The Pereshchepina Treasure ( Russian : Перещепинский клад , Ukrainian : Перещепинський скарб ) is a major deposit of Bulgar and Khazar objects from the Migration Period .
122-562: The most valuable items are the sword of Kubrat , a gift from Emperor Heraclius and the ring with the monogram of the ruler, as a " patrician ", that is, as the savior of the New (Christian) Rome. The sword is valuable as an artifact № 1 of the Hermitage and for the first time left the borders of Russia on May 24, 2019. It is presented in Sofia by Boyko Borisov to Audrey Azoulay . The deposit
244-715: A NATO SACLANT Undersea Research project using jointly the NATO RV Alliance , and the Turkish Navy survey ship Çubuklu . In 2002, a survey carried out on board the Ifremer RV Le Suroit for BlaSON project (Lericolais, et al., 2003 ) completed the multibeam mapping of this underwater channel fan-delta. A complete map was published in 2009 using these previous results together with high quality mapping obtained in 2006 (by researchers at Memorial University of Newfoundland who were project partners in
366-532: A cable-stayed bridge cross the Bosporus. The first of these, the 1,074 m (3,524 ft) long 15th July Martyrs Bridge was completed in 1973 when it was called the Bosporus Bridge. The second, named Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Bosporus II) Bridge , is 1,090 m (3,576 ft) long, and was completed in 1988 about 5 km (3 mi) north of the first bridge. The first Bosporus Bridge forms part of
488-497: A Persian client state , even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor. In a letter delivered by his ambassadors, Heraclius acknowledged the Persian empire as superior, described himself as Khosrow II's "obedient son, one who is eager to perform the services of your serenity in all things", and even called Khosrow II the "supreme emperor". Khosrow II nevertheless rejected the peace offer, and arrested Heraclius' ambassadors. With
610-452: A Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, besieged Constantinople , but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city), while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius's brother Theodore. With the Persian war effort disintegrating, Heraclius
732-766: A bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'être and was eventually abandoned. The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius. The Serbs, who briefly lived in Macedonia, became foederati and were baptized at the request of Heraclius (before 626). At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats , who practiced Slavic paganism . He also created
854-502: A certain religious official in Rome to confirm if Muhammad's claim of prophethood was legitimate, and, after receiving the reply to his letter, called the Roman assembly saying, "If you desire salvation and the orthodox way so that your empire remain firmly established, then follow this prophet," to the rejection of the council.. Heraclius eventually decided against conversion but the envoy
976-586: A grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability. But by then the Sasanid Empire was severely disorganised, having been weakened by years of war and civil strife over the succession to the throne. The war had been devastating, and left the Byzantines in a much-weakened state. Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs, ultimately leading to
1098-711: A lengthy campaign during which the Ottomans constructed fortifications on each side of the strait, the Anadoluhisarı (Anatolian Castle, 1393) and the Rumelihisarı (European Castle, 1451), in preparation for not only the primary battle but to assert long-term control over the Bosporus and surrounding waterways. The final 53-day campaign, which resulted in Ottoman victory, constituted an important turn in world history. Together with Christopher Columbus 's first voyage to
1220-642: A new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard. The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz. Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years. On 25 March 624, he again left Constantinople with his wife, Martina , and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on 15 April, he campaigned in
1342-643: A number of conflicts in modern history, notably the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) , as well as of the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I . In 2022 during the Russian invasion of Ukraine the Bosporus' importance as a route by which grain reached the world was thrown into sharp profile. The strategic importance of
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#17327806977491464-617: A peace treaty, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territory. This way peaceful relations were restored to the two deeply strained empires. Heraclius soon lost many of his newly regained lands to the Rashidun Caliphate . Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula , the Muslims quickly conquered the Sasanian Empire . In 636, the Muslims marched into Roman Syria , defeating Heraclius's brother Theodore . Within
1586-472: A renowned archaeologist , who published its description in 1914. The hoard contains more than 800 pieces, now preserved in the Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg . There are 19 silver vessels and 16 gold vessels, including a striking rhyton and remains of another. The official website of the museum speaks about a staff with gold facing, a well-preserved iron sword with an end in the form of
1708-413: A ring and gold facing on the hilt and scabbard... gold jewellery — a torque , an earring, seven bracelets and seven rings with inlays of precious stones (amethysts, sapphires, tiger-eyes, garnets, rock crystal, and emeralds)... and square gold plaques for the facing of a wooden funeral construction". The total weight of gold from the deposit exceeds 21 kilograms, that of silver objects 50 kilograms. Among
1830-581: A short period of time, the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia , Armenia and Egypt . Heraclius responded with reforms which allowed his successors to combat the Arabs and avoid total destruction. One of the most important legacies of Heraclius was changing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek. Heraclius entered diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs in the Balkans . He tried to repair
