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111-582: The monument features a 28-foot (8.53 m) heroic-sized bronze sculpture, Angel of the Resurrection , that portrays Michael the Archangel lifting up the soul of a dead soldier from the "flames of war". The sculpture is set upon an 11-foot (3.35 m) black-granite base, with two inscribed dedications and four bronze plaques listing the 1,307 names in alphabetical order. The work was designed and created by Walker Hancock (1901–1998), Instructor of Sculpture at

222-678: A LMLK seal , led de Vaux to identify Qumran as the City of Salt listed in Josh 15:62. The site, however, may be identified with Secacah , which is referenced in the same area as the City of Salt in the Book of Joshua 15:61. Secacah is mentioned in the Copper Scroll , and the water works of Secacah that are described in this source are consistent with those of Qumran. The excavations revealed that after

333-412: A 2010 season). Some new discoveries have been made. Most of the small finds from the de Vaux excavations were taken back to Jerusalem to be used in later excavation reports for Qumran, but the death of Roland de Vaux brought a halt to the reports and the small finds were left to gather dust on shelves in museum backrooms. In the late 1980s, archaeologist Robert Donceel worked on the de Vaux materials in

444-466: A battle with the " prince of Persia ", after which, at the end-time, "Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will arise". Enoch was instrumental in establishing the pre-eminent place of Michael among the angels or archangels, and in later Jewish works, he is said to be their chief, mediating the Torah (the law of God), and standing at the right hand of the throne of God. In the traditions of

555-422: A central courtyard and a defensive tower on its north-western corner; and a secondary building to the west. The excavation revealed a complex water system that had supplied water to several stepped cisterns, some quite large, located in various parts of the site. Two of these cisterns were within the walls of the main building. Both the buildings and the water system evince signs of consistent evolution throughout

666-477: A church was dedicated to him in the early fourth century on the 12th of the month of Paoni . The 12th of the month of Hathor is the celebration of Michael's appointment in heaven, where Michael became the chief of the angels. Protestants recognize Michael as an archangel. The Anglican and Methodist traditions recognize four archangels: Michael, Raphael , Gabriel , and Uriel . The controversial Anglican bishop Robert Clayton (d. 1758) proposed that Michael

777-417: A cry of command, with the voice of an archangel, and with the sound of the trumpet". They believe the prominent roles assigned to Michael at Daniel 12:1, Revelation 12:7, Revelation 19:14, and Revelation 16 are identical to Jesus' roles, being the one chosen to lead God's people and as the only one who "stands up", identifying the two as the same spirit being. Because they identify Michael with Jesus, he

888-1075: A festive service in Lutheran churches, for which Bach composed several cantatas, for example the chorale cantata Herr Gott, dich loben alle wir, BWV 130 in 1724, Es erhub sich ein Streit , BWV 19 , in 1726 and Man singet mit Freuden vom Sieg , BWV 149 , in 1728 or 1729. Many Protestant theologians identify a relationship, (e.g. typological or identical), between Michael with Christ, including: Martin Luther Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg , Andrew Willet Herman Witsius W. L. Alexander , Jacobus Ode, Campegius Vitringa , Philip Melanchthon , Hugh Broughton , Franciscus Junius , Hävernick Amandus Polanus , Johannes Oecolampadius , Samuel Horsely , William Kincaid John Calvin Isaac Watts , John Brown , and James Wood. Charles Spurgeon once stated that Jesus

999-410: A few dozen candidates to the population, yielding over 170 people. From 1983 to 1987 Joseph Patrich carried out archaeological surveys around Qumran and its caves. He concluded that the caves were "stores and hiding places". He found no traces of permanent tent dwellings and that any "dwelling quarters should be sought inside the wall of Khirbet Qumran, mainly on the upper floor". Patrich estimated that

1110-431: A figure of "a few tens of residents, fifty at most". Jodi Magness accepted Broshi's estimate, adding "This number accords better than lower estimates with the presence of over 1000 dining dishes in the pantry (L86)." Working from ratios of populations in other ancient settlements, Yizhar Hirschfeld estimated the population of Qumran thus: "If we use the lower value of fifteen people per dunam [1,000 m ], it emerges that in

1221-573: A full report on the excavations at Qumran. In 1986 the École Biblique appointed the Belgian archaeologist Robert Donceel to the task of publishing the final results of de Vaux's excavations. Preliminary findings were presented at a conference in New York in 1992, but a final report never eventuated. According to Pauline Donceel-Voûte the final report was impossible to write, because many artifacts had been lost or corrupted (in particular, according to

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1332-513: A local garrison. According to Lönnqvist, the technical evidence of the recording and documenting of the Qumran silver coin hoards in 2006–2007 showed that the coins came from lots, groups or batches of coins that originated in a few or one single large payment. This payment may have come from a mint, bank or an authority like the treasury of the Roman army. The new evidence refutes the possibility that

1443-418: A new effort towards publishing excavation reports. He found artifacts he believed did not fit the religious settlement model, including "sophisticated glass and stoneware". In 1992 Pauline Donceel-Voute put forward the Roman villa model in an attempt to explain these artifacts. In 2002 archaeologists Minna and Kenneth Lönnqvist published their archaeological and spatial studies at Qumran bringing another view to

