Asia-Pacific
127-491: Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups The Persian Corridor was a supply route through Iran into Soviet Azerbaijan by which British aid and American Lend-Lease supplies were transferred to the Soviet Union during World War II . Of the 17.5 million long tons of US Lend-Lease aid provided to the Soviet Union, 7.9 million long tons (45%) were sent through Iran. This supply route originated in
254-906: A diplomatic mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime but the British quickly learned of the German arrangements through intercepted Italian diplomatic transmissions. On 6 May, in accordance with the Paris Protocols , Germany concluded a deal with the Vichy French government to release war materials, including aircraft, from sealed stockpiles in the French Mandate of Syria and transport them to Iraq. The French also agreed to allow passage of other weapons and material and loaned several airbases in northern Syria to Germany, for
381-446: A further several hundred thousand captured during the process of the various campaigns. British losses amount to over 300,000 men killed, wounded, or captured, and total American losses in the region amounted to 130,000. During the late 1920s, Benito Mussolini claimed that Italy needed an outlet for its " surplus population " and that it would be in other countries' best interests to aid in this expansion. The regime wanted "hegemony in
508-641: A massive rise in morale among the German people. With the fighting ended, the Germans began to consider ways of resolving the question of how to deal with Britain. If the British refused to agree to a peace treaty, one option was to invade . However, Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine , had suffered serious losses in Norway, and in order to even consider an amphibious landing , Germany's Air Force (the Luftwaffe) had to first gain air superiority or air supremacy . With
635-614: A massive strategic air war considered to be an additional front), which began in June 1944 with the Allied landings in Normandy and continued until the defeat of Germany in May 1945 with its invasion . On 1 September 1939, World War II began with the German invasion of Poland . In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. The next few months in the war were marked by
762-535: A plot to arrest him and fled Baghdad for RAF Habbaniya , from whence he was flown to Basra and given refuge on the Insect-class gunboat HMS Cockchafer . On 1 April, Rashid Ali, along with four senior Army and Air Force officers known as the " Golden Square ", seized power via a coup d'état and Rashid Ali proclaimed himself Chief of the "National Defence Government." The Golden Square deposed al-Hashimi and restored Rashid Ali. Ali did not overthrow
889-701: A strong escort for convoys to and from the Malta. Malta was 60 miles (97 km) from Sicily and one of the first targets of the Italian army and the Regia Aeronautica ; the air defence of Malta comprised six obsolescent Gloster Gladiator biplanes. After the first Italian air attacks it became clear that Malta could be defended and in early July, the Gladiators were reinforced by twelve Hawker Hurricane fighters. The Kriegsmarine began operations in
1016-594: A substantial reserve of such mobile divisions also, but these were dispersed over a large area: the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler was still in the Netherlands , the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and the Panzer-Lehr Division were located in the Paris–Orleans area, since the Normandy coastal defence sectors or ( Küstenverteitigungsabschnitte – KVA) were considered
1143-691: A weak force garrisoning the gains made from Operation Compass. In March, the Battle of Kufra ended with the Italians losing the desert oasis of Kufra—a vital link between Italian east and north Africa—which was located in south-eastern Libya. In North Africa, the Italians responded to the defeat of their Tenth Army by dispatching armour and motorised divisions. Germany dispatched the Afrika Korps in Operation Sonnenblume , to bolster
1270-417: Is notable because a few days after the incursion the Germans issued a propaganda communiqué implying at least one prisoner had escaped and two were shot while resisting having their hands tied. This instance of tying prisoner's hands contributed to Hitler's decision to issue his Commando Order instructing that all captured Commandos or Commando-type personnel were to be executed as a matter of procedure. By
1397-669: The Battle of Taranto on the night of 12/13 November. After assembling enough forces the British launched a counter-attack upon the Italians in Egypt. Operation Compass drove the Italians out of Egypt and resulted in the destruction of the Italian 10th Army in February 1941. Following this success, British forces adopted a defensive position in North Africa and redeployed most troops to Greece in Operation Lustre , leaving
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#17327826086751524-787: The Battle of the Atlantic . While the Western Front remained quiet in April 1940, the fighting between the Allies and the Germans began in earnest with the Norwegian Campaign when the Germans launched Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Denmark and Norway. In doing so, the Germans beat the Allies to the punch; the Allies had been planning an amphibious landing in which they could begin to surround Germany, cutting off her supply of raw materials from Sweden . However, when
1651-747: The Battle of the Kasserine Pass and a temporary defensive success at the Battle of the Mareth Line . After shattering the Axis defence on the Mareth Line, the Allies squeezed Axis forces into a pocket around Tunis. Axis resistance in Africa ended on 13 May 1943, with the unconditional surrender of nearly 240,000 men, who became prisoners of war . Following the Allied victory in North Africa. The Allies now turn their attention in knocking out Italy from
1778-795: The First Battle of El Alamein , which had stalled the Axis advance into Egypt, British forces went onto the offensive in October. The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a watershed in the Western Desert Campaign and turned the tide in the North African Campaign . It ended the Axis threat to Egypt, the Suez Canal and of gaining access to the Middle Eastern and Persian oil fields via North Africa. As
1905-606: The German invasion of the United Kingdom . While his generals did not believe they were prepared, they were ordered to push forward without any solid objectives. On 9 September, Italian aircraft start preparation bombardments for the invasion of Egypt. Four days later, Italian infantry attacked and advanced as far as Sidi Barrani before digging in, 80 mi (130 km) west of the main British position at Mersa Matruh . In East Africa, after some initial offensive actions,
2032-809: The Greek government – during the early stages of the Greek Civil War . The British referred to this theatre as the Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre (so called due to the location of the fighting and the name of Middle East Command ), the Americans called it the Mediterranean Theater of War and the German informal official history of the fighting is the Mediterranean, South-East Europe, and North Africa 1939–1941. Despite