1952-530: A struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina, who was trying to position her son Heraclonas to assume the throne. When Heraclius died, he devised the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas to rule jointly with Martina as empress. Bosphorus The Bosporus or Bosphorus Strait ( / ˈ b ɒ s p ər ə s , ˈ b ɒ s f ər ə s / BOSS -pər-əs, BOSS -fər-əs ; Turkish : İstanbul Boğazı , lit. 'Istanbul strait', colloquially Boğaz )
2074-694: A thousand virgins to the Persian King. The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire's army by slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency, and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war. On 4 April 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia , and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched
2196-473: Is 16 000 m /s (fresh water at the surface) and the northbound flow is 11 000 m /s (salt water near the bottom). Dan Parsons and researchers at the University of Leeds School of Earth and Environment describe a Black Sea undersea river . The Golden Horn is an estuary off the main strait that historically acted as a moat to protect Constantinople from attack, as well as providing sheltered anchorage for
2318-439: Is 700 m (0.38 nmi) between Kandilli Point and Aşiyan . The depth of the Bosporus varies from 13 to 110 m (43 to 361 ft) in midstream with an average of 65 m (213 ft). The deepest point is between Kandilli and Bebek , at 110 m (360 ft). The shallowest locations are off Kadıköy İnciburnu at 18 m (59 ft) and off Aşiyan Point at 13 m (43 ft). The southbound flow of water
2440-648: Is a natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in Istanbul , Turkey . The Bosporus connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and forms one of the continental boundaries between Asia and Europe . It also divides Turkey by separating Asia minor from Thrace . It is the world's narrowest strait used for international navigation . Most of the shores of the Bosporus Strait, except for
2562-585: Is fully convinced of this fulfilled prophecy, that he tried previously to convince the Romans and invite them to salvation (Islam), but none listened to him, and soon the Romans would be expelled from Syria. Heraclius was married twice: first to Fabia Eudokia , a daughter of Rogatus, and then to his niece Martina . He had two children with Fabia ( Eudoxia Epiphania and Emperor Constantine III ) and at least nine with Martina, many of whom were sickly children. Of Martina's children at least two were disabled , which
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#17327806977492684-628: Is little specific information known about his origin. His father was a general during Emperor Maurice's war with Shah Bahram Chobin , usurper of the Sasanian Empire , during 590. After the war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa . In 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas , who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as hypatos , though neither of them explicitly claimed
2806-656: Is no evidence outside of Islamic sources to suggest Heraclius ever heard of Islam, and it is possible that he and his advisors actually viewed the Muslims as some special sect of Jews. Al-Waqidi recorded a story about a trader acting as a spy in Medina from the Lakhmid kingdom who reported the coming of the Muslim forces before The Battle of the Yarmuk. He described the caliph Abu Bakr to him as an ordinary-looking man who roams
2928-526: Is no primary source that says that Heraclius [the Elder] was an Armenian and that the assertion is based on an erroneous reading of Theophylact Simocatta . In a letter, Priscus , a general who had replaced Heraclius the Elder, wrote to him "to leave the army and return to his own city in Armenia". Kaldellis interprets it as the command headquarters of Heraclius the Elder, and not his hometown. Beyond that, there
3050-637: The Arabah south of Lake Tiberias , taking al-Karak . Other raids penetrated into the Negev , reaching as far as Gaza . The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army; within three years, the Levant had been lost again. Heraclius died of an illness on 11 February 641; and most of Egypt had fallen by that time as well. Looking back at the reign of Heraclius, scholars have credited him with many accomplishments. He enlarged
3172-567: The Bosphorus but Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, and Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat. Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen the military. Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh . The Persian Shah Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by his son Kavad II , who soon sued for
3294-631: The First World War , the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarised the Strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations . This was amended by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) , which restored the straits to Turkey but allowed all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. Turkey eventually rejected the terms of that treaty, and remilitarised
3416-624: The Late Antique Colossus of Barletta depicts Heraclius. Some scholars disagree with this narrative, Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost, and that the wood contained in the allegedly-still-sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake. In his analysis, the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe,
3538-657: The Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian dynasty in 651. By 630, the Arabs had unified all the tribes of the Hijaz , previously too divided to pose a serious military challenge to the Byzantines or the Persians. They composed one of the most powerful states in the region. The first conflict between the Byzantines and the Arabs was the Battle of Mu'tah in September 629. A small Arabs skirmishing force attacked
3660-839: The O1 Motorway , while the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge forms part of the Trans-European Motorway . The third and most recent bridge, the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge , is 2,164 m (7,100 ft) long and was completed in 2016. It is located near the northern end of the Bosporus, between the villages of Garipçe on the European side and Poyrazköy on the Asian side, as part of the " Northern Marmara Motorway ", integrated into