1554-422: A new interpretations as to the importance, chronology and significance of the coins. According to Lönnqvist, the newly dated coins in the silver coin hoards give an earliest possible burial date for the coin hoards to 52/3–66 CE, based on an interpretation of a countermark. However, the archaeological and numismatic nature of the silver coin hoard burials may suggest that the coin hoards may have been buried in

1665-553: A number of Eastern Orthodox hymns and prayer, and his icons are widely used within Eastern Orthodox churches. In many Eastern Orthodox icons, Christ is accompanied by a number of angels, Michael being a predominant figure among them. In Russia, many monasteries, cathedrals, court and merchant churches are dedicated to the Chief Commander Michael; most Russian cities have a church or chapel dedicated to

1776-680: A number of cities and countries. Catholic tradition includes also elements such as the Prayer to Saint Michael , which specifically asks for the faithful to be "defended" by the saint. The Chaplet of Saint Michael consists of nine salutations, one for each choir of angels. Sancte Míchael Archángele, defénde nos in próelio; contra nequítiam et insídias diáboli esto praesídium. Imperet illi Deus, súpplices deprecámur, tuque, Prínceps milítiae caeléstis, Sátanam aliósque spíritus malígnos, qui ad perditiónem animárum pervagántur in mundo, divína virtúte, in inférnum detrúde. Saint Michael

1887-631: A piece of itself, some of which will burn. This is articulated by Al-Tha'labi , whose narrative states that God tells Earth that some will obey him and others will not. Michael is called Mika'il or Mikha'il in Muslim works generally, but in the one instance in which he is mentioned in the Quran he is called Mīkāl. The single Quranic mention comes in the QS 2:98, when the Jews of Medina challenged Muhammed to tell them

1998-484: A place in the Jewish liturgy: "When a man is in need he must pray directly to God, and neither to Michael nor to Gabriel ." Jeremiah addresses a prayer to him. The rabbis declare that Michael entered into his role of defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob said he rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he had been thrown by Nimrod (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv. 16). Some say he

2109-758: A recipient of the Medal of Honor for his bravery in combat in the Philippines . The two inscriptions read: Hancock bequeathed his one-third-scale plaster model to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston . Following years in storage, it was restored and placed on permanent exhibit in the new Art of the Americas Wing, in November 2010. Michael the Archangel Michael , also called Saint Michael

2220-580: A string of fortresses along the southeastern Judean border. Full-scale work at the site began after Roland de Vaux and Gerald Lankester Harding in 1949 excavated what became known as Cave 1, the first scroll-bearing cave. A cursory surface survey that year produced nothing of interest, but continued interest in the scrolls led to a more substantial analysis of the ruins at Qumran in 1951. This analysis yielded traces of pottery closely related to that found in Cave 1. This discovery led to intensive excavations at

2331-459: A supplication reportedly handed down by the 6th Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq , the reciter sends blessing upon Michael (with his name spelled as Mīkā'īl): O Allah! Bestow your blessing on Michael-angel of Your mercy and created for kindness and seeker of pardon for and supporter of the obedient people. In the creation narrative of Adam he was sent to bring a handful of earth, but the Earth did not yield

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2442-464: A tower or stronghold of some kind. The situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensive operations." Finn later suggested Qumran was "some ancient fort with a cistern". The British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing the positioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs, he concluded

2553-524: A tower. Many scholars believe the location was home to a Jewish sect , probably the Essenes . But, according to Lawrence Schiffman , the rules of the community, its heavy stress on priesthood and the Zadokite legacy, and other details indicate a Sadducean -oriented sect either distinct from or one of the various Essene groupings. Others propose non-sectarian interpretations, some of these starting with

2664-564: Is silhouetted against sunlight streaming through the four-story windows between the columns. It remains Hancock's most famous work, and was his personal favorite. The memorial was dedicated on August 10, 1952. Army General Omar Bradley , chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , spoke at the ceremony. It was unveiled by Army Sergeant Robert E. Laws , a sheet-metal worker at the Pennsylvania Railroad's Altoona Works and

2775-473: Is "the true Michael" and "the only Archangel". John Gill comments on Jude 9, "'Yet Michael the archangel ...' By whom is meant, not a created angel, but an eternal one, the Lord Jesus Christ ..." Seventh-day Adventists believe that "Michael" is but one of the many titles applied to the pre-existent Christ, or Son of God. According to Adventists, such a view does not in any way conflict with

2886-516: Is also responsible for universal or environmental events, and is often depicted as the archangel of mercy. He is said to be friendly, asking God for mercy toward humans and is, according to Muslim legends, one of the first to obey God's orders to bow before Adam . He is also responsible for the rewards doled out to good persons in this life. From the tears of Michael, angels are created as his helpers. Consensus of Islamic scholars and clerics has enclosed various hadiths as interpretation material for

