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79-516: Revolution: June 1905 – August 1906 Semi-organized groups: [REDACTED] Qajar dynasty Civil war: August 1906 – July 1909 [REDACTED] Parliament Qajar dynasty The Persian Constitutional Revolution ( Persian : مشروطیت , romanized :  Mashrūtiyyat , or انقلاب مشروطه Enghelāb-e Mashrūteh ), also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran , took place between 1905 and 1911 during

158-519: A "brief but violent confrontation" in which Sattar Khan was wounded, Yeprem Khan, the recently appointed police chief of Tehran "succeeded in disarming them". The revolution ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis, suffering from "internal dissension, apathy of the masses, antagonisms from the upper class, and open enmity from Britain and Russia", were "roughly" expelled from

237-526: A 50-year monopoly over the distribution and exportation of tobacco in exchange for £25,000 to the Shah personally and £15,000 a year to the state. Iranians cultivated a variety of tobacco "much prized in foreign markets" that was not grown elsewhere, and the arrangement threatened the job security of a significant portion of the Iranian population – hundreds of thousands of workers in agriculture and

316-442: A Muslim not trained in the religious sciences to obey a mujtahid , i.e. a marja' , when seeking to determine Islamically correct behavior.) After this debacle, the new Shah, Mohammad Ali Qajar , understood that he could not use royal prestige and tradition to fight constitutional government. Instead, he would find religious allies. There were clergy on both sides of the dispute. On the side of constitutional government were three of

395-420: A century of successive defeats, an Asian power had defeated a European power, an event that bolstered pride throughout Asia. This feeling was particularly strong in those countries, like Iran, that had experienced Russian penetration and oppression. Many considered it significant that the only Asian power with a constitution had defeated the only Western power without one, and constitutions came to be looked upon as

474-434: A curb on royal authority and the establishment of the rule of law as their concern about foreign (especially Russian) influence grew. The Qajars had taken large loans from Russia and Britain to pay for the Shah's extravagant lifestyle and the cost of the government; the shah financed a royal tour of Europe in 1900 by borrowing ₽22 million from Russia, using Iranian customs receipts as collateral. In 1905, protests erupted about

553-528: A decade of relative peace (1813–1826) between Russia and Persia, primarily for the clause regarding trade: both governments saw substantial potential in it. Permanent diplomatic missions were set up in Persia as well as in Russia in order to keep trade open for as long as possible. The tensions remained, however, as the governments of both countries understood that the terms of the treaty were vague, and that nothing

632-578: A deposed shah and a 1907 division of the country by Britain and Russia capitalizing on Iran's weak government. A new fundamental law created a parliament, giving it final approval of all loans and the budget. The majles was endorsed by the leading clerics of Najaf – Akhund Khurasani , Mirza Husayn Tehrani and Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani . In the late 19th century, like most of the Muslim world, Iran suffered from foreign intrusion and exploitation, military weakness, lack of cohesion, and corruption. In

711-527: A fight in early 1906, government forces killed a sayyid (a descendant of Muhammad ). In a skirmish shortly afterwards, Cossacks killed 22 protesters and injured 100. The bazaar again closed and the ulama went on strike, a large number taking sanctuary in the holy city of Qom . Many merchants went to the British embassy in Tehran , which agreed to shelter the basti on the grounds of the embassy. During

790-660: A financial crisis, with annual governmental expenditures far in excess of revenues as a result of the policies of his father. The monarch, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah signed the 1906 constitution shortly before his death. Weakness and extravagance continued during the brief reign of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar (1896–1907), who often relied on his chancellor to manage his decentralized state. His dire financial straits caused him to sign many concessions to foreign powers on trade items ranging from weapons to tobacco. The aristocracy, religious authorities, and educated elite began demanding