3782-470: The Sasanian Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice, and they had remained allies until the latter's death. Thereafter, Khosrow seized the opportunity to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer Mesopotamia . Khosrow had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius , and Khosrow demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as emperor. The war initially went
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3904-662: The True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony. Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of " King of Kings " after his victory. Later on, starting in 629, he styled himself as Basileus , the Greek word for "sovereign", and that title was used by the Byzantine emperors for the next 800 years. The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as Augustus has been attributed by some scholars to his Armenian origins. Heraclius's defeat of
4026-571: The flood to 7500 BP or 5500 BC from fresh-salt water microflora. Driven out by the rapidly rising water, which must have been terrifying and inexplicable, people spread to all corners of the Western world carrying the story of a major flood. As the waters surged, they scoured a network of sea-floor channels less resistant to denser suspended solids in liquid, which remains a very active layer today. The first images of these submarine channels showing them to be of great size, were obtained in 1999 during
4148-488: The 19th century. Until the early 20th century most were only accessible by boat (known as caiques) along the Bosporus since there were no coast roads. Today the villages are no more than suburbs of Greater Istanbul but many retain the memory of their original village status in the suffix '- köy ( village' to their names. e.g. Ortaköy , Yeniköy , Arnavutköy , Çengelköy and Vaniköy. These villages often had distinct identities associated with agriculture: Arnavutköy, for example,
4270-617: The 670s. Although the Great Soviet Encyclopaedia was keen to ascribe the hoard to a "Slavic chieftain" who supposedly pillaged the objects during "a raid against Byzantium," and while, more recently, some scholars attempt to attribute it to the Khazars , many agree that the hoard represents, at least in its earlier phase, the treasure of Kubrat, the first attested khan of the Bulgars . The treasure would have fallen to
4392-776: The Americas in 1492, the 1453 conquest of Constantinople is commonly noted as among the events that brought an end to the Middle Ages and marked the transition to the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The event also marked the end of the Byzantines —the final remnants of the Roman Empire —and the transfer of the control of the Bosporus into Ottoman hands. The Ottomans then made Constantinople their new capital, and
4514-675: The Bosporus "Stenon" and used the following major toponyms in the area: The strategic significance of the Strait was one of the factors in the decision of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great to found his new capital, Constantinople , there in AD 330. This then became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire . On 29 May 1453, the then-emergent Ottoman Empire conquered the city of Constantinople following
4636-738: The Bosporus allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and to the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal , making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming from Russia . There is one very small island in the Bosporus just off Kuruçeşme. Now generally known as Galatasaray Island ( Galatasaray Adası), this
4758-583: The Bosporus dates back millennia. In the 5th century BC the Greek city-state of Athens , which depended on grain imports from the Black Sea ports of Scythia , maintained critical alliances with cities which controlled the straits, such as the Megarian colony of Byzantium . In an attempt to subdue the Scythian horsemen who roamed across the north of the Black Sea, the Persian King Darius I
4880-604: The Bosporus was also known as the "Strait of Constantinople", or the Thracian Bosporus to distinguish it from the Cimmerian Bosporus in Crimea . These are expressed in Herodotus 's Histories , 4.83; as Bosporus Thracius , Bosporus Thraciae , and Βόσπορος Θρᾴκιος ( Bósporos Thráikios ), respectively. Other names used by Herodotus to refer to the strait include Chalcedonian Bosporus ( Bosporus Chalcedoniae , Βόσπορος τῆς Χαλκηδονίης [ Bosporos tes Khalkedonies ], Herodotus 4.87), or Mysian Bosporus ( Bosporus Mysius ). The term eventually came to be used as
5002-413: The Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrow and his generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan . In the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena , capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania , resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I . In 626 the Avars and Slavs supported by
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5124-418: The Elder , the Exarch of Africa , led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas . Heraclius's reign was marked by several military campaigns. The year Heraclius came to power, the empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Heraclius immediately took charge of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 . The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to
5246-417: The Empire, and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes. His attempts at religious harmony failed, but he succeeded in returning the True Cross , one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. Although the territories recovered by his defeat of the Persians were annulled again by the Early Muslim conquests , Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman emperors. His reforms of
5368-444: The French Bosphore , the Spanish Bósforo , the Italian Bosforo and the Russian Босфор . The 12th-century Greek scholar John Tzetzes calls it Damaliten Bosporon (after Damalis ), but he also reports that in popular usage the strait was known as Prosphorion during his day, the name of the most ancient northern harbour of Constantinople . In English, the preferred spelling tends to be Bosphorus. Historically,
