestimation of Jewish visual arts,

7076-403: The BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora , extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in

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7192-424: The Biblical commandment "Thou shalt not make unto thyself a graven image," and the belief that photographs can "steal your soul," among other reasons. Modern Amish differ in their attitudes towards photography, with some accepting it as a part of the modern world around them. Among Jehovah's Witnesses , followers are prohibited from wearing religious themed jewelry displaying icons such as the cross, as idol worship

7308-406: The Buddha actually existed during the supposedly aniconistic period, which ended during the 1st century CE. Huntington also rejects the association of "aniconistic" and "iconic" art with the division that emerged between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. Huntington's views have been challenged by Vidya Dehejia and others. Although some earlier examples of them have been found in recent years, it

7424-436: The Buddha in which he appeared in human form, a rule which is written in the Sarvastivada vinaya (the rules of the early Buddhist school of the Sarvastivada ): "Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava". Although they are still

7540-526: The Byzantine Emperors, the Catholic Church and Orthodox Church councils, and the Pope . Theologically, the debate, as with most in Orthodox theology at the time, revolved around the two natures of Jesus . Iconoclasts believed that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at the same time, but separately. Because an icon which depicted Jesus as purely physical would be Nestorianism , and one which showed Him as both human and divine would not be able to do so without confusing

7656-425: The Father in Western art , Holy Spirit in Christian art , the depiction of Jesus , The Trinity in art , and Manus Dei are common. By contrast Judaism and Islam have predominantly been aniconistic throughout their histories, including representations of major figures such as Muhammad . The word "aniconism" is derived from Greek εικων 'image' with the negative prefix an- (Greek privative alpha ) and

7772-464: The Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the wild hunt . According to Sadasivan, during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with Rudra . The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that

7888-424: The Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith, stated that believers should only view the images when they can be treated with the utmost respect, and not let them be exposed to the public or displayed in their private homes: Shoghi Effendi has also written in the Directives from the Guardian regarding the portrait of the Báb : Two pictures of Bahá'u'lláh and a portrait of the Báb are on display at the Baháʼí World Centre in

8004-440: The LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate Me; and showing mercy unto the thousandth generation of them that love Me and keep My commandments. Leviticus 26:1 reads: Ye shall make you no idols, neither shall ye rear you up a graven image, or a pillar, neither shall ye place any figured stone in your land, to bow down unto it; for I am

8120-413: The LORD your God. Similar injunctions appear in Numbers 33:52, Deuteronomy 4:16, and 27:15; in all cases, the creation of the image is associated with idolatry, and indeed, the words commonly translated as 'image' or some variant thereof ( פסל pesel , שקוץ shikuts ) are generally used interchangeably with words typically translated as 'idol' (e.g. אליל elil ). (An important exception

8236-401: The Nandi bull, the Indian zebu , in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same. Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in

8352-848: The Puritans and some of the Baptist churches) began to prohibit the display of religious images. There were aggressive campaigns of iconoclasm , or the destruction of images (and often much else); the most famous is perhaps the Beeldenstorm in the Netherlands in 1566, where the attacks were mostly on churches that were still Catholic. In the Church of the East , also known as the Nestorian church, opposition to religious images eventually became

8468-591: The Supreme Goddess ( Devi ) is regarded as the energy and creative power ( Shakti ) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva. Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Kailasa as well as

8584-760: The Umayyads, and later in many Muslim countries, notably under the Safavids and various Central Asian dynasties. Figurative miniatures from Medieval Arabic countries, India, Persia and Turkey are among the pinnacles of Islamic art and account for a good deal of its attraction. Potent rulers like Shah Tahmasp in Persia and Akbar in India, patrons of some of the most beautiful figurative miniatures in arts from Islamic countries, migrated during their life between an extravagant 'figurative' and an extremist 'aniconic' period. During

8700-681: The Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality. The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states: Vishnu

8816-464: The Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence. The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle ( vahana ) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state

8932-665: The appearance of violating this injunction. Most notably, Rabbi David ibn Zimra and Rabbi Joseph Karo hold that carvings of lions (representing the Lion of Judah ) are inappropriate in synagogues. Some authorities hold that Judaism has no objection to photography or other forms of two-dimensional art, and depictions of humans can be seen in religious books such as the Passover Haggadah , as well as children's books about biblical and historical personages. Although most Hasidic Jews object to having televisions in their homes, this