869-745: A former brigadier-general of the Persian Cossack Brigade , as the new shah of Pahlavi Iran . The Qajar Imperial Family in exile is currently headed by the eldest descendant of Mohammad Ali Shah, Sultan Mohammad Ali Mirza Qajar , while the Heir Presumptive to the Qajar throne is Mohammad Hassan Mirza II , the grandson of Mohammad Hassan Mirza , Sultan Ahmad Shah's brother and heir. Mohammad Hassan Mirza died in England in 1943, having proclaimed himself shah in exile in 1930 after

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948-487: A second effort with constitutionalist forces marching to Tehran, forced Mohammad Ali Shah's abdication in favor of his young son Ahmad Shah Qajar , and re-established the constitution in 1909. The revolution ended in December 1911 when the Shah's ministers oversaw the expulsion of the deputies of the Second Majlis from the parliament "with the support of 12,000 Russian troops". After the 1921 Persian coup d'état ( Persian : کودتای ۳ اسفند ۱۲۹۹ ), Iran's parliament amended

1027-434: A way for both countries to "gain a breath" so that they could focus on other issues. After the treaty was signed, Persia began rapidly building up its army once more, as Fath Ali Shah was fully devoted to regaining the lost territories. It is therefore not surprising that Fath Ali Shah ordered his military commander, Abbas Mirza, to start training troops in 1823, three years before the following Russo-Persian War . Furthermore,

1106-652: Is the Qajar heir to the Persian throne. Religion Treaty of Gulistan The treaty confirmed the ceding and inclusion of what is now Dagestan , eastern Georgia , most of the Republic of Azerbaijan , and parts of northern Armenia from Iran into the Russian Empire . The text was prepared by the British diplomat Sir Gore Ouseley , who served as a mediator and wielded a significant degree of influence in

1185-568: The Franco-Persian alliance . Although France promised to support Iran's ambitions and help it regain its recently-lost territory of Georgia, ultimately Napoleon left Persia unassisted given France's relations with Russia were more important after the two countries signed the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. The turning point of the war came on 31 October 1812 during the Battle of Aslanduz , in which

1264-641: The International Museum for Family History in Eijsden . The shah and his consort were styled Imperial Majesty . Their children were addressed as Imperial Highness , while male-line grandchildren were entitled to the lower style of Highness ; all of them bore the title of Shahzadeh or Shahzadeh Khanoum . The headship of the Imperial Family is inherited by the eldest male descendant of Mohammad Ali Shah. The Heir Presumptive

1343-630: The Napoleonic Wars , Fath Ali Shah instead brokered a deal with Britain to provide Persia with military support from British troops in exchange for preventing any European country from entering India. Following the agreement, Persia entered into the First Russo-Persian War against a militarily-preoccupied Russia, which was heavily invested in the Napoleonic Wars. The primary motive of the Persian court when entering

1422-611: The North Caucasian Republic of Dagestan, were Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century. The Treaty of Gulistan did not resolve the possibility of a future conflict between Russia and Iran. Russia's priority before the war was Europe and the Napoleonic Wars, which explains the relatively small number of troops that Russia dedicated to the Russo-Persian War. The Treaty of Gulistan can be primarily regarded as

1501-580: The North Caucasian Republic of Dagestan, were part of Iran until they were occupied by Russia during the 19th century. As a further direct result and consequence of the Treaty of Gulistan in combination with the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay, the formerly Iranian territories came under the Russian, and later the Soviet control for approximately 180 years, and Dagestan remains a constituent republic within

1580-633: The Qajar dynasty . The revolution led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia (Iran) , and has been called an "epoch-making episode in the modern history of Persia". The revolution was "the first of its kind in the Islamic world, earlier than the revolution of the Young Turks in 1908 ". It opened the way for the modern era in Persia, and debate in a burgeoning press. Many groups fought to shape

1659-702: The Russian Federation to this day. Comprising most of the territory ceded in Gulistan and Turkmenchay treaties, three separate nations would gain independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991: Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. In 1801, the Russian Empire had sworn in a new tsar, Alexander I , who was eager to expand Russia's control over its neighboring territories. A few years previously in Iran , Fath Ali Shah Qajar also became