5490-507: The Great ( r. 522 BC – 486 BC ) crossed the Bosporus, then marched towards the River Danube . His army crossed the Bosporus using an enormous bridge made by connecting boats. This bridge essentially connected the farthest geographic tip of Asia to Europe, encompassing at least some 1,000 metres of open. Years later, Xerxes I would construct a similar boat bridge across the Dardanelles ( Hellespont ) strait (480 BC), during his invasion of Greece . The Byzantines called
5612-470: The Holy Roman Empire. The story was included in the Golden Legend , the famous 13th-century compendium of hagiography, and he is sometimes shown in art, as in The History of the True Cross sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo , and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer ( Städel , Frankfurt). Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I 's mother Saint Helena , traditionally responsible for
5734-402: The Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara broke through to the Black Sea, which at the time, according to the hypothesis, was a low-lying body of fresh water. Many geologists, however, claim that the strait is much older, even if relatively young on a geologic timescale. The limits of the Bosporus are defined as the line connecting the lighthouses of Rumeli Feneri and Anadolu Feneri in
5856-405: The Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews , seized Jerusalem in 614, damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross , and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618. When the Sasanians reached Chalcedon in 615, it was at this point, according to Sebeos , that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become
5978-406: The Persian general Shahrbaraz . In early Islamic and Arab histories, Heraclius is the most popular Roman emperor, who is discussed at length. Owing to his role as Roman emperor at the time Islam emerged, he is remembered in Arabic literature , such as the Islamic hadith and sira . He is also indirectly mentioned in Sura Ar-Rum and his victory against Sassanid empire was prophesied here. In
6100-417: The Persians at the very gate of Constantinople, Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage, but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay. Safe behind the walls of Constantinople, Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, a thousand silk robes, a thousand horses, and
6222-425: The Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621, the whole province was in their hands) and to devastate Anatolia, while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans , bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction. In 613,
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#17327806977496344-435: The Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire. Kavad II died only months after assuming the throne, plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. Ardashir III , Heraclius's ally Shahrbaraz , and Khosrow's daughters Boran and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when Yazdegerd III ,
6466-464: The Persians under Rhahzadh at the Battle of Nineveh . Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrow's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrow was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavad II , who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629 Heraclius restored
6588-422: The Persians' way, partly because of Phocas's brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt , enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a " tyrant " (in its original meaning of the word, i.e. illegitimate king by the rules of succession),
6710-410: The Romans. Even the Strategicon of Maurice , a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length. The religious zeal of the Arab army, which was a recent development following the rise of Islam , ultimately contributed to the latter's success in its campaigns against the Romans. The following year, the Arabs launched an offensive into
6832-410: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, but were regained with the Treaty of Kars in 1921), was a consideration in Turkey's decision to abandon neutrality in foreign affairs . Turkey declared war against Germany in February 1945, but did not engage in offensive actions. Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording the straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway. During
6954-433: The Strait prone to deposition are periodically dredged. The name of the strait comes from the Ancient Greek Βόσπορος ( Bósporos ), which was folk-etymologised as βοὸς πόρος , i.e. "cattle strait" (like "Ox-ford" ), from the genitive of boûs βοῦς 'ox, cattle' + poros πόρος 'passage', thus meaning 'cattle-passage', or 'cow passage'. This is a reference to the Greek mythological story of Io , who
7076-404: The Strait. Under the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi of 8 July 1833, the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were to be closed to the naval vessels of other powers on Russian demand. By the terms of the London Straits Convention , concluded on 13 July 1841 between the Great Powers of Europe ( Russia , the United Kingdom , France , Austria and Prussia ), the "ancient rule" of the Ottoman Empire
7198-401: The True Cross with a negotiator in 628. After a tour of the Empire, Heraclius returned the cross to Jerusalem on 21 March 629 or 630. For Christians of Western Medieval Europe, Heraclius was the "first crusader". The iconography of the emperor appeared in the sanctuary at Mont Saint-Michel ( c. 1060 ), and then it became popular, especially in France, the Italian Peninsula, and
7320-400: The Turkish Government started to discuss creating a man-made canal roughly 80 kilometres (50 mi) long that would run north–south through the western edges of Istanbul Province as a second route from the Black Sea to the Marmara. It was suggested that this would reduce the risk from shipping to the Bosporus. The controverislal Kanal İstanbul project continues to be debated. In 2022
7442-421: The area to the north, are heavily settled, with the city of Istanbul 's metropolitan population of 17 million inhabitants extending inland from both banks. The Bosporus Strait and the Dardanelles Strait at the opposite end of the Sea of Marmara are together known as the Turkish Straits . Sections of the shore of the Bosporus in Istanbul have been reinforced with concrete or rubble and those sections of