9048-699: The attention of archaeologists. This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on October 19, 1995, in the Cultural category. This temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java. The site is being considered to be put on the World Heritage list of sites that have "outstanding universal value" to

9164-506: The beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism , or henotheism , rather than being a text just on Shiva theism. Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads He who sees himself in all beings, And all beings in him, attains

9280-532: The case of Al Jazeera , with a global reach, beyond the Arabic-speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes and coins, in streets and offices. Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries ( Saddam Hussein 's are infamous ), as well as arts schools training sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it

9396-407: The country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the private benefit or the dichotomy between reality and discourse. Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in

9512-489: The creation of various forms of images, invariably linked directly with idolatry . The strongest source is based on what Judaism counts as the second of the Ten Commandments : Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, nor any manner of likeness, of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; thou shalt not bow down unto them, nor serve them; for I

9628-441: The earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second". The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks

9744-400: The early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate. Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as

9860-677: The faces of the gods" as a negative event. In some Australian Aboriginal cultural groups , the "naming and depiction of recently deceased people is often prohibited under customary law and the mourning period may last for weeks, months or years". It is believed that depicting them will inhibit their passage to the Great Dreaming of the Ancestors. Some broadcasters (such as the ABC ) include content warnings in programs or articles that depict Aboriginal people. The prohibition does not apply to

9976-537: The figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways. Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic , seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position , surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati ), an epithet of

10092-590: The following: "They don't consider it mighty enough for the Heavens to depict Gods on walls or to display them in some human shape." His observation was not general to all the Germanic peoples (or, similar to the Greeks , it evolved after his time) as documentary evidence suggests (see Ardre image stones ). In the ancient Etruscan religion , the dii involuti or "veiled gods", a group of gods who were superior to

10208-475: The foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta . Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita ), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being. In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts. Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in

10324-504: The highest Brahman , not by any other means. — Kaivalya Upanishad 10 Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the Mahabharata . The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but

10440-456: The historian of ideas Kalman Bland recently proposed that the phenomenon is a modern construction, and he backed up his claim by stating that "Jewish aniconism crystallized simultaneously with the construction of modern Jewish identities". Others have also argued that the notion of a total prohibition of figural representation in the Biblical and Hellenistic-Roman periods is untenable. Until

10556-456: The idea of aniconism is an intellectual construction rather than a fact of tangible reality, it suits specific intents and historical contexts. Since the beginning of the serious study of the history of Buddhist art in the 1890s, the earliest phase, which lasted until the 1st century CE, has been described as aniconistic ; the Buddha was only represented with symbols such as an empty throne ,

10672-423: The later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a " yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood , John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion. Gavin Flood states that it

10788-521: The life of the Buddha, but worship of cetiya (relics) or re-enactments by devotees at the places where these scenes occurred. Thus the image of the empty throne shows an actual relic-throne at Bodh Gaya or elsewhere. She points out that there is only one indirect reference for a specific aniconic doctrine in Buddhism to be found, and that pertaining to only one sect. As for the archeological evidence, it shows that some anthropomorphic sculptures of

10904-552: The literal meaning of פסל pesel as "graven image" (from the root פסל p-s-l , 'to engrave'. ) The prohibition is therefore seen as applying specifically to certain forms of sculpture and depictions of the human face. In keeping with this prohibition, some illustrations from the Middle Ages feature fantastic creatures—usually animal-headed humanoids , even when the depictions are quite clearly meant to be those of historical or mythological humans. The most well-known

11020-515: The main pilgrimage sites and carried away, souvenirs which were later recognized and popularized as symbols of the events which occurred at the site. Other explanations stated that it was inappropriate to represent a person who had attained nirvana . However, in 1990, the notion of aniconism in Buddhism was challenged by Susan Huntington , initiating a vigorous debate among specialists that still continues to occur. She sees many early scenes claimed to be aniconic as in fact not depicting scenes from

11136-415: The material image, but touches upon mental representations as well. It is a thorny question, discussed by early theologians, as to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so. God is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such as "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from His " Ninety-nine beautiful names ". Muhammad's physical appearance, however,

11252-483: The multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara." An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra , where a regional deity named Khandoba

11368-475: The norm due to the rise of Islam in the region, where it forbade any type of depictions of saints and biblical prophets . As such, the Church was forced to get rid of their icons. This tradition is still in practice today, with many Assyrian churches lacking artistic depictions of biblical figures, including those of Jesus and Mary. Some Amish prefer not to have their photo taken. This has been attributed to