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1738-589: The Transcaucasia shielded the local populations from the constant Iranian and Ottoman invasions, and that the Christian nations of the Caucasus were liberated from Muslim repression, which ensured peace and stability in the region. Vital to the signing of the treaty was the agreement made by Fath Ali Shah with Britain. With the defeat in the Russo-Persian War, the Shah understood that another attack by

1817-489: The majlis ) to the shah's policies. Parliament appointed American lawyer William Morgan Shuster as Persia's treasurer-general. In response, Russia issued an ultimatum to expel Shuster and suspend the parliament, occupying Tabriz . After shelling the Majles (parliament) of Iran in the capital Tehran, 40,000 of Mohammad Ali Shah's soldiers were ordered to attack Tabriz, where Constitutional rebels were holding out. Sattar Khan

1896-490: The "secret of strength" of Western governments. The political base of the constitutionalist movement to control the power of the shah was an alliance of the ulama , liberal and radical intellectuals, and the bazaar . But the alliance was based on common enemies rather than common goals. The ulama sought "to extend their own power and to have Shi'i Islam more strictly enforced"; the liberals and radicals desired "greater political and social democracy and economic development"; and

1975-402: The 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay , Iran lost "Georgia, Armenia, and their Caspian navy" to Russia, "gave up its claims to Afghanistan, and paid an indemnity of three million pounds to the tsar". In the Treaty of Paris (1857) , it agreed to withdraw from Herat (formerly part of Iran) and signed a commercial treaty with Britain. The lack of a standing Iranian army

2054-536: The Caspian Sea and granted Russia exclusive rights to maintain a military fleet there, with capitulatory rights to trade within Iran. Russia in return promised to support Crown Prince Abbas Mirza as heir to the Iranian throne. Following the disastrous Russo-Iranian War of 1804–1813, Iranian leadership considered the Treaty of Gulistan more as a truce that allowed Iran to regroup. (...) Continued Russian encroachment into

2133-603: The Elections to the Majlis. (No women, foreigners, men under 25, "persons notorious for mischievous opinions," those with a criminal record, active military personnel, etc. were allowed to vote. Members of the parliament were required to be fully literate in Persian, "Iranian subjects of Iranian extraction," "locally known," "not be in government employment," between the ages of 30 and 70, and "have some insight into affairs of State." The fundamental laws of December 30, 1906 defined

2212-554: The Erivan Khanate, in violation of the Treaty of Gulistan, [sparking the next and final bout of hostilities between the two]. According to Prof. William Bayne Fisher ( et al. ): British mediation made it possible for the two sides to negotiate a peace treaty which was signed on 14 Oktober 1813, at the village of Gulistan. By its terms, Iran lost many of its Caucasian provinces, including Qarabagh and Ganja, Shirvan and Baku, Georgia, and parts of Talish. No power other than Russia

2291-785: The Khanates of Erivan, Nakhchivan, and Qarabagh across the Aras, and the cis-Aras Khanate of Talish, with its administrative headquarters located at Lankaran and therefore very vulnerable to pressure, either from the direction of Tabriz or Rasht. Beyond the Khanate of Qarabagh, the Khan of Ganja and the Vali of Gurjistan (ruler of the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of south-east Georgia), although less accessible for purposes of coercion, were also regarded as

2370-509: The Majlis and threatened with death if they returned by "the shah's cabinet, backed by 12,000 Russian troops". The 1891 fatwa by Mirza Hasan Shirazi that effectively shut down tobacco use in Iran and reversed the monopoly agreement on tobacco, showed the enormous influence of the Usuli Twelver Shi'i clergy among the Iranian people that went beyond issues directly involved with religion. (Usuli Shi'i consider it obligatory for