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#17327806977497564-404: The authenticity of Heraclius' letter due to the documentation of such letters in the majority of both early and later sources. Furthermore, she notes that the formulation and the wordings of different sources are very close and the differences are ones of detail: They concern the date on which the letter was sent and its exact phrasing. Muhammad Hamidullah , an Islamic research scholar, argues for
7686-590: The authenticity of the letter sent to Heraclius, and in a later work reproduces what is claimed to be the original letter. The account as transmitted by Muslim historians is translated as follows: In the name of God, the Gracious One, the Merciful From Muhammad, servant of God and His apostle to Heraclius, premier of the Romans: Peace unto whoever follows the guided path! Thereafter, verily I call you to submit your will to God. Submit your will to God and you will be safe. God shall compensate your reward two-folds. But if you turn away, then upon you will sins of
7808-413: The base from which they expanded their empire in the centuries that followed. At its peak between the 16th and 18th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was able to use the strategic importance of the Bosporus to wrest control of the entire Black Sea area, which they regarded as an "Ottoman lake", from which Russian warships were prohibited. Subsequently, several international treaties have governed access to
7930-418: The body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city. On 5 October 610, Heraclius was crowned in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace . He then married Fabia, who took the name Eudokia . After her death in 612, he married his niece Martina in 613; this second marriage was considered incestuous and was very unpopular. In the reign of Heraclius's two sons,
8052-413: The bottom. These channels are the main transport pathway for sediments to the deep sea where they form sedimentary deposits. The team studied the detailed flow within these channels and its findings included that: The channel complex and the density flow provide the ideal natural laboratory for investigating and detailing the structure of the flow field through the channel. Our initial findings show that
8174-407: The canal even though a route for it had been established. The Bosphorus takes its name from the Greek mythological story of Io , who was transformed into a cow and, pursued by a gadfly, was condemned to wander the Earth until she reached the Strait. There she met the Titan Prometheus , who comforted her by telling her that she would be restored to human form by Zeus and become the ancestor of
8296-423: The city. When he reached the capital, the Excubitors , an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas's son-in-law Priscus , deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him "Is this how you have ruled, wretch?" Phocas's reply—"And will you rule better?"—so enraged Heraclius that he beheaded Phocas on the spot. He later had the genitalia removed from
8418-430: The common noun βόσπορος , meaning "a strait", and was also formerly applied to the Hellespont in Classical Greek by Aeschylus and Sophocles . As a maritime waterway, the Bosporus connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and thence to the Aegean and Mediterranean seas via the Dardanelles. It also connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean , the Balkans , the Near East , and Western Eurasia . Thus,
8540-402: The course alteration, making it impossible for ships approaching from the opposite direction to see around the bends. The risks posed by this geography are further multiplied by the heavy ferry traffic across the Strait, linking the European and Asian sides of the city. As such, all the dangers and obstacles characteristic of narrow waterways are present and acute in this vital sea lane. In 2011,
8662-417: The divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue. Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople, Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage. During his Balkan campaigns , Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after a mutiny. Khosrow II (Chosroes) of
8784-424: The dues levied by Turkey for freight ships increased 500% to US$ 4 per ton, the first change since 1983. The Bosporus is fairly deep and there is no definite limit on the depth and length of a ship, but ships over 150 metres long or 10 metres deep must pre-book their passage. Those over 300 metres long must follow a special clearance procedure. There is an air draft limit of 57 metres. Two suspension bridges and
8906-661: The early 21st century, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossiysk , was exported by tankers primarily to the U.S. via the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits. In 2011, Turkey proposed to build a 50 km (31 mi) canal west of the Bosporus, suggesting that it would reduce the risk presented to the Bosporus by oil tankers and other cargo ships. The project proved highly controversial and, as of 2022 , work had not been started on building
9028-425: The emerging Islamic forces. The 14th-century scholar Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) went even further, stating that "Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute, shrewd, deep and opinionated of kings. He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor." Historians such as Nadia Maria El-Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Islam as
9150-562: The excavation of the cross. The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross; according to the Golden Legend , he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem, against the advice of the Patriarch. At first, when he was on horseback (shown above), the burden was too heavy, but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light, and the barred city gate opened of its own accord. Local tradition suggests that
9272-437: The existing Black Sea Coastal Highway, and allowing transit traffic to bypass city traffic. The Marmaray project, featuring a 13.7 km (8.5 mi) long undersea railway tunnel , opened on 29 October 2013. Approximately 1,400 m (4,593 ft) of the tunnel runs under the strait, at a depth of about 55 m (180 ft). An undersea water supply tunnel with a length of 5,551 m (18,212 ft), named