11484-474: The ordinary pantheon and regulated the infliction of disasters, were never named or depicted. Depictions of gods more generally were infrequent in Etruscan civilization until after the adoption of Greek influences in the "Orientalizing" period of the 7th–6th centuries BC, and sometimes carried negative associations, their faces in particular. An Etruscan divination calendar describes being "visited with visions of

11600-506: The premises, and relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva. The Tantric Shiva ( "शिव ") tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as

11716-511: The presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva. Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by

11832-733: The proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid. The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies. Shaivism

11948-543: The situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus , as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life. The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus "god of the Orient" . Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus ) and Roman deities, as

12064-592: The start of the Kushan Empire. The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (Self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva. The Shaiva Puranas , particularly the Shiva Purana and

12180-680: The streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself, while in Pakistan , India and Bangladesh they notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshas. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shi'ite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is an Orientalist photograph supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq gave

12296-502: The suffix -ism (Greek -ισμος). Iconoclasm is the active destruction of images for religious or cultural reasons. In monotheistic religions , aniconism was shaped by theological considerations and historical contexts. It emerged as a corollary in which people believed that God was the ultimate power holder, and people who practiced it believed that they needed to defend God's unique status against competing external and internal forces, such as pagan idols and critical humans. Idolatry

12412-680: The transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3. ) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts , but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from

12528-544: The two can't be mistaken. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered by a veil or all humans have a stroke drawn over their neck, a symbolic cut preventing them from being alive. Calligraphy , the most Islamic of arts in the Muslim world, has also its figurative side due to anthropo- and zoomorphic calligrams . A number of verses in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) refer to prohibitions against

12644-626: The two natures into one mixed nature, which was Monophysitism , all icons were thus heretical. Reference was also made to the prohibitions on the worship of graven images in the Law of Moses . Aniconism was also prevalent during the Protestant Reformation , when some Protestants began to preach rejection of what they perceived as idolatrous Catholic practices which filled its churches with pictures, statues, or relics of saints. The Reformed (Calvinist) churches and certain sects (most notably

12760-593: The use of religious images as a negative sign of assimilation into the surrounding pagan cultures of the time. Lenient Torah commentators permit drawing of humans as long as the images are not used for idolatry. Despite the semantic association with idols, halakha (Jewish law) as codified by the Shulkhan Aruch interprets the verses as prohibiting the creation of certain types of graven images of people, angels, or astronomical bodies, whether or not they are actually used as idols. The Shulkhan Aruch states: "It

12876-586: The world. However, in 2015, the site was pulled out from the tentative list along with 11 other sites. This article about an Indonesian religious building or structure is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Shiva Shiva ( / ˈ ʃ ɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : शिव , lit.   'The Auspicious One', IAST : Śiva [ɕɪʋɐ] ), also known as Mahadeva ( / m ə ˈ h ɑː ˈ d eɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : महादेव: , lit.   'The Great God', IAST : Mahādevaḥ , [mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh ) or Hara ,

12992-448: Was a perfect likeness. There is one type of representation, bas-relief or raised representation on a flat surface, that is particularly problematic. Rabbi Jacob Emden discusses a medal struck in honor of Rabbi Eliezer Horowitz that features Horowitz's portrait. Emden ruled this violated the injunction against depictions. Many hold that such representations in the synagogue either violate this injunction or are not permitted, as they give

13108-553: Was associated with it. Like other Abrahamic religions, depictions of God are prohibited in the Bahá’í Faith and Bahá’í Houses of Worship are devoid of statues or images. Photographs and depictions of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh , who are considered Manifestations of God , are considered very precious. They are viewed and handled with reverence and respect, and their existence itself is not considered offensive. However, Shoghi Effendi ,

13224-578: Was seen as a threat to God's uniqueness, and one way in which prophets and missionaries chose to fight against it was through the prohibition of physical representations. The same solution worked against humans who pretended to have the same power of creation that God had (hence, their banishment from the Heavens, the destruction of Babel , and the Second Commandment in the biblical texts). Some modern scholars who have studied various cultures have gathered material which shows that in many cases,

13340-424: Was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward. Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins. Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra , and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures . The two names are used synonymously. Rudra,

13456-582: Was widely viewed as both the god of lust and of asceticism. In one story, he was seduced by a prostitute sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for 1000 years. Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the Mesolithic from Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva. However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that

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