2159-614: The Imperial Iranian Gendarmerie (his son, Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. , would command coalition forces fifty years later during the Persian Gulf War .) To help operate trains on the demanding Trans-Iranian Railway route, the US supplied large numbers of ALCO diesel locomotives , which were more suitable than steam locomotives . About 3000 pieces of rolling stock of various types were also supplied. Beyond
2286-718: The Italian conquest of British Somaliland began in August and annexed the colony. After crossing the Albanian border, Italian forces began the Greco-Italian War by invading Greece on 28 October. The Greek army repulsed the Italian attack and commenced a counter-offensive on 14 November, which pushed Italian forces back into Albania. The Royal Navy inflicted a major setback upon the Italian Royal Navy during
2413-819: The Italian invasion of France , just before the end of the Battle of France . During June, the East African Campaign began with Italian attacks in East Africa, although ground combat did not start until July. On 22 June, France signed an armistice at Compiegne with Germany and on 24 June, the Franco-Italian Armistice was signed. Italy gained a 50 kilometres (31 mi) demilitarised zone inside France (as well as similar zones where Italian and French colonies met). Italian occupation forces took over an 832 km (321 sq mi) area of France, which included 28,500 people and
2540-729: The Luftwaffe unable to defeat the RAF in the Battle of Britain , the invasion of Great Britain could no longer be thought of as an option. While the majority of the German army was mustered for the invasion of the Soviet Union , construction began on the Atlantic Wall – a series of defensive fortifications along the French coast of the English Channel . These were built in anticipation of an Allied invasion of France. Because of
2667-420: The Mediterranean coast . It was not possible to predict where the Allies might choose to launch their invasion. The chance of an amphibious landing necessitated the substantial dispersal of the German mobile reserves, which contained the majority of their panzer troops. Each army group was allocated its mobile reserves. Army Group B had the 2nd Panzer Division in northern France, 116th Panzer Division in
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#17327826086752794-587: The North African campaign . The Western Front was marked by two phases of large-scale combat operations. The first phase saw the capitulation of Luxembourg, Netherlands, Belgium, and France during May and June 1940 after their defeat in the Low Countries and the northern half of France, and continued into an air war between Germany and Britain that climaxed with the Battle of Britain . The second phase consisted of large-scale ground combat (supported by
2921-624: The Pas-de-Calais , while the real target was Normandy . Following two months of slow fighting in hedgerow country, Operation Cobra allowed the Americans to break out at the western end of the lodgement . Soon after, the Allies were racing across France. They encircled around 200,000 Germans in the Falaise Pocket . As had so often happened on the Eastern Front Hitler refused to allow a strategic withdrawal until it
3048-607: The Royal Army Service Corps and the United States Army Quartermaster Corps . Many Allied civilian workers, such as stevedores and railway engineers , were also employed on the corridor. Many skilled engineers, accountants, and other professionals who volunteered or were drafted into the armed services were made warrant officers to help oversee the complex supply operations. In addition to providing logistical support to
3175-655: The Ruhr Area , rapidly fanning out into a broad front. As this was the strategy favoured by the Supreme Allied Commander , General Dwight D. Eisenhower , and most of the American high command, it was soon adopted. On 15 August the Allies launched Operation Dragoon – the invasion of Southern France between Toulon and Cannes . The US Seventh Army and the French First Army , making up
3302-569: The Shah was widely viewed as pro-German by the allies. Following the Shah's refusal to open Iran up as a supply route for war materiel to the USSR; the allies invaded and occupied Iran in August 1941. The Shah, who urged his military not to resist the invasion, was deposed and his young son placed on the throne as titular head of an allied controlled puppet government . Iranian oil fields were secured and
3429-627: The Soviet Union . Devastating losses in the Magreb , Egypt , and Tunisia halted Axis interference in North Africa by May 1943. The Allies then invaded Italy , resulting in an armistice authorized by the royal government, causing a civil war . A prolonged battle for Italy commenced between the Allied-aligned Kingdom of Italy in the south and Axis-aligned Italian Social Republic in the north, lasting until 2 May 1945 with
3556-574: The Spanish Civil War " began. On 7 April 1939, Mussolini began the Italian invasion of Albania and within two days had occupied the country. In May 1939, Italy formally allied to Nazi Germany in the Pact of Steel . Italian foreign policy went through two stages during the Fascist regime. Until 1934–35, Mussolini followed a "modest ... and responsible" course and following that date there
3683-622: The Surrender at Caserta . The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre had the longest duration of the World War II, resulted in the destruction of the Italian Empire , and severely undermined the strategic position of Germany, resulting in German divisions being deployed to Africa and Italy and total German losses (including those captured upon final surrender) being over two million. Italian losses amounted to around 177,000 men with
3810-656: The US 6th Army Group , rapidly consolidated this beachhead and liberated Southern France in two weeks; they then moved north up the Rhone valley. Their advance only slowed down as they encountered regrouped and entrenched German troops in the Vosges Mountains . The Germans in France were now faced by three powerful Allied army groups: in the north the British 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery , in
3937-1007: The United States , and those were unloaded in Persian Gulf ports in Iran and Iraq . Once the Axis powers were cleared from the Mediterranean Sea in 1943 - with the Allied capture of Tunisia , Sicily , and southern Italy - cargo convoys were able to pass through the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal , and the Red Sea to Iran for shipment to the Soviet Union . The main ports in the Corridor for supplies inbound to Iran were: in Iran , in Iraq , The main overland routes were from
Persian Corridor - Misplaced Pages Continue
4064-440: The monarchy and named a new Regent to King Faisal II , Sherif Sharaf . The leaders of the "National Defence Government" proceeded to arrest many pro-British citizens and politicians but many escaped through Amman in Transjordan. The new regime planned to refuse further concessions to the United Kingdom, to retain diplomatic links with Fascist Italy and to expel the most prominent pro-British politicians. The plotters considered