9394-413: The exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns. [...] Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal , no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire. Heraclius was long remembered favourably by the Western church for his reputed recovery of the True Cross from the Persians. As Heraclius approached the Persian capital during the final stages of
9516-514: The first and last years of a long reign, the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth, of pleasure, or of superstition, the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities. But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by
9638-515: The floor of the Bosporus, which would be the sixth largest river on Earth if it were on land. The 2010 team of scientists, led by the University of Leeds , used a robotic "yellow submarine" to observe detailed flows within this "undersea river", scientifically referred to as a submarine channel , for the first time. Submarine channels are similar to land rivers, but they are formed by density currents—underwater flow mixtures of sand, mud and water that are denser than sea water and so sink and flow along
9760-407: The flow in these channels is quite different to the flow in river channels on land. Specifically, as flow moves around a bend it spirals in the opposite direction in the deep sea compared to the spiral found in river channels on land. This is important in understanding the sedimentology and layers of sediment deposited by these systems. The central tenet of the Black Sea deluge hypothesis is that as
9882-464: The government of Bosra after the Byzantine defeat of the Persians and reconquest of Jerusalem . Islamic sources say that after the letter was read to him, he was so impressed by it that he gifted the messenger of the epistle with robes and coinage. Alternatively, he also put it on his lap. He then summoned Abu Sufyan ibn Harb to his court, at the time an adversary to Muhammad but a signatory to
10004-581: The government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas's reign, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt. The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised
10126-546: The greatest of all heroes, Heracles (Hercules). According to ancient Greek mythology , it was said that colossal floating rocks known as the Symplegades , or Clashing Rocks, once guarded both sides of the Bosporus and destroyed any ship that attempted to pass through the strait by crushing them. Their destructive power was finally overcome by the Argonaut hero Jason who managed to pass between them unscathed, whereupon
10248-458: The hands of later, Khazar Turks as Bulgars left the region. The Pereshchepina hoard ranks among the most vivid manifestations of the typical ancient material culture of Old Great Bulgaria . Heraclius Heraclius ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἡράκλειος , translit. Hērákleios ; c. 575 – 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius
10370-534: The help of God. He helps whom He wills. And He is The Almighty, The Compassionate." According to Islamic traditions, a letter was sent from Muhammad to Heraclius, through the Muslim envoy Dihyah bin Khalifah al-Kalbi , although Shahid suggests that Heraclius may never have received it. He also advances that more positive sub-narratives surrounding the letter contain little credence. According to Nadia El Cheikh, Arab historians and chroniclers generally did not doubt
10492-565: The hot, humid summer months. Most of these summer embassies were on the European shore at Yeniköy (Austrian), Tarabya (German, English, French, Italian) and Büyükdere (Spanish, Russian). Some of the buildings still survive today although the British Summer Embassy burnt down in 1911 and the Italian Summer Embassy, a fine building by Raimondo d'Aronco , survives in very dilapidated condition. Following
10614-502: The imperial navies of various empires until the 19th century, after which it became a historic neighbourhood at the heart of Istanbul. Before the 20th century it was already known that the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara flow into each other in a geographic example of "density flow". Then in August 2010, a continuous 'underwater channel' of suspension composition was discovered flowing along
10736-467: The imperial title at this time. Heraclius's younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt ; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus . As he approached Constantinople , he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in
10858-547: The magister Theodorus, and the Armenian noble David Saharuni . When Heraclius discovered the plot, he had Athalarichos's nose and hands cut off , and he was exiled to Prinkipo , one of the Princes' Islands . Theodorus received the same treatment, but was sent to Gaudomelete (possibly modern-day Gozo Island ) with additional instructions to cut off one leg. During the last years of Heraclius's life, it became evident that
10980-458: The market ensuring the strong fulfill the rights of the weak, and that he treats the strong and the weak equally. He then describes his physical features, and Heraclius states that there is a successor to the prophet Muhammad who is described as black-eyed, tall, wheat-colored like a lion, and would expel his enemies from their lands. The Lakhmid spy responds that he has a companion (the second caliph, Umar ) like this. Heraclius then responded that he
11102-488: The most interesting finds is a necklace of gold Byzantine gold coins , dating from the reign of Emperor Maurice (582–602 AD) to that of Constans II (641–668 AD), precisely down to 646 AD, which have often been taken to set the terminus post quem for the site. There is also a Sassanian dish bearing an image of Shapur the Great (309–379 AD), and a Byzantine dish with an inscription of the early 6th-century bishop of Tomis . Other finds must probably be dated to as late as
11224-540: The north, and between the Ahırkapı Feneri and the Kadıköy İnciburnu Feneri in the south ("Fener" is Turkish for lighthouse). Between these limits, the strait is 31 km (17 nmi) long, with a width of 3,329 m (1.798 nmi) at the northern entrance and 2,826 m (1.526 nmi) at the southern entrance. Its maximum width is 3,420 m (1.85 nmi) between Umuryeri and Büyükdere Limanı, and minimum width