2997-450: Is an integral part of the site, as seen with the numerous cisterns and channels. If the large cisterns were ritual baths, the water would sit getting dirtier through ritual bathing throughout the year and was extremely infrequently replenished by the run off. The current state of analysis of the cisterns is still unresolved, but Katharina Galor suggests a mixed usage of the stepped cisterns as both ritual baths and water storage. According to

3108-599: Is best known as the settlement nearest to the Qumran Caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer desert cliffs and beneath, in the marl terrace. The principal excavations at Qumran were conducted by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s, and several later digs have been carried out. Since the 1967 Six-Day War , Qumran has been managed by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority . Since

3219-690: Is often depicted holding scales. In his fourth role, Saint Michael, the special patron of the Chosen People in the Old Testament, is also the guardian of the Church. Saint Michael was revered by the military orders of knights during the Middle Ages . The names of villages around the Bay of Biscay reflect that history. Moreover, doubtless for the same motive he was considered the patron saint of

3330-554: Is therefore considered the first and greatest of all God's heavenly sons, God's chief messenger, who takes the lead in vindicating God's sovereignty , sanctifying his name, fighting the wicked forces of Satan and protecting God's covenant people on earth. Jehovah's Witnesses also identify Michael with the " Angel of the Lord " who led and protected the Israelites in the wilderness. Their earliest teachings stated that Archangel Michael

3441-519: The Book of Tobit , "stand ready and enter before the glory of the Lord". The fact that Michael is introduced implies the knowledge of him and the other named angels. He is mentioned again in last chapters of the Book of Daniel , a Jewish apocalypse composed in the second century BC although set in the sixth, in which a man clothed in linen (never identified, but probably the archangel Gabriel ) tells Daniel that he and "Michael, your prince" are engaged in

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3552-518: The Dead Sea Scrolls —which continued to be discovered in the nearby caves throughout his excavations . De Vaux concluded that the remains at Qumran were left by a sectarian religious community. Using his excavations as well as textual sources, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the historical accounts recorded by Pliny the Elder , Philo , and Flavius Josephus , De Vaux's conclusion was that

3663-549: The Jerusalem Temple Mount . Regarding the scrolls De Vaux cautiously stated that "manuscripts were copied in the scriptorium of Qumran... We may also suppose... that certain works were composed at Khirbet Qumran. But beyond this we cannot go." He believed that the Essenes later hid the scrolls in the nearby caves when they felt their safety was in danger. Roland de Vaux died in 1971 without having provided

3774-545: The Leonine Sacramentary . The seventh-century Gelasian Sacramentary included the feast "S. Michaelis Archangeli" , as did the eighth-century Gregorian Sacramentary . Some of these documents refer to a Basilica Archangeli (no longer extant) on via Salaria in Rome. The angelology of Pseudo-Dionysius , which was widely read as of the sixth century, gave Michael a rank in the hierarchy of angels . Later, in

3885-624: The Litany of the Saints . In the shortened version used in the Easter Vigil , he alone of the angels and archangels is mentioned by name, saints Gabriel and Raphael being omitted. In Roman Catholic teachings , Saint Michael has four main roles or offices. His first role is the leader of the Army of God and the leader of heaven's forces in their triumph over the powers of hell. He is viewed as

3996-583: The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . Hancock served in the U.S. Army during World War II, and had been one of the "Monuments Men" who recovered art looted by the Nazis. The monument is unusual in its intense verticality, which was inspired by the tall Corinthian columns of the concourse's east colonnade behind it. Viewing the monument is particularly dramatic in the morning, when it

4107-531: The Qumran community, he defends or leads the people of God in the eschatological (i.e., end-time) battle. And in other writings, he is responsible for the care of Israel (and he may be the "one like a son of man" mentioned in Daniel 7:13–14) and the commander of the heavenly armies; he is Israel's advocate contesting Satan's claim to the body of Moses; he intercedes between God and humanity and serves as High Priest in

4218-589: The West Bank managed by Israel 's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about 1.5 km (1 mi) from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea , about 10 km (6 mi) south of the historic city of Jericho , and adjacent to the modern Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalya . The Hellenistic period settlement was constructed during the reign of Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus (134–104  BCE ) or somewhat later. Qumran

4329-583: The 19th century. The initial attention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, the first excavations at Qumran (prior to the development of modern methodology) were of burials in the cemetery, conducted by Henry Poole in 1855 followed by Charles Clermont-Ganneau in 1873. Albert Isaacs , British counsel James Finn , and photographer James Graham visited Qumran in December 1856. Isaacs stated regarding Qumran's tower, "It can hardly be doubted that this formed

4440-569: The Archangel , Archangel Michael and Saint Michael the Taxiarch is an archangel in Christianity , Judaism , Islam , and the Baháʼí Faith . The earliest surviving mentions of his name are in third- and second-century-BC Jewish works, often but not always apocalyptic, where he is the chief of the angels and archangels , and he is the guardian prince of Israel and is responsible for

4551-564: The Archangel Michael. In Ukraine, the Archangel Michael is the patron saint of the capital city, Kyiv. He became popular since the time of Prince Vsevolod of Kievan Rus'. While in the Serbian Orthodox Church Saint Sava has a special role as the establisher of its autocephaly and the largest Belgrade church is devoted to him, the capital Belgrade 's Orthodox cathedral , the see church of