4191-460: The Allied side, Britain and the Soviet Union invaded Iran, arrested the monarch, sent him into exile to South Africa and took control of Iran's communications and the coveted railway. In 1942 the United States, now an ally of Britain and the Soviet Union in World War II, sent a military force to Iran to help maintain and operate sections of the railway. The British and Soviet authorities allowed Reza Shah's system of government to collapse and limited
4318-400: The Allies made a counter-landing in Norway following the German invasion, the Germans repulsed them and defeated the Norwegian armed forces, driving the latter into exile . The Kriegsmarine , nonetheless, suffered very heavy losses during the two months of fighting required to seize all of mainland Norway. In May 1940, the Germans launched the Battle of France. The Western Allies (primarily
4445-403: The Axis forces in Libya. During 1941, the British launched several offensives to push back the Axis forces in North Africa. Operation Brevity failed as did Operation Battleaxe but Operation Crusader , the third and larger offensive was launched at the end of the year. Over December 1941 into early 1942, Allied forces pushed the Italian-German forces back through Libya to roughly the limit of
4572-484: The Axis war effort in the North African theatre . Enno von Rintelen, who was the military attaché in Rome, emphasises, from the German point of view, the strategic mistake of not taking Malta . When Italy entered the war the Iraqi government did not break off diplomatic relations, as they had done with Germany. The Italian Legation in Baghdad became the centre for Axis propaganda and for fomenting anti-British feeling. In this they were aided by Mohammad Amin al-Husayni ,
4699-416: The British appointee as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem , who had fled from the British Mandate of Palestine shortly before the outbreak of war and later received asylum in Baghdad. In January 1941, there was a political crisis within Iraq as Rashid Ali resigned as Prime Minister of Iraq and was replaced by Taha al-Hashimi ; civil war loomed. On 31 March, the Regent of Iraq, Prince 'Abd al-Ilah , learnt of
4826-407: The British awarded the "North-West Europe Campaign of 1942" battle honour were: Operation Biting – Bruneval (27–28 February 1942), St Nazaire (27–28 March 1942), Operation Myrmidon – Bayonne (5 April 1942), Operation Abercrombie – Hardelot (21–22 April 1942), Dieppe (19 August 1942) and Operation Frankton – Gironde (7–12 December 1942). A raid on Sark on the night of 3/4 October 1942
4953-493: The British decided "that Italy could not now be regarded as a reliable friend" and preparations began to bring "the defences of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea ports up-to-date". In 1938, a weak armoured division was established in Egypt and further army and air force reinforcements were dispatched from Britain. With rising tension in Europe, in June 1939, the United Kingdom established Middle East Command (MEC) in Cairo to provide centralised command for British army units in
5080-492: The British forces and forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat. The Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk and the remaining British and Commonwealth forces withdrew a further 100 mi (160 km) east to Sollum on the Libyan–Egyptian border. </ref> The main Axis force began the Siege of Tobruk , and a small German force pressed eastwards, retaking all territory lost to Operation Compass, and advanced into Egypt. By
5207-414: The Caucasus and the Indian Ocean. The purpose of the command was to be "the western bastion of defence of India", keep British supply lines open to India and the Far East , and keep the Middle Eastern oilfields out of Axis hands. Upon the establishment of MEC, it was ordered to co-ordinate with the French military in the Middle East and Africa as well as liaise with the Turkish General Staff and possibly
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5334-442: The Caucasus, and partly for its name. However, it was also for blocking the river traffic carrying materiel north from the Persian Corridor. The Battle of Stalingrad (23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943) reopened the river. Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II Allied victory Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups The Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre
5461-482: The Corridor, most of it bound for the Soviet Union and some of it for British forces, under the Middle East Command , or for the Iranian economy , which was sustaining the influx of tens of thousands of foreign troops and Polish refugees. Also, supplies were needed for the development of new transport and supply facilities in Persia and in the Soviet Union. The tonnage figure does not include transfers of warplanes via Persia. Supplies came from as far away as Canada and
5588-410: The Eighth Army pushed west across the desert, capturing Libya, German and Italian forces occupied southern France and landed in Tunisia. On 8 November, Allied forces launched Operation Torch landing in various places across French North Africa. In December 1942, after a 101-day British blockade, French Somaliland fell to the Allies. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941,
5715-469: The French armies either destroyed or taken prisoner, the Germans quickly broke through the French lines, taking Paris on June 14. As France was falling, the British began the strategic withdrawal of all remaining British troops from France, via French ports still under Allied control. With the war all but decided, Italy also declared war on the UK and France, but made little progress. With the situation becoming dire, French Prime Minister Philippe Pétain signed
5842-431: The French border. At the Maginot Line on the other side of the border, French troops stood facing them, whilst the British Expeditionary Force and other elements of the French Army created a defensive line along the Belgian border. There were only some local, minor skirmishes. The British Royal Air Force dropped propaganda leaflets on Germany and the first Canadian troops stepped ashore in Britain, while Western Europe
5969-399: The French, Belgian and British land forces) soon collapsed under the onslaught of the so-called " blitzkrieg " strategy. Following the German breakthrough at Sedan, the BEF, along with the best of the French and Belgian armies, became trapped in Flanders. With the use of paratroopers and concentrated firepower, the Belgian and Dutch armies surrendered after several days. Luxembourg fell within
6096-424: The German attack. The Greek army found itself outnumbered in its effort to defend against both Italian and German troops. As a result, the Metaxas defensive line did not receive adequate troop reinforcements and was quickly overrun by the Germans, who then outflanked the Greek forces at the Albanian border, forcing their surrender. British, Australian and New Zealand forces were overwhelmed and forced to retreat, with