2449-488: The Persian army suffered a decisive defeat. Following the battle, Fath Ali Shah had no option but to sign the Treaty of Gulistan. According to Cambridge History of Iran: Even when rulers on the plateau lacked the means to effect suzerainty beyond the Aras, the neighboring Khanates were still regarded as Iranian dependencies. Naturally, it was those Khanates located closest to the province of Azarbaijan which most frequently experienced attempts to re-impose Iranian suzerainty:

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2528-468: The Persian army would be disarmed or be able to regroup. It was obvious to both sides that Persia would potentially attempt to reclaim the territories in the future, given the Persian court considered the captured regions rightfully Iranian and opposed Russia's repressive treatment of the Caucasian populations. The war had become costly in terms of finance and manpower, so the Treaty of Gulistan led to over

2607-537: The Persian court. It was signed by Nikolai Rtischev for Russia and Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi for Persia. The result of the treaty was the transfer of the bulk of Iran's Caucasian territories to the Russian Empire. The treaty also directly contributed to the outbreak of the next war of the 19th century: the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) , in which the Iranian forces were defeated once more. In

2686-594: The Russians in the Caucasus. However, the Persian forces lagged behind technologically and were poorly trained, a problem that the Persian government did not recognize until far later. Despite these significant disadvantages, the fighting continued in northern Persia, Azerbaijan and in regions of Georgia. Persian court went so far as to declare a jihad against the Russian Empire and called upon its Iranian subjects to maintain unity. The Persian court also requested military and financial aid from France's Napoleon in light of

2765-764: The Russians was almost inevitable. Britain saw such a war as unwinnable for the Persians, and so took advantage of Persia's weakness to strengthen their foreign affairs in the region. Using their new-found diplomatic connections with the British, Persia established the Treaty of Defensive Alliance in 1812 , which promised that Britain would "offer a defensive alliance against further Russian encroachments". Its terms essentially stated that Persia would defend against any European army entering India, which stationed British troops, and in return, Britain would provide military and financial against any future Russian attack. The treaty of Gulistan did not answer vital questions such as whether

2844-522: The Shah's vassals, as were the Khans of Shakki and Shirvan, north of the Kura River. The contacts between Iran and the Khanates of Baku and Qubba, however, were more tenuous and consisted mainly of maritime commercial links with Anzali and Rasht. The effectiveness of these somewhat haphazard assertions of suzerainty depended on the ability of a particular Shah to make his will felt, and the determination of

2923-529: The bazaar merchants), and that the shah was selling assets to pay interest on the fortune in foreign debt he had accumulated. It ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis, suffering from "internal dissension, apathy of the masses, antagonisms from the upper class, and open enmity from Britain and Russia", were "roughly" expelled from the Majlis and threatened with death if they returned by "the shah's cabinet, backed by 12,000 Russian troops". In between there were two different majles (parliaments),

3002-437: The bazaaris "to restrict favored foreign economic status and competition". The intellectuals were a "small but growing" group, many of whom learned of Western ways while travelling abroad and "were generally struck by Western economic development, comparative justice, and lack of arbitrary rule". In their writings these intellectuals criticized Iran's "autocratic rulers, petty officials, venal clerics, and arbitrary courts, and of

3081-576: The bazaars. This led to unprecedented nationwide protest erupting first among the bazaari , and then the ulama . In December 1891, the most important religious authority in Iran, marja' -e taqlid Mirza Hasan Shirazi , issued a fatwa declaring the use of tobacco to be tantamount to war against the Hidden Imam , using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie (tobacco monopoly). Bazaars shut down, and Iranians stopped smoking tobacco, Despite

3160-679: The beginning of the constitutional movement, Sheikh Fazlullah Nouri made speeches and distributed tracts in support of the sources of emulation (Shi'i marja' religious leadership) in Najaf and their position on constitutionalism. They all agreed that the people must counter autocracy and injustice with a constitution that limited the powers of the state and a legislature that represented the country. However, when monarch Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar made clear his desire to roll back democracy and reestablish his authority by military and foreign support (in 1908), Shaikh Fazlullah reversed his position and sided with