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4662-469: The Archangel, defend us in battle. Be our defense against the wickedness and snares of the Devil. May God rebuke him, we humbly pray, and do thou, O Prince of the heavenly hosts, by the power of God, thrust into hell Satan, and all the evil spirits, who prowl about the world seeking the ruin of souls. The Eastern Orthodox accord Michael the title Archistrategos , or "Supreme Commander of

4773-460: The Donceels, some of the coins excavated by Roland de Vaux from Qumran had been lost. ) To fill the gap, the École had a synthesis of de Vaux's field notes published in 1994. This volume included several hundred photographs, 48 pages of measurement, and summary descriptions of the field diaries. An English translation of the field notes synthesis was published in 2003. Two later books, devoted to

4884-462: The Hasmonean period only about 20 people occupied the site of Qumran. Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg entered the discussion commenting on how one could feed such large numbers of community members: "Were we to accept the claim that the sect lived at Qumran for about 170 years, we would expect to find hundreds of cooking and baking ovens as well as thousands of cooking pots." The population question

4995-469: The Heavenly Hosts". The Eastern Orthodox pray to their guardian angels and above all to Michael and Gabriel. The Eastern Orthodox have always had strong devotions to angels. In contemporary times they are referred to by the term of "Bodiless Powers". A number of feasts dedicated to Archangel Michael are celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox throughout the year. Archangel Michael is mentioned in

5106-463: The Iron Age, Qumran was principally in use from the Hasmonean times until some time after the destruction of the temple by Titus in 70 CE. De Vaux divided this use into three periods: De Vaux's periodization has been challenged by both Jodi Magness and Yizhar Hirschfeld. The site that de Vaux uncovered divides into two main sections: a main building , a squarish structure of two stories featuring

5217-596: The Israel Numismatic Bulletin supports his theory of a third-century CE date for the three silver coin hoards from Qumran. This Ain Hanaziv coin hoard spanned hundreds of years, starting from the Seleucid era and ended with the same kind of coins from the reign of Septimius Severus in 210. Therefore, according to Lönnqvist, claiming an earlier date for the silver hoards is untenable and contradicts

5328-486: The Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg, the clay found in the cisterns was used for pottery factory facilities. The construction of the Qumran aqueduct that fed the cisterns and the baths can be seen as an important chronological marker. Although there are some disagreements in this area, Stacey (2004) argues that it should be dated to around 95-90 BCE, which is during de Vaux’s Period Ib. Coins from Qumran are one of

5439-564: The Jericho pottery data, refers to cylindrical jars at Jericho, saying "[a]t Jericho, most of these jars .. come from an industrial area dating to the time of Herod". Jan Gunneweg observed that the supposed single partial parallel at Jericho – "a partly preserved rim and neck with a vertical loop handle" – is in fact not a "scroll" jar. Another one was reported found in Jordan in a later burial near Abila but no photos or drawings were published and

5550-467: The Muslims recited the names of both in the obligatory daily prayers (the salat). The place of Michael, and some of the other archangels, is not clearly identified in the major sources, and among ordinary Muslims knowledge of them is drawn from non-Islamic sources, notably Jewish. Qumran Qumran ( Hebrew : קומראן ; Arabic : خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran ) is an archaeological site in

5661-572: The Qumran coin hoards and the museum bags where the coins were kept do not support the hypothesis that the 2nd- and 3rd-century Roman coins are intrusive in relation to the Tyrian silver. Furthermore, the new countermark that went unrecorded is apparently from 52/53 CE and the Greek letters in it do not support a date of 9/8 BCE, as the other countermarks. This means archaeologically and numismatically that at least one, but probably two minimum, of

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5772-839: The Qurʾān in one mode, and Michael told him to ask more, till he reached seven modes, each mode being sufficiently health-giving. According to another hadith in Sahih Muslim , Michael, along with Gabriel both dressed in white, were reported to have accompanied Muhammad on the day of the Battle of Uhud . Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri has recorded in his historiography works of Quran and Hadith revelation in Prophetic biography , that Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas testified has saw Jibril and Mikail during that battle. In Shia Islam , in Dua Umm Dawood,

5883-675: The Zadokites against the Hasmonean priest/kings. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community, some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud . Most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden in the caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), although some of them may have been deposited earlier. The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since

5994-502: The advocate of Israel, and sometimes had to fight with the princes of the other nations (Daniel 10:13) and particularly with the angel Samael , Israel's accuser. Their enmity dates from the time Samael was thrown from heaven and tried to drag Michael down with him, necessitating God's intervention. The idea that Michael was the advocate of the Jews became so prevalent that in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people, he held

6105-485: The angelic model for the virtues of the "spiritual warrior", his conflict with evil taken as "the battle within". The second and third roles of Michael in Catholic teachings deal with death. In his second role, he is the angel of death, carrying the souls of Christians to heaven. Catholic prayers often refer to this role of Michael. In his third role, he weighs souls on his perfectly balanced scales. For this reason, he