6223-406: The Greek General Staff. On 19 October 1939, the Treaty of Mutual Assistance was signed between the United Kingdom, France and Turkey and British military forces were authorised to begin discussions with the Turkish general staff; a further conference was held during March 1940. Within a week of the Italian occupation of Albania, France and the United Kingdom "announced they had promised to give all
6350-453: The Indian Ocean through the Sudan and Abyssinia, or to the Atlantic by way of French North Africa". On 2 October 1935, the Second Italo–Ethiopian War began when Italian forces invaded Abyssinia. Mussolini lauded the conquest as a new source of raw materials and location for emigration and speculated that a native army could be raised there to "help conquer the Sudan . "Almost as soon as the Abyssinian campaign ended, Italian intervention in
6477-441: The Iranians, the Allies offered other services as well. The Americans in particular were viewed as more neutral since they had no colonial past in the country as did the British and Soviets. The Americans contributed special expertise to the young Shah's government. Colonel Norman Schwarzkopf, Sr. , who at the outbreak of the war was serving as superintendent of the New Jersey State Police was in August 1942 put in charge of training
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#17327826086756604-485: The Iraqi army and British reinforcements were dispatched to Iraq from Transjordan and India. The larger but poorly trained Iraqi force was defeated and Baghdad and Mosul were captured. Ali and his supporters fled the country and an armistice was signed, restoring the monarchy of Faisal II, the Kingdom of Iraq and a pro-British government. The defeat of the rebellion saw the defeat of the German-Italian attempt to entrench an Axis state in Iraq and worsened relations between
6731-416: The Italian colonies, the Allies sought to bring the entire French empire effectively into the war against the Axis powers. They reopened the Mediterranean route to the Middle East. They went on from Africa to liberate Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. They caused Mussolini to topple from power, and they brought his successors to surrender. They drew more and more German military resources into a stubborn defence of
6858-641: The Italian leader, who was subsequently arrested. The new government announced that it would continue the war but secretly commenced negotiations with the Allies. Western Front (World War II) 1939–1940 : Axis victory 1944–1945 : Allied victory 1939–1940 1944–1945 1939–1940 1944–1945 1940 1944–1945 Total: 1940 1944–1945 Total: Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups Luxembourg The Netherlands Belgium France Britain 1941–1943 1944–1945 Germany Strategic campaigns The Western Front
6985-419: The Italian peninsula, and helped the Yugoslavs to pin down within their spirited country thousands of Axis troops. Eventually, the Allies delivered a solid blow from southern France against the German forces which were opposing the Allied drive from the beaches of Normandy! They made Marseilles available for Allied use and they occupied northern Italy and Greece." Howe further notes that "Hitler had always accepted
7112-401: The Italians with a mission to block further Allied attempts to drive the Italians out of the region. It's commander was General Erwin Rommel and Rommel himself was subordinated to the Italian command. But Rommel seized on the weakness of his opponents and without waiting for his forces to fully assemble, rapidly went on the offensive. In March–April 1941, the German and Italian forces defeated
7239-415: The Mediterranean . The siege of Malta soon began, with the first Italian air attack on 11 June. In the Western Desert , Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft attacked Italian positions inside Libya. On 11 June, the Western Desert Campaign began, as the British launched minor raids and conducted patrols along the Libyan–Egyptian border and on 17 June, Fort Capuzzo was captured. On 20 June, Mussolini began
7366-429: The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre. All three branches of the British military were made equally responsible for the defence of the area. The authority of MEC included Aden , British Somaliland , Cyprus, Egypt, Eritrea , Ethiopia, Kenya , Greece, Libya , Palestine , Iraq , Sudan, Tanganyika , Transjordan , Uganda and the shores of the Persian Gulf . If necessary, command would be exerted as far away as
7493-494: The Mediterranean with establishment of the 23rd U-boat Flotilla at a base on Salamis Island in Greece in September 1941. The flotilla was to operate against British supply convoys to Allied forces on Malta and in Tobruk. On 7 December, control of the 23rd Flotilla was transferred from Kernével to Field Marshal Albert Kesselring , Commander in Chief South ( OB Süd ) in Italy. Additional bases were established in Pola and La Spezia in northern Italy, as more U-boats were sent to
7620-413: The Mediterranean. Bombing and the naval blockade led to food and commodity shortages and rationing was imposed on the inhabitants. Luftwaffe reinforcements in the Mediterranean joined in the bombing but during a lull in early 1942, 61 Supermarine Spitfires were delivered, which very much improved the defensive situation, although food, ammunition, and fuel were still short. Supply runs during lulls in
7747-496: The Mediterranean–Danubian–Balkan region" and the gaining of world power by the conquest "of an empire stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Strait of Hormuz ". The Fascists had designs on Albania , Dalmatia , large parts of Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Macedonia and Greece and harked back to the Roman empire. The regime also sought to establish protectorates with Austria , Hungary , Romania and Bulgaria . Covert motives were for Italy to become
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#17327826086757874-419: The Middle East (USAFIME) . The PGSC was eventually renamed simply the Persian Gulf Command . Of the 17,500,000 long tons (17,800,000 t) of US lend-lease aid provided to Russia, 7,900,000 long tons (8,000,000 t) (45 per cent) were sent through Iran. In addition to the Persian Corridor the Americans used Arctic Convoys to the ports of Murmansk and Archangelsk and Soviet shipping carried supplies from
8001-414: The Paris area, and the 21st Panzer Division in Normandy. Army Group G, considering the possibility of an invasion on the Atlantic coast, had dispersed its mobile reserves, locating the 11th Panzer Division in Gironde , the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich refitting around the southern French town of Montauban , and the 9th Panzer Division stationed in the Rhone delta area. The OKW retained
8128-407: The Persian Corridor and across the Caspian Sea is the Volga River , flowing into the Caspian from the north, a key route into the core of the Soviet Union. Stalingrad , at the easternmost turn of the Volga, was an objective of the Germans in their 1942 campaign partly for reason of its industrial capacity, partly as a convenient place to block Soviet pressure on the flank of their initiative towards
8255-427: The Persian Corridor arrived by ship at various ports in the Persian Gulf and were then carried northwards by railroad or in long truck convoys. Some goods were later reloaded on board ships to cross the Caspian Sea and others continued their journey by truck. The United States Army forces in the corridor were originally under the Iran-Iraq Service Command, later renamed the Persian Gulf Service Command (PGSC). That