3239-559: The border between the two states. These provisions were so vague as to invite misinterpretation and conflict. Another consequence of Persia's losses to Russia and the subsequent treaties of Gulistan and Turkemenchay was the separation of the Azerbaijani and Talysh people from their brethren in Iran. The area to the North of the river Aras , amongst which is the territory of the contemporary nations of Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia and

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3318-600: The constitution on December 12, 1925, replacing the 1797–1925 Qajar dynasty with the Pahlavi dynasty as the legitimate sovereigns of Iran. The 1906–1907 constitution, though not adhered to, remained until after the Islamic Revolution a new constitution was approved on 2 and 3 December 1979 establishing an Islamic Republic. The Constitutional Revolution began in 1905 with protest against a foreign director of customs (a Belgian) enforcing "with bureaucratic rigidity"

3397-518: The country was neutral. In 1908, the shah moved to "exploit the divisions within the ranks of the reformers" and eliminate the majlis , staging a coup d'état and creating a period in Iranian history called the Minor Tyranny . It was at this point that Fazlollah Nori defected from the constitutionalists, helping the shah kill some revolutionaries and bomb the parliament. Persia tried to remain free of Russian influence through resistance (via

3476-411: The course of the revolution. The old order, which Shah Naser al-Din Shah Qajar had struggled for so long to sustain, was finally replaced by new institutions. Shah Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar signed the 1906 constitution shortly before his death. He was succeeded by Mohammad Ali Shah , who abolished the constitution and bombarded the parliament in 1908 with Russian and British support. This led to

3555-772: The death of his brother in France. Today, the descendants of the Qajars often identify themselves as such and hold reunions to stay socially acquainted through the Kadjar (Qajar) Family Association , often coinciding with the annual conferences and meetings of the International Qajar Studies Association (IQSA). The Kadjar (Qajar) Family Association was founded for a third time in 2000. Two earlier family associations were stopped because of political pressure. The offices and archives of IQSA are housed at

3634-560: The following Treaty of Turkmenchay , Qajar Iran lost possession of its last remaining Caucasian territories, comprising modern-day Armenia and the remaining part of modern-day Azerbaijan . By 1828, Iran had lost by both treaties all of those integral territories in Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus . The area north of the Aras River , including the territory of the contemporary nations of Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia and

3713-522: The highest level clerics ( marja' ) at the time – Akhund Khurasani , Mirza Husayn Tehrani and Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani – who telegraphed fatwa in favor of the constitution from their schools in Najaf , Iraq; of the three, Muhammad Kazim Khurasani , (aka Akhund Khurasani) was the most involved in the issue, he and his student Muhammad Hossein Naini argued that while complete justice was impossible until

3792-537: The imposition of Persian tariffs to repay the Russian loan for Mozaffar ad-Din Shah's royal tour. In December of that year, two merchants in Tehran were bastinadoed for price-gouging. The city's merchants rebelled, closing its bazaar. The clergy followed suit as a result of the alliance formed during the Tobacco Protest . The two protesting groups sought sanctuary in a Tehran mosque, but the government entered

3871-543: The laws of Islam. Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar , the sixth Qajar shah, came to power in January 1907. He opposed the constitution. The British switched their support to the shah, abandoning the constitutionalists. In August of that year, taking advantage of Iran's weakness, the Anglo-Russian Convention was signed, dividing Iran into a Russian zone in the north and a British zone in the south; the center of

3950-534: The local khans to evade obligations they regarded as onerous. Even today, Iran officially sees it and the later Treaty of Turkmenchay as some of its most humiliating treaties ever signed. The treaty is also regarded by Iranians as the main reason why Fath Ali Shah is seen as one of Iran's most incompetent rulers in memory. Scholars in Azerbaijan point out that the Karabakh Khanate, where the treaty