11346-434: The ocean rose 72.5 metres (238 ft) at the end of the last Ice Age when the massive ice sheets melted, the sealed Bosporus was overwhelmed by a spectacular flood that increased the then fresh water Black Sea Lake by 50%, and drove people back from the shores for many months. This hypothesis was supported by the findings of undersea explorer Robert Ballard , who discovered settlements along the old shoreline; scientists dated
11468-590: The office of sakellarios , a comptroller of the treasury. Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s, under Constans II . Edward Gibbon , in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , wrote: Of the characters conspicuous in history, that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent. In
11590-484: The peasants. Then "O People of the Scripture , come to a term equitable between us and you that we worship none but God and associate with Him nothing, and we take not one another as Lords apart from God. But if they turn away, then say: Bear witness that we peace makers." Seal : Muhammad, Apostle of God According to Islamic reports, Muhammad dispatched Dihyah al-Kalbi to carry the epistle to " Caesar " through
11712-457: The problem of religious unity centering on the understanding of the true nature of Christ . Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon . Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism but this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and
11834-606: The province of Arabia in response to the Arab ambassador's death at the hands of the Ghassanid Roman governor, but were repulsed. Since the engagement was a Byzantine victory, there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military organization of the region. The Roman military wasn't accustomed to fighting Arab armies at scale, much like the Islamic forces of Hijaz who had no prior experience in their engagements against
11956-418: The public in the summer of 2022. The exact cause and date of the formation of the Bosporus remain a subject of debate among geologists. One recent hypothesis, dubbed the Black Sea deluge hypothesis , which was launched by a study of the same name in 1997 by two scientists from Columbia University , postulates that the Bosporus was flooded around 5600 BCE (revised to 6800 BCE in 2003) when the rising waters of
12078-681: The rocks became fixed, opening Greek access to the Black Sea. The Bosporus is traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as by recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities. The Strait also serves a significant amount of international commercial shipping traffic in the form of freighters and tankers . Between its northern limits at Rumeli Feneri and Anadolu Feneri and its southern ones at Ahırkapı Feneri and Kadıköy İnciburnu Feneri , there are numerous dangerous points for large-scale maritime traffic that require sharp turns and management of visual obstructions. Famously,
12200-714: The ruling class of the Empire, but they resisted so strongly that he reversed course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity. El-Cheikh notes that these accounts of Heraclius add "little to our historical knowledge" of the emperor; rather, they are an important part of "Islamic kerygma ," attempting to legitimize Muhammad's status as a prophet. Most Western academic historians view such traditions as biased and proclamatory and of little historical value. Furthermore, they argue that any messengers sent by Muhammad to Heraclius would not have received an imperial audience or recognition. According to Kaegi, there
12322-609: The schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites , by promoting a compromise doctrine called monothelitism . The Church of the East (commonly called Nestorian) was also involved in the process. Eventually, this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute. Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder , who is almost universally recognized as being of Armenian origin. His mother, Epiphania,
12444-558: The shore of present-day Kenya ) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former's point of view, is also known as Kyuo kya Hereḳali ("The Book of Heraclius"). In that work, Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet's request to renounce his belief in Christianity: he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces. In Muslim tradition, he is seen as a just ruler of great piety, who had direct contact with
12566-667: The straits area. The reversion was formalised under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits of 20 July 1936. That convention - which is still in force - treats the straits as an international shipping lane except that Turkey retains the right to restrict the naval traffic of non–Black Sea states. Turkey was neutral in the Second World War until February 1945, and
12688-552: The straits were closed to the warships of belligerent nations during this time, although some German auxiliary vessels were permitted to transit. In diplomatic conferences, Soviet representatives had expressed an interest in obtaining naval bases on the straits. This, together with Stalin's demands for the restitution of the Turkish provinces of Kars , Artvin and Ardahan to the Soviet Union (which were lost by Turkey in
12810-402: The stretch between Kandilli Point and Aşiyan requires a 45-degree course alteration in a location where the currents can reach 7 to 8 knots (3.6 to 4.1 m/s). To the south, at Yeniköy , the necessary course alteration is 80 degrees. Compounding these difficult changes in trajectory, the rear and forward sight lines at Kandilli and Yeniköy are also completely blocked prior to and during
12932-676: The study). The project was led by Jeff Peakall and Daniel Parsons at the University of Leeds , in collaboration with the University of Southampton , Memorial University of Newfoundland , and the Institute of Marine Sciences . The survey was run and coordinated from the Institute of Marine Sciences research ship, the R/V Koca Piri Reis . The shores of the Bosporus were once lined with small fishing villages that had grown up since Byzantine times but really came into their own in