8382-403: The Persian Corridor period continue to make the word "Persia" interchangeable with the name of Iran . In correspondence by the government of the United Kingdom, usage of "Persia" over "Iran" was chosen by Winston Churchill to avoid possible confusion with neighbouring Iraq . Following Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Britain and the Soviet Union became allies. Britain and
8509-402: The Phoney War. The Phoney War was an early phase of World War II marked by a few military operations in Continental Europe in the months following the German invasion of Poland and preceding the Battle of France . Although the great powers of Europe had declared war on one another, neither side had yet committed to launching a significant attack, and there was relatively little fighting on
8636-436: The RAF in their war with the Italians in Albania. As it became likely Germany would attack Greece, four British divisions were switched from North Africa to reinforce Greek Army. The advanced guards of these troops began arriving in March 1941, triggering the entry of German forces into Bulgaria, which made clear the German intent to invade Greece. In April 1941, Germans, Italians, Hungarians and Bulgarians made quick work of
8763-556: The Royal Yugoslav army . They captured Yugoslavia in 11 days and partitioned it among themselves and newly formed client states: The Independent State of Croatia and Nedić's Serbia . In spring 1941, Italy created a Montenegrin client state and annexed most of the Dalmatian coast as the Governorship of Dalmatia ( Governatorato di Dalmazia ). A complex guerrilla uprising of communist -led Partisans , commanded by Josip Broz Tito , soon broke out. A more ambivalent, predominantly Serb paramilitary movement of royalist Chetniks both fought
8890-466: The Second Armistice of Compiègne on June 22, 1940, with its terms taking effect on the 25th of June. The terms of the armistice called for the occupation of Northern France, along with the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine into the German Reich. Italy also was allowed a small occupation zone in the southeast. France was allowed to continue its existence in the form of Vichy France, a rump state of the former French Republic, led by Philippe Pétain. The Vichy regime
9017-522: The Soviet Union saw the newly opened Trans-Iranian Railway as an attractive route to transport supplies from the Persian Gulf to the Soviet Union. Both countries used concessions extracted in previous interventions to pressure neutral Iran (and, in Britain's case, Iraq) into allowing the use of their territory for military and logistical purposes. Increased tensions with Britain led to pro-German rallies in Tehran. In August 1941, because Reza Shah refused to expel all German nationals and come down clearly on
9144-736: The UK and Vichy France, culminating in the Syria-Lebanon Campaign . In Operation Exporter, Australian, Free French , British and Indian units invaded Syria and Lebanon from Palestine in the south on 8 June 1941. Vigorous resistance was met from the Vichy French but superior Allied infantry equipment and numbers overwhelmed the defenders. More attacks were launched at the end of June and early July from Iraq into northern and central Syria, by Iraqforce . By 8 July, north-east Syria had been captured and elements of Iraqforce had advanced up
9271-855: The US and the UK with ships sailing around the Cape of Good Hope to the Persian Gulf . From there, the materiel transited Iran to the Soviet Union. Other supply routes included the Northern route across the Arctic , and the Pacific Route which handled US cargo at Vladivostok and then used the Trans-Siberian Railway across the Soviet Union. This Persian Route became the only viable, all-weather route to be developed to supply Soviet needs. English-language official documents from
9398-493: The United Kingdom "disclaimed any desire to modify or see modified the national sovereignty of any country in the Mediterranean area, and agreed to discourage any activities liable to impair mutual relations." Italian diplomatic and military moves did not reflect this agreement. In the aftermath of the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, British and Italian forces in North Africa were reinforced. Due to various Italian moves, in July 1937,
9525-499: The United Kingdom to be weak and believed that its government would negotiate with their new government regardless of its legality. On 17 April, Rashid Ali, on behalf of the "National Defence Government" asked Germany for military assistance in the event of war with the British. Ali attempted to restrict British rights guaranteed under Article 5 of the 1930 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, when he insisted that newly arrived British troops quickly be transported through Iraq and to Palestine. Before
9652-468: The United States joined the war. On 8 November 1942, American forces entered combat in North Africa with Operation Torch, which "transformed the Mediterranean from a British to an Allied theater of war", "succeeding operations in the Mediterranean area proved far more extensive than intended. One undertaking was to lead to the next". After liberating French North Africa and clearing the enemy from
9779-955: The area north of the Seine and the 7th Army , (HQ in Le Mans ), between the Seine and the Loire defending the English Channel and the Atlantic coast; and Army Group G with responsibility for the Bay of Biscay coast and Vichy France , with its 1st Army , (HQ in Bordeaux ), responsible for the Atlantic coast between the Loire and the Spanish border and the 19th Army , (HQ in Avignon ), responsible for
9906-563: The assumption that Britain would soon be at war with Italy, planning began for attacks to capture Bardia and Jaghbub (Giarabub) in Libya and arrangements began in Egypt, to accommodate a much larger force. Preparations to reinforce the Iraqi army were made and Palestinian security forces were to be reduced to the minimum. British forces in East Africa were to study operations to destroy the Italian forces and support local risings, all in support of
10033-400: The bombing kept Malta in being but many ships like SS Ohio were damaged too severely to leave. The defence of the island ensured that the Allies had an advantage in the fight to control the Mediterranean and as the garrison recovered from periods of intense bombing, aircraft, submarines and light surface ships resumed attacks on Axis supply ships, leading to fuel and supply shortages for
10160-783: The campaign, allowing the Empire of Ethiopia to be re-established under Haile Selassie . A number of Italian garrisons continued to hold out, but the last of these, at Gondar , surrendered in November. Small groups of Italian troops carried out the Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia until October 1943. In the Balkans , the Greeks had been reluctant to allow British troops into the country, because Britain could not spare enough forces to guarantee victory. They had, however, accepted aid from