6216-533: The angels" he led the angels and thus the statement in Revelation 12:7–9 identifies/refers to Jesus as Michael. Jehovah's Witnesses believe Michael to be another name for Jesus in heaven , in his pre-human and post-resurrection existence. They say the definite article at Jude 9 —referring to "Michael the archangel"—identifies Michael as the only archangel. They consider Michael to be synonymous with Christ, described at 1 Thessalonians 4:16 as descending "with

6327-470: The area of Qumran and probably also from the Plain of Jericho." Many scholars have viewed the several large stepped cisterns at Qumran as ritual baths. This supports the religious settlement model. There are difficulties in understanding all these cisterns as baths, however. Qumran's water arrived perhaps twice a year from rainwater runoff. Water was one of Qumran's most valued commodities, and water management

6438-409: The area. Many of the texts found in the caves appear to represent widely accepted Jewish beliefs and practices, while other texts appear to speak of divergent, unique, or minority interpretations and practices. Some scholars believe that some of these texts describe the beliefs of the inhabitants of Qumran, who may have been Essenes , or the asylum for supporters of the traditional priestly family of

6549-496: The assumed date of hiding of the coin hoards, which in turn dated the coin hoards themselves. Nevertheless, Lönnqvist's theories have been criticized by Farhi and Price. They point to the fact that the identity of the silver coins from Qumran held at the Amman Museum in Jordan is not certain. One important issue for the understanding of the site of Qumran is a realistic calculation of its population. Using estimates based on

6660-463: The average population, working on the comparison with the population of the monastery of Mar Saba, which numbered 150 monks in the 9th century and from Josephus' figure of 3,000 Essenes calculating that "at least five per cent lived the strict monastic life". E.M. Laperrousaz went as high as 1,428 inhabitants. Magen Broshi, analyzing the size of L77 (which he calls an assembly hall), estimated that about 120 to 150 people could sit there, to which he added

6771-408: The belief in the full deity and eternal preexistence of Jesus Christ, nor does it in the least disparage his person and work. According to Adventist theology, Michael was considered the "eternal Word", and the one by whom all things were created. The Word was then born incarnate as Jesus. They believe that name "Michael" signifies "One Who Is Like God" and that as the "Archangel" or "chief or head of

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6882-566: The body of Moses, "did not presume to pronounce the verdict of 'slander' but said, 'The Lord punish you!' Michael was venerated as a healer in Phrygia (modern-day Turkey). The earliest and most famous sanctuary to Michael in the ancient Near East was also associated with healing waters. It was the Michaelion built in the early fourth century by Constantine the Great at Chalcedon , on

6993-484: The care of the people of Israel . Christianity conserved nearly all the Jewish traditions concerning him, and he is mentioned explicitly in Revelation 12 :7–12, where he does battle with Satan , and in the Epistle of Jude , where the author denounces certain "ungodly persons" by contrasting them with Michael. The Book of Enoch lists him as one of seven archangels (the remaining names are Uriel , Raguel , Raphael , Sariel , Gabriel , and Remiel ), who, in

7104-410: The caves north of Qumran; they also dug in the cemetery and in marl terrace caves. In 1996 James Strange and others dug at Qumran using remote sensing equipment. From 1996 to 1999 and later Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg carried out excavations at Qumran under the auspices of the National Parks Authority. Randall Price and Oren Gutfeld dug on the Qumran plateau, seasons in 2002, 2004 and 2005 (and plan

7215-439: The cemetery, excavating twelve tombs. In 1967 restoration work was performed at Qumran by R.W. Dajjani of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan. In 1984 and 1985 Joseph Patrich and Yigael Yadin carried out a systematic survey of the caves and pathways around Qumran. Between 1985 and 1991 Patrich excavated five caves, including Caves 3Q and 11Q. One of Patrich's conclusions was that the caves "did not serve as habitations for

7326-452: The context of a sectarian settlement according to the Donceels. These materials point to trade connections in the area, and provide evidence that Qumran may not have been in a vacuum in the Graeco-Roman period. Rachel Bar-Nathan has argued from similarities between pottery finds at Qumran and at the Hasmonean and Herodian palaces of Jericho that Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan valley context, rather than as an isolated site. While

7437-422: The cylindrical "scroll jars" from Qumran were once thought unique, she cites a proposed similar find at Jericho, shows a related form existed at Masada , and reports that such jars have been found at Qalandiya. Bar-Nathan states from the Jericho palace data that, "It is possible to trace the typological development of this group of jars", i.e., the cylindrical jars. Jodi Magness, citing Bar-Nathan's M.A. thesis on

7548-448: The disciples, the goal being to accuse them, but the accusation is opposed by Jesus, who thus takes on the role played by angels, and especially by Michael, in Judaism. Michael is mentioned by name for the second time in the Epistle of Jude , a passionate warning against divisive, abusive, ungodly persons. In verses 9–10 the author denounces the ungodly persons by contrasting them with the archangel Michael, who, disputing with Satan over

7659-408: The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947–1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran. Nearly 900 scrolls were discovered. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus . Cisterns , Jewish ritual baths , and cemeteries have been found, along with a dining or assembly room and debris from an upper story alleged by some to have been a scriptorium as well as pottery kilns and