4029-409: The low status of women." The "mercantile class" or bazaari became convinced that "law and order, security of property, and immunity from arbitrary power could all be achieved by importing parliamentary democracy" from Europe. The ulama (i.e. Islamic scholars) had less to gain and a less direct incentive to support a constitution, but were convinced (at least for a time) that their "hierocracy vis-a-vis

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4108-523: The merchant class. The National Consultative Assembly first met in October 1906. The shah was old and frail, and attending the inauguration of parliament was one of his last official acts. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah's son, Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar , was unsympathetic to constitutionalism; the shah signed the constitution (modeled on the Belgian constitution ) by December 31, 1906, making his power contingent on

4187-438: The monarchy" would not be weakened. The tobacco protest of 1891–1892 was "the first mass nationwide popular movement in Iran", and described as a "dress rehearsal for the...Constitutional Revolution", formed from an anti-imperialist and antimonarchist coalition of "clerics, mercantile interests, and dissident intellectuals". In March 1890, Naser al-Din Shah granted a concession to an Englishman, Baron Paul Julius Reuter , for

4266-424: The mosque and dispersed them. The dispersal triggered a larger movement that sought refuge at a shrine outside Tehran. The shah yielded to the demonstrators on January 12, 1906, agreeing to dismiss his prime minister and transfer power to a "house of justice" (forerunner of the Iranian parliament). The basti protesters returned from the shrine in triumph, riding royal carriages and hailed by a jubilant crowd. During

4345-597: The new shah after the assassination of his uncle, Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar , in 1797. During his reign, Agha Mohammad Khan had defeated and re-subordinated the Afsharid / Safavid vassals and subjects in the regions of modern-day eastern Georgia, Armenia, southern Dagestan, and Azerbaijan, and claimed those areas as rightfully belonging to Persia. During and after the Battle of Krtsanisi in 1795, he had regained full control over eastern Georgia, Dagestan , Armenia , and Azerbaijan . Several years later, after Agha Mohammad Khan

4424-476: The popularity of tobacco – which Iranians were said to be less likely to forego than bread – the religious ban was so successful that it was said that women in the shah's harem quit smoking. The protest demonstrated to the Iranians "for the first time that it was possible to win out against the Shah and foreign interests… there is a direct line from the coalition which participated in

4503-484: The powerful Bakhtiyari tribal leaders threw their support to the Tabriz rebels. Constitutionalist forces marched to Tehran, forced Mohammad Ali Shah's abdication in favor of his young son Ahmad Shah Qajar , and re-established the constitution in 1909. A further split in the revolutionary movement occurred in 1910 when "a group of guerrilla fighters headed by Sattar Khan, refused to obey a government order to disarm." After

4582-422: The price they were paid for wheat harvest dropped to 1/6 what it had been in 1871; irrigation systems had fallen into ruin, "turning fields and villages into desert". In 1872, Nasir al-Din Shah negotiated a concession granting a British citizen control over Persian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of resources, and other public works in exchange for a fixed sum and 60% of net revenue. This concession

4661-580: The return of the Hidden Imam, "human experience and careful reflection" shows "that democracy reduces the tyranny of state" making it a "lesser evil" in governance and something Shi'i must support until the return of the Imam; also supporting constitutionalism was Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi , who argued that only the sources of emulation (highest level clerics) should be heeded when it comes to matters of faith. The leader of those opposing constitutional government

4740-501: The road, and thus "encouraged the local peasants to settle in more distant regions". A survey for the British Foreign Office reported: 'There are large tracts of fertile land which remain waste owing to their proximity to the main roads, as no village having cultivators on such spots can possibly prosper or enjoy the least immunity from the pestering visits of Government officials, and thefts and robberies committed by