10287-517: The center the American 12th Army Group, commanded by General Omar Bradley and to the south the US 6th Army Group commanded by Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers . By mid-September, the 6th Army Group, advancing from the south, came into contact with Bradley's formations advancing from the west and overall control of Devers' force passed from AFHQ in the Mediterranean so that all three army groups came under Eisenhower's central command at SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Forces). Under
10414-544: The coast, facts on the ground might have turned the argument in favour of a narrow front. However, as the breakout took place during Operation Cobra at the western end of the bridge-head, the 21st Army Group that included the British and Canadian forces swung east and headed for Belgium, the Netherlands and Northern Germany, while the U.S. Twelfth Army Group advanced to their south via eastern France, Luxembourg and
10541-613: The commandos. Three of the participants were arrested by the Transjordan Frontier Force a few days after their landing. The German commander was captured in 1946 and the fifth, Hasan Salama , succeeded in escaping. In 1943 a small team of German agents parachuted into Iraqi Kurdistan with the goal of covertly sabotaging Kirkuk oil fields and create a Kurdish uprising against the British with assistance from local Kurds who were seeking to create an independent Kurdistan . Further reinforcements of Nazis with weapons
10668-548: The constitutional government interfaces. They installed Reza Shah's son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , onto the Iranian/Persian throne. The new Shah soon signed an agreement pledging full non-military logistical co-operation with the British and Soviets in exchange for full recognition of his country's independence, and also a promise to withdraw from Iran within six months of the war's conclusion (the assurances later proved essential in securing his country's independence after
10795-562: The country. In 1946, Hossein Gol-e-Golab published the nationalist song Ey Iran , which was reportedly inspired by an incident during the war in which Golab witnessed an American GI beating up a native Iranian greengrocer in a marketplace dispute. After the Dunkirk evacuation and the agreement with Vichy France , Germany was essentially without any military opposition in mainland Europe until Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa,
10922-516: The coup, Rashid Ali's supporters had been informed that Germany would recognise the independence of Iraq from the British Empire. There had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British. On 3 May, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop persuaded Adolf Hitler to secretly return Dr. Fritz Grobba to Iraq to lead
11049-684: The dominant power in the Mediterranean, capable of challenging France or Britain and gaining access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans . On 30 November 1938, Mussolini addressed the Fascist Grand Council on the goal of capturing Albania, Tunisia , Corsica , the Ticino canton of Switzerland and "French territory east of the River Var (to include Nice , but not Savoy )". Mussolini alleged that Italy required uncontested access to
11176-560: The end of April, Sollum had fallen and the important Halfaya Pass captured. In East Africa , the British launched a counter-attack against the Italians from Kenya Colony in February 1941. Landings were subsequently conducted in British Somaliland and Italian Ethiopia , while an expedition from the Sudan moved on Addis Ababa . The Italian Viceroy, Duke Amedeo d'Aosta , was forced to surrender by 18 May which effectively ended
11303-465: The first day. The majority of the British and elements of the French forces escaped at Dunkirk . This was due to the combined factors of poor weather, Germans mishaps, and the incredible number of British civilian ships assembled for the undertaking. Following the conclusion of events at Dunkirk on June 4, the Wehrmacht commenced Fall Rot, an offensive against the remaining French armies. With most of
11430-750: The ground. This was also the period in which the United Kingdom and France did not supply significant aid to Poland, despite their pledged alliance . The French forces launched a small offensive, the Saar Offensive against Germany in the Saar region but halted their advance and returned. While most of the German Army was fighting against Poland, a much smaller German force manned the Siegfried Line , their fortified defensive line along
11557-605: The help in their power if Greek and Romanian independence were threatened and if the Greek Government or Romanian Government considered it vital to resist." British forces in the Middle East were ordered to avoid provocation. Following the defeat of Poland , the threat of an Axis attack from the Balkans against British positions in the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean region increased. In late 1939, with
11684-614: The initial Italian attack and a counter-attack in March 1941. When the German invasion, known as Operation Marita , began on 6 April, the bulk of the Greek Army was on the Greek border with Albania , then a vassal of Italy, from which the Italian troops had attacked. German troops invaded from Bulgaria , creating a second front. Greece received a small reinforcement from British , Australian and New Zealand forces in anticipation of
11811-664: The invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. To relieve pressure from the Soviets, British, and later American, leaders sought to open a Second Front in Europe. Realizing that would take time, the Western Allies made the strategic decision to provide Stalin with material support substantial enough to ensure that the Red Army could continue to engage the bulk of the German military. The Allies established protocols that defined
11938-446: The large size of the theatre, the various campaigns were not seen as neatly separated areas of operations but part of a vast, contiguous theatre of war. Fascist Italy aimed to carve out a new Roman Empire, while the Allies aimed to retain the status quo. Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940, and immediately invaded France and bombed Malta , which would remain under siege for over 2 years. Italian forces then attacked Greece , but it
12065-956: The line of supply to Russia established and maintained for the remainder of the war. Operation Atlas was carried out by a special commando unit of the Waffen SS and took place in October 1944. It involved five soldiers: three who were previously members of the Templer religious sect in Mandatory Palestine , and two Palestinian Arabs who were close collaborators of the mufti of Jerusalem , Amin al-Husseini . Atlas aimed at establishing an intelligence-gathering base in Mandatory Palestine, radioing information back to Germany, and recruiting and arming anti-British Palestinians by buying their support with gold. The plan failed utterly, and no meaningful action could be undertaken by