7770-401: The early 3rd century. The final coin was minted in Rome between 206 and 210, during the reign of the emperor Caracalla . The new suggestion made is that the silver coin hoards from Qumran may be connected to Roman military campaigns in the region, as these are widely attested in the early 3rd century CE. It is also quite possible that the silver was part of Roman army payments made to troops in

7881-408: The first complete recording of the Qumran silver hoards made by him in 2007, which includes the first photographic evidence of the coin hoards, and the regional coin evidence from other hoards. It has already been shown that de Vaux's dating system of Qumran and the silver coin hoards was based on what is generally known as a circular argument; the end of the first major settlement period was dated after

7992-654: The following years more inkwells have come to light with a Qumran origin. Jan Gunneweg identified a fourth (locus 129). S. Steckoll found a fifth (reportedly near the scriptorium). Magen and Peleg found a sixth inkwell. Without counting the Ein Feshkha inkwell or others with debated provenance, that number is more inkwells than found at any other site of the Second Temple Period, a significant indication of writing at Qumran. De Vaux interpreted his findings at Qumran based (at least in part) upon information in

8103-419: The graves contain the remains of males, some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of the graves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law. Over a thousand bodies are buried at Qumran cemetery. One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, while another is that they were brought to Qumran because burial

8214-520: The heavenly sanctuary; and he accompanies the souls of the righteous dead to Paradise. The seven archangels (or four – the traditions differ but always include Michael) were associated with the branches of the menorah , the sacred seven-branched lampstand in the Temple as the seven spirits before the throne of God, and this is reflected in the Book of Revelation 4:5 ("From the throne came flashes of lightning, and rumblings and peals of thunder, and before

8325-441: The inhabitants of the site were a sect of highly ritualistic Jews called the Essenes , a conclusion that has come to be known as the "Qumran–Essene hypothesis". This hypothesis suggests that the original residents of the settlement were the Essenes, and that they established the site in the desert for religious purposes. He interpreted the room above locus 30 as a "scriptorium" because he discovered inkwells there. A plastered bench

8436-495: The interpretation of the excavations of de Vaux, were published by Jean-Baptiste Humbert in 2003 and 2016. However, not all of de Vaux's archaeological findings from Qumran (which are stored in the Rockefeller Museum ) have yet been published; some are still inaccessible to scholars and the public. Although de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were quite exhaustive, and thereby the most important source of information on

8547-483: The jar has not been relocated, showing de Vaux sought parallels. Taking into account subtypes of pottery, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are not common outside Qumran. They are, however, clearly not unique to Qumran. Bar-Nathan noted the jar's "rarity in the Second Temple period". Of some of the proposed parallel Masada jars, Bar-Nathan wrote "It seems that this group of storage jars was brought (or pillaged?) from

8658-445: The life of the settlement. with frequent additions, extensions and improvements. The water channel was raised to carry water to newer cisterns farther away and a dam was placed in the upper section of Wadi Qumran to secure more water, which was brought to the site by an aqueduct. Rooms were added, floors were raised, pottery ovens relocated and locations were repurposed. De Vaux found three inkwells at Qumran (Loci 30 (2) and 31) and over

8769-562: The members of the Dead Sea Sect, but rather as stores and hiding places". From mid-November 1993 to January 1994 the Israel Antiquities Authority carried out works in the Qumran compound and nearby installations as part of "Operation Scroll" under the direction of Amir Drori and Yitzhak Magen . In the winter of 1995–1996 and later seasons Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel carried out further excavations in

8880-402: The most important groups of primary evidence from the ancient site. Much of what has been written on the chronology, the occupational periods and the history of Qumran is based on the preliminary report and lecture by the original excavator, Roland de Vaux in 1961, which was translated in 1973. A tentative list of the Qumran bronze coins along with Roland de Vaux's field diary from the excavations

8991-478: The name of the angel (malaika = creature with a knowledge) from whom he received his revelations; when he told them it was Gabriel, the Jews said that Gabriel was their enemy, and that revelations came from Michael. The hadith (sayings of and about the Prophet collected by his followers) quote Muhammed mentioning both Gabriel and Michael as two angels who showed him Paradise and hell, and in the early years of Islam

9102-440: The notion that it was a Hasmonean fort that was later transformed into a villa for a wealthy family, or a production center, perhaps a pottery factory or something similar. A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site. Besides this primary cemetery, there are also three separate extensions of it, as well as the north cemetery (about 10 minutes away from the primary) and a cemetery south of Wadi Qumran. While most of

9213-433: The paths near Qumran), and staying with 150–200 inhabitants. While waiting for the publication of Broshi and Eshel's results, Patrich, anticipating them, doubted the possibility that there were once "significantly more habitable caves" cut into the marl, pointing to the lack of paths and suitable terrain. He went on to discount the significance of the nails for tent dwelling without "further substantial evidence and returned to

9324-545: The patriarch, is devoted to Archangel Michael (in Serbian: Арханђел Михаило / Arhanđel Mihailo ). The place of Michael in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is as a saintly intercessor . He is the one who presents to God the prayers of the just, who accompanies the souls of the dead to heaven, who defeats the devil. He is celebrated liturgically on the 12th of each Coptic month . In Alexandria ,