4819-538: The role of the Majlis as a bicameral legislature: the National Consultative Assembly was to be based "on justice." and there was to be "another Assembly, entitled the Senate." The Constitutional Amendment of 1907 declared Twelver Shi'ism to be the state religion, and called for a council of five high ranking Twelver Shia clerics to ensure that the laws passed by the parliament were not against

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4898-568: The shah and his court. Qajar dynasty The Qajar dynasty ( Persian : دودمان قاجار , romanized :  Dudemâne Ǧâjâr ; 1789–1925) was an Iranian royal dynasty founded by Mohammad Khan ( r.  1789–1797 ) of the Qoyunlu clan of the Turkoman Qajar tribe . The dynasty's effective rule in Iran ended in 1925 when Iran's Majlis , convening as a constituent assembly on 12 December 1925, declared Reza Shah ,

4977-438: The shah's court. Under the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), foreign (Western) mass-manufactured products, "especially textiles, undermined the traditional handicrafts, and consequently presented for many bazaars a mutual enemy – the foreigner." In Isfahan at least, 10% of "the guilds in this city were weavers; not even 1/5 of those survived" competition with imported textiles. Widows and orphans were hurt, and farmers suffered: by 1894

5056-460: The southern Caucasian territories as well as the mistreatment of Muslim populations had seriously strained Russo-Iranian relations. General Aleksei Yermolov, the New Russian commander in chief in the Caucasus, shared his predecessor Tsitsianov's worldview toward "Asiatics" and was committed to war as a means of achieving Russia's political goals. In May 1826, Russia, therefore, occupied Mirak, in

5135-491: The summer of 1906, about 12,000 men camped in the gardens of the British embassy in what has been called a "vast open-air school of political science". Demand for a parliament ( majlis ) began, with the goal of limiting the power of the shah. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah agreed on a parliament in August 1906, and the first elections were held that fall. One hundred fifty-six members were elected, the overwhelming majority from Tehran and

5214-450: The tariff collections to pay for a loan to another foreign source (Russians) that financed the shah's ( Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar ) extravagant tour of Europe. The revolutionaries – mainly bazaar merchants, the ulama , and a small group of radical reformers – argued that Iran's oil industry was being sold to the British, while tax breaks on imports, exports and manufactured textiles were destroying Iran's economy (which had been supported by

5293-415: The tobacco movement… culminating in the Constitutional Revolution" and arguably the Iranian Revolution as well, according to Historian Nikki Keddie . The fourth Qajar monarch, Naser al-Din Shah was assassinated on 1 May 1896 by Mirza Reza Kermani , a follower of Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī , when he was visiting and praying in the Shah Abdul-Azim Shrine . At Mozaffar al-Din Shah 's accession Persia faced

5372-433: The tribes.' Perhaps worst of all the indignities Iran suffered from the superior militaries of European powers were "a series of commercial capitulations." While the sales by the shah of titles, patents, privileges, concessions, monopolies, lands, ... high offices" paid for some improvements, such as a telegraph network and in Tehran a regular police force, a municipal civil service, etc., they were also spent on consumption by

5451-408: The war was to reassert its control over Georgia and to ensure the protection of the rest of its northwestern borders. However, Fath Ali Shah had also heard about the atrocities being committed by Russian Commanders in Georgia "through massive extortion and maladministration". Numerically, the Persian forces had a considerable advantage during the war, wielding an army as much as five times larger than

5530-414: The will of the people, and died three days later. The constitution itself was created by the royal proclamation on August 5, 1906 by Mozzafar al-Din Shah on "for the peace and tranquility of all the people of Persia." The Quran was the foundation of this constitution while the Belgian constitution served as a partial model for the document. The electoral law of September 9, 1906 defined the regulations for

5609-504: Was Fazlullah Nouri . Other opponents included Mullah Qurban Ali Zanjani. Nouri maintained that sharia was a complete code of life, not just for religious ritual, and any other codes were both unnecessary and against Islam. Although he ranked below Marja' religious leaders, he told Shi'i Muslims to ignore the Marja' they followed if that marja' supported democracy. After the parliament was formed, its members stayed in touch with Akhund Khurasani. Whenever legislative bills were discussed, he