12192-482: The main Allied offensive, which was planned to be launched from French Somaliland . Troops in Sudan were also asked to consider launching operations against Kufra in southern Libya. On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on France and the United Kingdom and next day the British Commonwealth declared war on Italy. The fleets of Italy, France and the United Kingdom began the hostilities of the Battle of
12319-465: The massive logistical obstacles a cross-channel invasion would face, the Allied high command decided to conduct a practice attack against the French coast. On 19 August 1942, the Allies began the Dieppe Raid , an attack on Dieppe , France. Most of the troops were Canadian, with some British contingents and a small American and Free French presence along with British and Polish naval support. The raid
12446-933: The meantime, the Allies took the war to Germany, with a strategic bombing campaign - the US Eighth Air Force bombing Germany by day and RAF Bomber Command bombing by night. The bulk of the Allied armies were occupied in the Mediterranean , seeking to clear the sea lanes to the Indian Ocean , repulse the Axis from North Africa, and commence the invasion of Italy, partly to capture the Foggia Airfield Complex . Two early British raids for which battle honours were awarded were Operation Collar in Boulogne (24 June 1940) and Operation Ambassador in Guernsey (14–15 July 1940). The raids for which
12573-420: The most likely areas for an invasion. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Götz von Berlichingen was located just south of the Loire in the vicinity of Tours. On 6 June 1944, the Allies began Operation Overlord (also known as " D-Day ") – the long-awaited liberation of France . The deception plans, Operation Fortitude and Operation Bodyguard , had the Germans convinced that the invasion would occur in
12700-466: The occupying forces and collaborated with them against the communists. The Partisans eventually gained recognition from the Allies as the sole resistance movement. With help from both the Soviets and the Western Allies, they turned into a formidable fighting force and successfully liberated the country. Following the Italian invasion on 28 October 1940, which is usually known as the Greco-Italian War , Greece, with British air and material support, repelled
12827-483: The oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty. Italy was a "prisoner in the Mediterranean" and had to break the chains of British and French control. Corsica, Cyprus , Gibraltar , Malta , Suez and Tunisia would need to be taken and Egypt , France, Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom had to be challenged. Through armed conquest, the north and east African colonies would be linked and this 'prison' destroyed. Italy would be able to march "either to
12954-576: The onslaught in both the north and south of France, the German Army fell back. On 19 August, the French Resistance ( FFI ) organised a general uprising and the liberation of Paris took place on 25 August when general Dietrich von Choltitz accepted the French ultimatum and surrendered to General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque , commander of the Free French 2nd Armored Division , ignoring orders from Hitler that Paris should be held to
13081-521: The ports to Tehran , and then or, alternatively, The main port for outbound supplies (via the Caspian Sea) was Nowshahr . Ships ferried supplies from this port to Baku or Makhachkala . Important smaller ports and transit points on the routes included: Ports Cities Ports Cities Cargo was principally handled by special British and American transportation units from the nations' respective combat service support branches, such as
13208-419: The previous Operation Compass advance. Taking advantage of the Allied position, German and Italian forces counter-attacked and pushed back the Allies to Gazala, west of Tobruk. As both sides prepared offensives, the Axis forces struck first and inflicted a big defeat upon the Allied forces during the Battle of Gazala . The routed Allied forces retreated to Egypt where they made a stand at El Alamein. Following
13335-494: The principle that the Mediterranean was an area of paramount Italian interest just as, farther north, German interests were exclusive. Allied forces were placed under the command of a Supreme Allied Commander AFHQ Mediterranean, General Dwight D. Eisenhower . Axis forces were caught between the Allied armies during the Tunisia Campaign but managed to delay the Allied advance by defensive operations, most notably with
13462-467: The rest of the island by 1 June. With their victory in the Battle of Crete the Germans had secured their southern flank and turned their attention towards the Soviet Union. Hitler later blamed the failure of his invasion of the Soviet Union on Mussolini 's failed conquest of Greece. Andreas Hillgruber has accused Hitler of trying to deflect blame for his country's defeat from himself to his ally, Italy. It nevertheless had serious consequences for
13589-815: The river Euphrates towards Aleppo , the rear of the Vichy forces defending Beirut from the advance from the south. Negotiations for an armistice were started on 11 July and surrender terms signed on 14 July. Supplies to the Soviet Union had been sent via the North Cape to Murmansk and Archangel soon after the German invasion but the number of ships available was limited and convoys were vulnerable to German air and submarine attack. Supplies were also sent from American pacific ports to Vladivostok in Soviet-flagged ships but Allied planners wished to open another supply route through Iran . Though officially neutral,
13716-686: The summer of 1944, when an expectation of an Allied invasion was freely admitted by German commanders, the disposition of troops facing it came under the command of OB West (HQ in Paris ). In turn, it commanded: the Wehrmacht Netherlands Command ( Wehrmachtbefehlshaber Niederlande ) or WBN, covering the Dutch and Belgian coasts ; Army Group B , covering the coast of northern France with the German 15th Army (HQ in Tourcoing ), in
13843-727: The town of Menton . The Royal Navy attacked the French fleet in the North African port of Mers-el-Kébir on 3 July 1940, after it refused to sail to Britain or the French West Indies and demobilise, as part of a larger plan to stop the French fleet from falling into German or Italian hands. When Italy entered the war, there were no plans for an invasion of Egypt while France was still able to resist. When France surrendered, Mussolini gave instructions for his generals to prepare an offensive. On 10 August, he instructed his forces to be prepared to attack in conjunction with
13970-515: The transport of German aircraft to Iraq. Between 9 May and the end of the month, about 100 German and about 20 Italian aircraft landed on Syrian airfields. On 30 April, the Iraqi Army surrounded and besieged RAF Habbaniya; the base had no operational aircraft but the RAF converted trainers to carry weapons and a battalion of infantry reinforcements was flown in. German and Italian aircraft supported
14097-530: The type and amount of material that would be delivered and when. German military action on the Arctic route , prevented the US from meeting the first protocol. That caused increasing pressure on the Allies to develop the Persian Corridor. The Allies delivered all manner of materiel to the Soviet Union ranging from Studebaker US6 trucks to American canned food. Most of the supplies transiting through