9435-422: The population was only 50–70 people. Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel, revisiting the caves and the territory around Qumran in 1995–1996, later pointed out that Patrich's estimate was far too high for what Qumran could offer, reducing the number to 12–20. They turned back to caves (mainly artificial ones cut into the marl terrace most of which have not survived) and tents (pointing to pottery and nails found along one of

9546-401: The role of coins and money in the economic system at Qumran during any of the occupational periods from ca. 150 BCE. to 73 CE. Worth noting here is that the amount of coins found at Qumran suggests according to numismatic principles of loss and survival of ancient coins that millions of bronze coins must have circulated at Qumran. The bronze coins identified from Qumran, some dating to

9657-412: The ruins "may have very well been once a small fortress". Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs. Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a burg , or fort. Archaeologist Michael Avi-Yonah agreed with Dalman's identification of Qumran as a fort and published a map that identified the remains at Qumran as part of

9768-538: The second and third years of the Jewish War, indicate that the site was still in use in 68 CE and only destroyed after 70, perhaps as late as 73. The coins from Qumran of this period end with a peculiar series of bronze coins minted in 72/73 at Ascalon, which sent auxiliary troops to assist the Roman army in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73). In 73 the Romans stormed the mountain fortress of Masada, which also

9879-478: The settlement interpretations including the astronomical orientations of some structures at Qumran. A recent final publication of the French excavations by Jean-Baptist Humbert outlining evidence of a decorated frieze, opus sectile , fine columns etc., indicates a phase of a wealthier occupation, "une grande maison", at Qumran. The range of pottery, glass and high quantity of coins found at Qumran do not sit well in

9990-437: The settlement, there have been several excavations since de Vaux finished his work. As de Vaux left little of the settlement unexcavated, later archaeologists have often turned elsewhere to continue research, including dump sites from de Vaux's excavations. During the 1960s, according to Catherine Murphy, there were some unpublished excavations at Qumran by John Allegro and by Solomon Steckoll . Steckoll also carried out work in

10101-529: The silver coins could have been collected from single individuals, for instance, as tax payments, or that Qumran could have been a regional 'tax house'. The new 2007 analysis of the silver coinage contradicts the findings of de Vaux, Seyrig, and Spijkerman as well as the findings of Robert Donceel. Donceel was surprised to find in the Amman museum unrecorded coins, notably denarius coins of Trajan, that he claimed were intrusive. The original Amman Museum records of

10212-532: The site of an earlier temple called Sosthenion . Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 310–320 – 403) in his Coptic-Arabic Hexaemeron referred to Michael as a replacement of Satan . Accordingly, after Satan fell, Michael was appointed to the function Satan served when he was still one of the noble angels. A painting of the Archangel slaying a serpent became a major art piece at the Michaelion after Constantine defeated Licinius near there in 324. This contributed to

10323-485: The site over a period of six seasons (1951–1956) under the direction of De Vaux. The most-prized find at Qumran up to this time were three small juglets containing over five-hundred silver coins, which were found in a room on the west side of the monastery. They consisted of tetradrachmae that had been minted in Tyre at various times in the first-century BCE. The Iron Age remains at the site, which were modest but included

10434-554: The site. This means that the site was highly monetized in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, i.e. that the occupants of Qumran were not a community of poor and isolated people. That the flow of cash at Qumran may have been large in the 1st century CE is hardly surprising given the archaeological evidence of trade at Qumran in luxury goods such as glass, which is specifically dated to this period. The coin profile of Qumran shows that there do not appear to have been any major changes in

10545-473: The size of the cemetery and average lifespan de Vaux calculated that the inhabitants "would not have numbered many more than 200 members". He noted that "[t]here is a manifest disproportion between the number of tombs and the number of inhabitants for whom there was room in the buildings". This led him to speculate whether the caves were used as lodgings for his estimated 200 inhabitants. J.T. Milik some years earlier provided an estimate of between 150 and 200 as

10656-518: The standard iconography that developed of the Archangel Michael as a warrior saint slaying a dragon. The Michaelion was a magnificent church and in time became a model for hundreds of other churches in Eastern Christianity ; these spread devotions to the Archangel. In the fourth century, Saint Basil the Great 's homily ( De Angelis ) placed Saint Michael over all the angels. He was called "Archangel" because he heralds other angels,

10767-689: The thirteenth century, others such as Bonaventure believed that he is the prince of the Seraphim , the first of the nine angelic orders. According to Thomas Aquinas ( Summa Ia. 113.3), he is the Prince of the last and lowest choir, the Angels. Catholics often refer to Michael as "Holy Michael, the Archangel" or "Saint Michael", a title that does not indicate canonisation . He is generally referred to in Christian litanies as "Saint Michael", as in

10878-467: The three hoards post-date de Vaux's suggestion of a burial date after 9/8 BCE. The unusual and intensive die-linkage of the Qumran silver hoards suggest that the three hoards were buried at the same time, and this would mean at the earliest in 52/53 CE. According to Lönnqvist, a highly unusual type of coin hoard found at Ain Hanaziv in the Jordan Valley in the early 1960 and reported in