5688-458: Was appointed the commander in chief of High Council, i.e. commander of the constitutionalist forces. By April 1909, the Tabriz rebels had lost large numbers of fighters, but succeeded in driving out royalist forces from the city, and Sattar Khan and his lieutenant Bagher Khan had distinguished themselves as heroes. Inspired by this victory, constitutionalists across Iran set up special committees in Tehran, Rasht, Qazvin, Isfahan and other cities, and

5767-459: Was assassinated in Shusha and Heraclius II of Georgia had died as well. Russia, wishing to expand its territory and trade, capitalized on the opportunity to annex eastern Georgia . The Persian court attempted to align itself with France in 1801 in order to establish a better position in case of war with Russia, but those attempts were unsuccessful. Later, as both Russia and Britain were engaged in

5846-729: Was part of the problem because the forces that were raised to fight the Russians (for example) were "faction-ridden tribal contingents" and lacked modern artillery. To compensate for his lack of an army, the Qajar Shah would use "loyal tribes", putting down a rebellion by declaring a rebellious city or region "open booty" for the tribe, who would then appear to rape and pillage – a far more destructive means of discipline than arresting and punishing rebels. Major roads between cities that might have appeared to be investments in improving transportation, provided opportunities not for greater trade and prosperity, but for tax collectors to fleece towns along

5925-408: Was permitted warships on the Caspian Sea. This provision left the Persian shores vulnerable to Russian attack. The treaty also dealt with commercial matters and with the establishment of permanent diplomatic missions. Perhaps the most dangerous provisions of the Gulistan treaty were those that promised Russian recognition and support of the legitimate heir to the Persian throne and those which delineated

6004-465: Was rolled back after bitter local opposition. Other concessions to the British included giving the new Imperial Bank of Persia exclusive rights to issue banknotes, and opening up the Karun River to navigation. Nikki R. Keddie points out that The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 and the Russian revolution of 1905 gave impetus to an Iranian opposition movement that had been growing since 1901. After

6083-518: Was signed, had pursued an independent foreign policy as early as 1795, when " Ibrahim Khalil Khan , the wali of Qarabagh, fearing for his independence, warned Sultan Selim III of Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar's ambitions to subdue Azerbaijan and later Qarabagh, Erivan and Georgia. In the same year Muhammad Khan, the hakim of Erivan, also wrote a letter to Selim III, alerting him to Agha Muhammad's 'aggression, and seeking Ottoman protection". Imperial Russian historians maintained that Russia's absorption of

6162-628: Was telegraphed with the details for a juristic opinion. In a letter dated June 3, 1907, the parliament told Akhund about a group of anti-constitutionalists who were trying to undermine legitimacy of democracy in the name of religious law. Akhund Khurasani and the other two members of the trio ( Mirza Husayn Tehrani and Shaykh Abdullah Mazandarani ) replied: اساس این مجلس محترم مقدس بر امور مذکور مبتنی است. بر هر مسلمی سعی و اهتمام در استحکام و تشیید این اساس قویم لازم، و اقدام در موجبات اختلال آن محاده و معانده با صاحب شریعت مطهره علی الصادع بها و آله الطاهرین افضل الصلاه و السلام، و خیانت به دولت قوی شوکت است. At

6241-660: Was written about provisions for the military, mainly to prevent Persia from trying to regain the regions of Georgia or the Caucasus, thus leaving open the possibility of another future war. It is likely that neither the Iranian Shah nor the Russian Tsar regarded the treaty of Gulistan as definitive. According to Prof. Timothy C. Dowling: Iran lost all its territories north of the Aras river, which included Daghestan, all of Georgia, and parts of Armenia and Azerbaijan. (...) The shah also surrendered Iranian rights to navigate

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