14224-555: The ultimate goal of evacuation. After moving through south-eastern Yugoslavia, the Germans had been able to turn the Allied flank, cutting off Greek units in the east of the country. Greek forces in central Macedonia were isolated from the Commonwealth forces moving up in an attempt stabilise the front, with the Germans then falling on the rear of the main Greek army facing the Italians in Macedonia. The German advance into Greece
14351-526: The war ). In September 1943, the Shah went further by declaring war on Germany. He signed the Declaration by United Nations entitling his country to a seat in the original United Nations . Two months later, he hosted the Tehran Conference between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. The presence of so many foreign troops in Iran accelerated social change and it roused nationalist sentiment in
14478-529: The war and force Germany to disperse its forces, the Allies invaded Sicily in Operation Husky on 10 July 1943, with amphibious and airborne landings. The German and Italian forces were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island but evacuated most of their troops and equipment to the mainland before the Allies entered Messina on 17 August. On 25 July, the Italian government deposed Mussolini,
14605-454: The west coast of the US and Canada to Vladivostok , in the Far East , since the Soviets were not at war with Japan until August 1945. The Persian Corridor was the route for 4,159,117 long tons (4,225,858 t) of the cargo. That was not the only allied contribution via the Persian Corridor. About 7,900,000 long tons (8,000,000 t) of shipborne cargo from Allied sources were unloaded in
14732-466: Was "ceaseless activity and aggression". "Prior to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini had made military agreements with the French and formed a coalition with the British and French to prevent German aggression in Europe." The Ethiopian War "exposed vulnerabilities and created opportunities that Mussolini seized to realise his imperial vision" At the Nyon Conference of 1937, Italy and
14859-467: Was a military theatre of World War II encompassing Denmark , Norway , Luxembourg , Belgium , the Netherlands , the United Kingdom , France , and Germany . The Italian front is considered a separate but related theatre. The Western Front's 1944–1945 phase was officially deemed the European Theater by the United States, whereas Italy fell under the Mediterranean Theater along with
14986-544: Was a disaster, almost two-thirds of the attacking force became casualties. However, much was learned as a result of the operation – these lessons would be put to good use in the subsequent invasion. For almost two years, there was no land-fighting on the Western Front with the exception of commando raids and the guerrilla actions of the resistance aided by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and Office of Strategic Services (OSS). However, in
15113-775: Was a major theatre of operations during the Second World War . The vast size of the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre saw interconnected naval, land, and air campaigns fought for control of the Mediterranean, North Africa , the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and Southern Europe . The fighting started from 10 June 1940, when Italy declared war on United Kingdom and France , until 2 May 1945 when all Axis forces in Italy surrendered. However, fighting would continue in Greece – where British troops had been dispatched to aid
15240-450: Was allowed to keep their colonial empire and navy, as some of Hitler's few concessions. In six weeks of fighting, the combined allied armies suffered more than 375,000 killed or wounded, as well as 1,800,000 soldiers becoming prisoners of war. Meanwhile, Germany suffered a more modest 43,110 killed and 111,000 wounded. Hitler had expected a million men to die in the conquest of France. Remarkedly low casualties and France's quick defeat led to
15367-445: Was in a strange calm for seven months. In their hurry to re-arm, Britain and France had both begun to buy large numbers of weapons from manufacturers in the United States at the outbreak of hostilities, supplementing their own production. The non-belligerent United States contributed to the Western Allies by discounted sales of military equipment and supplies. German efforts to interdict the Allies' trans-Atlantic trade at sea ignited
15494-515: Was made easier because the bulk of the Greek Army was engaged fighting the Italians on the Albanian front in the north of the country. The Greeks were forced to capitulate, ending resistance on the mainland by the end of the month. Abandoning most of its equipment, the Commonwealth force retreated to the island of Crete. From 20 May, the Germans attacked the island by using paratroops to secure an air bridgehead despite suffering heavy casualties. They then flew in more troops and were able to capture
15621-420: Was not until the introduction of German forces that it and neighbouring Yugoslavia were overrun . Allied and Axis forces fought back and forth across North Africa , while Axis interference in the Middle East caused fighting to spread as far as Palestine and Iraq . With confidence high from early gains, German forces planned to capture the Middle East with a view to possibly attacking the southern border of
15748-407: Was published in Germany in 1959. Gibraltar commanded the entrance to the Mediterranean and had been a British fortress since the early 18th century. The territory provided a strongly defended harbour, from which ships could operate in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Force H ( Vice-Admiral James Somerville ) was based in Gibraltar and had the task of maintaining naval superiority and providing
15875-472: Was supposed to be sent but the mission failed within days as the Nazi commandos landed 300 km away from their target destination and lost their weapons. They were soon arrested by the British and faced execution as spies, however they were released several years after World War II ended. Gottfried Müller, one of the Nazi parachuters, would later write and publish a book describing his experiences in Kurdistan named “Im brennenden Orient” ('The Burning Orient'), which
16002-415: Was the successor to the original United States Military Iranian Mission, which had been put in place to deliver Lend-Lease supplies before the United States had entered the World War. The mission was originally commanded by Colonel Don G. Shingler , who was replaced late in 1942 by Brigadier General Donald H. Connolly . Both the Iran-Iraq Service Command and the PGSC were subordinate to the US Army Forces in
16129-456: Was too late. Approximately 150,000 Germans were able to escape from the Falaise pocket, but they left behind most of their irreplaceable equipment and 50,000 Germans were killed or taken prisoner . The Allies had been arguing about whether to advance on a broad-front or a narrow-front from before D-Day. If the British had broken out of the Normandy bridgehead (or beachhead ) around Caen when they launched Operation Goodwood and pushed along
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