10989-664: The throne were burning seven torches of fire, which are the seven spirits of God" – ESV). Michael is mentioned explicitly in Revelation 12:7–12, where he does battle with Satan and casts him out of heaven so that he no longer has access to God as accuser (his formal role in the Old Testament). The fall of Satan at the coming of Jesus marks the separation of the New Testament from Judaism. In Luke 22:31 Jesus tells Peter that Satan has asked God for permission to "sift"

11100-532: The time of the Exodus and destroyed Sennacherib 's army. In Islam, Michael, or Mīkāʾīl, is the angel said to effectuate God's providence as well as natural phenomena, such as rain. He is one of the four archangels along with Jibril (Gabriel, whom he is often paired with), ʾIsrāfīl (trumpeter angel) and ʿAzrāʾīl (angel of death). Michael in Islam is tasked with providing nourishment for bodies and souls and

11211-548: The title Ἀρχαγγέλος (archangelos) being used of him in Jude 1:9. Into the sixth century, the view of Michael as a healer continued in Rome; after a plague, the sick slept at night in the church of Castel Sant'Angelo (dedicated to him for saving Rome), waiting for his manifestation. In the sixth century, the growth of devotions to Michael in the Western Church was expressed by the feasts dedicated to him, as recorded in

11322-602: The verse of Surah Al Imran 3:124 that Gabriel, Michael, Raphael and thousands of best angels from third level of sky, all came to the battle of Badr. Various hadith traditions linked to the Surah Al Imran 3:124 , has stated that those angels has taken form of Zubayr ibn al-Awwam , companion of Muhammad . In a version of a hadith by an-Nasāʾi , Muhammad is quoted as saying that Gabriel and Michael came to him, and when Gabriel had sat down at his right and Michael at his left, Gabriel told him to recite

11433-514: Was also discovered in the remains of an upper story. De Vaux concluded that this was the area where the Essenes could have written some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. De Vaux also interpreted locus 77 as a "refectory", or a community dining hall, based on the discovery of numerous sets of bowls in the nearby "pantry" of locus 89. Additionally, de Vaux interpreted many of the numerous stepped cisterns as "miqva’ot", or Jewish ritual baths, due to their similarity to several stepped and partitioned ritual baths near

11544-408: Was easier there than in rockier surrounding areas. The scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through the settlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, due to the presence of the remains of a shelving system. Other scholars believe that some caves also served as domestic shelters for those living in

11655-521: Was inhabited by a Jewish sect of the late Second Temple period , which most scholars identify with the Essenes ; however, other Jewish groups were also suggested. It was occupied most of the time until 68  CE and was destroyed by the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War , possibly as late as 73 CE. It was later used by Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt . Today, the Qumran site

11766-529: Was located on the western bank of the Dead Sea. It is more than likely that Qumran was destroyed this same time, as the coin finds from Qumran end with the same peculiar bronze coins minted at Ascalon. According to the publications prior to 2007, the most recent silver coin in the Qumran hoard(s) is a tetradrachm of Tyre from the year 9/8 BCE. The publication of the bulk of the silver coins by K. A. K. Lönnqvist, and his regional analysis, resulted, in 2007, in

11877-604: Was not to be worshipped. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that Michael is Adam , the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7), a prince, and the patriarch of the human family. They also hold that Michael assisted Jehovah (the pre-mortal form of Jesus ) in the creation of the world under the direction of God the Father ( Elohim ); under the direction of the Father, Michael also cast Satan out of heaven. According to rabbinic tradition , Michael acted as

11988-402: Was published by Marcia Sharabani in 1980. The last two hoards located in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lönnqvist in 2007. De Vaux's excavations uncovered about 1250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze coins) altogether from Qumran, though today some Qumran coins have been lost, some lots mixed-up, and records less accurate than ideal. There are a surprisingly high number of coins from

12099-508: Was published in 1994 in French, in German in 1996 and in English in 2003. The first reconstruction of the Qumran bronze coinage, including a complete coin catalogue with up-dated and cross-referenced coin identifications, was done by Kenneth Lönnqvist and Minna Lönnqvist in 2005. Also in 1955, three very important silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first lot of the Qumran silver coins

12210-517: Was the Logos and Gabriel the Holy Spirit . Controversy over Clayton's views led the government to order his prosecution, but he died before his scheduled examination. The Lutheran Churches of St. Michael's Church, Hamburg and St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim are named for Michael. In Bach 's time, the annual feast of Michael and All the Angels on 29 September was regularly celebrated with

12321-524: Was the "one that had escaped" (Genesis 14:13 ), who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive (Midrash Pirke R. El.), and who protected Sarah from defilement by Abimelech. Michael prevented Isaac from sacrifice by his father by substituting a ram in his place. He saved Jacob , while yet in his mother's womb, from death by Samael. He later prevented Laban from harming Jacob.( Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer , xxxvi). The midrash Exodus Rabbah holds that Michael exercised his function of advocate of Israel at

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