13054-427: The then-recent Treaty of Hudaybiyyah , who was trading in the region of Syria at the time. Asked by Heraclius about the man claiming to be a prophet, Abu Sufyan responded, speaking favorably of Muhammad's character and lineage and outlining some directives of Islam. Heraclius was seemingly impressed by what he was told of Muhammad, and felt that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was valid. . Later reportedly he wrote to
13176-411: The third and fourth verses, the Muslim community is promised that the Byzantines will reverse their defeat into a victory and retake Jerusalem "in a few years' time". "The Romans were vanquished in the closer region, and they, after being vanquished, will prevail within a certain number of (from 3 to 9) years. To God belongs the command before and after. And that day, ones who believe will be glad with
13298-412: The true faith and Muhammad as its prophet, by comparing Islam to Christianity. Islamic historians often cite a letter in which they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad: "I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament. Jesus, son of Mary, announced you." According to the Muslim sources reported by El-Cheikh, he tried to convert
13420-423: The war, Khosrow fled from his favourite residence—Dastagird near Baghdad —without offering resistance. Meanwhile, some of the Persian grandees freed Khosrow's eldest son Kavad II , who had been imprisoned by his father, and proclaimed him King on the night of 23–24 February, 628. Kavad, however, was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir. So, as a goodwill gesture, he sent
13542-441: Was crowned co-emperor ( augustus ) on 22 January 613, at the age of 8 months. Heraclonas was made caesar on 1 January 632, aged 6, and was later crowned augustus on 4 July 638. They ruled for a few months in 641, but were eventually succeeded by Constans II , the son of Constantine III, by the end of the year. Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son, John Athalarichos , who conspired against Heraclius with his cousin,
13664-611: Was able to bring the Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate , under Ziebel , who invaded Persian Transcaucasia . Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrow had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution. Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of his Turkish allies, he defeated
13786-601: Was also known as Damalis ( Δάμαλις ), as it was where the Athenian general Chares had erected a monument to his wife Damalis, which included a colossal statue of a cow (the name δαμάλις translating to 'heifer'). The English spelling with -ph- ( Bosphor ) is not justified by the ancient Greek name, and dictionaries prefer the spelling with -p- . However -ph- occurs as a variant in medieval Latin (as Bosphor , and occasionally Bosphorus or Bospherus ), and in medieval Greek sometimes as Βόσφορος , giving rise to
13908-499: Was associated with strawberry-growing while Çengelköy was famous for its sweet cucumbers. As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosporus has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and it remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine . Control over it has been an objective of
14030-504: Was discovered in 1912 in the village of Mala Pereshchepina (20 km from Poltava , Ukraine ) by a shepherd boy who stumbled over a golden vessel and fell into what is sometimes believed to be the grave of Kubrat , the founder of Great Bulgaria and father of Asparuh , the founder of the First Bulgarian Empire . The hoard, first described by Makarenko, was extracted under the supervision of Count Aleksey Bobrinsky ,
14152-525: Was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship. By this time, the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin , and the Roman position collapsed;
14274-490: Was given to the Armenian architect Sarkis Balyan by Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1880. The house he built on it was later demolished. The island became a walled garden and then a water sports centre, before it was given to the Galatasaray Sports Club , hence its name. However, in the 2010s it was completely overbuilt with nightclubs. In another change, the government had these torn down in 2017. It reopened to
14396-490: Was probably of Cappadocian origin. Walter Kaegi considers Heraclius' Armenian origin "probable" and speculates that he was presumably "bilingual (Armenian and Greek) from an early age, but even this is uncertain". According to the 7th century Armenian historian Sebeos , Heraclius was related to the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . Elizabeth Redgate considers his Armenian origin likely. Anthony Kaldellis argues that there
14518-598: Was re-established by closing the Turkish Straits to all warships , barring those of the Sultan 's allies during wartime. This benefited British naval power at the expense of the Russians, as the latter then lacked direct access to the Mediterranean. During the 19th century many of the foreign powers represented in Constantinople maintained second embassies up the Bosporus and would relocate their staff there during
14640-532: Was returned to Medina with the felicitations of the emperor. Scholarly historians disagree with this account, arguing that any such messengers would have received neither an imperial audience or recognition, and that there is no evidence outside of Islamic sources suggesting that Heraclius had any knowledge of Islam. This letter is mentioned in Sahih Al Bukhari. The Swahili Utendi wa Tambuka , an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island (off
14762-416: Was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage: Fabius had a paralyzed neck and Theodosius was a deaf-mute . The latter married Nike, daughter of the Persian general Shahrbaraz , or daughter of Niketas, cousin of Heraclius. Two of Heraclius's children would become emperor: Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III) , his son with Eudokia, and Martina's son Heraclius (Heraclonas) . Constantine
14884-586: Was transformed into a cow and condemned to wander the Earth until she crossed the Bosporus, where she met the Titan Prometheus , who comforted her by telling her that she would be restored to human form by Zeus and become the ancestor of the greatest of all heroes, Heracles (Hercules). Io supposedly went ashore near Chrysopolis (present-day Üsküdar ), which was named Bous 'the Cow'. The same site
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