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68-405: Perry Gilbert Eddy Miller (February 25, 1905 – December 9, 1963) was an American intellectual historian and a co-founder of the field of American Studies . Miller specialized in the history of early America and took an active role in a revisionist view of the colonial Puritan theocracy that was cultivated at Harvard University beginning in the 1920s. Heavy drinking led to his premature death at

136-651: A Pulitzer Prize , was the first installment of a projected 10-volume series. Miller spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey on a Guggenheim Fellowship and also taught in Japan for a year. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1956. In 1987, Edmund S. Morgan claimed that Miller, his undergraduate tutor and graduate dissertation advisor,

204-598: A beginning. Once I was back in the security of a graduate school, it seemed obvious that I had to commence with the Puritan migration." Perry Miller received his baccalaureate in 1928 and his Ph.D. in 1931, both from the University of Chicago , where he was a member of the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity. Miller began teaching at Harvard University in 1931. In 1942, Miller resigned his post at Harvard to join

272-583: A cultural approach to illuminate the worldview of the Puritans , unlike previous historians who employed psychological and economic explanations of their beliefs and behavior. Miller died in Cambridge, Massachusetts on December 9, 1962 of acute pancreatitis , stemming from his longstanding alcoholism . Especially within the Harvard community, his death was mourned as a loss to the intellectual landscape in

340-475: A determination." Miller acknowledged that "the adventures that Africa afforded were tawdry enough, but it became the setting for a sudden epiphany (if the word be not too strong) of the pressing necessity for expounding my America to the twentieth century." Miller compared his situation to that of Edward Gibbon , who sat "disconsolate amid the ruins of the Capitol at Rome" when a similar epiphany thrust upon Gibbon

408-465: A field of intellectual enquiry, the history of ideas emerged from the European disciplines of Kulturgeschichte (Cultural History) and Geistesgeschichte (Intellectual History) from which historians might develop a global intellectual history that shows the parallels and the interrelations in the history of critical thinking in every society. Likewise, the history of reading , and the history of

476-748: A freighter ship along the Congo River . In a 1956 preface to the Errand into the Wilderness collection, Perry Miller disclosed that, along the shores of the Congo River, he had decided to pursue the intellectual history of Puritanism. "At Matadi on the banks of the Congo", Miller recounted, "seeking 'adventure' " that he believed World War I veterans had experienced (noting a lack of prescience that "I too should have my own War"), he came to "realize

544-552: A journalism school and establish the Pulitzer Prize. It allocated $ 250,000 to the prize and scholarships. He specified "four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships." After his death on October 29, 1911, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4, 1917; they are now announced in May. The Chicago Tribune under the control of Colonel Robert R. McCormick felt that

612-416: A jury makes three nominations. The board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations, or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75 percent majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award. The board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work; however, jurors in letters, music, and drama receive honoraria for the year. Anyone whose work has been submitted

680-433: A racist?' one student memorably protested. I tried to deflect attention from Miller's psychology and toward the implications of the narrative for the early shape of American Studies...the discussion led us to apply Jameson's rubric---'always historicize'...examining Miller in this way enabled us to understand how what we designated as 'American Studies' was not fixed by history into a particular profile but like other phenomenon

748-682: A result of pull and political log-rolling, and that to some of the biggest frauds and fools alike." A 2012 academic study by journalism professors Yong Volz of the University of Missouri and Francis Lee of the Chinese University of Hong Kong found "that only 27% of Pulitzer winners since 1991 were females, while newsrooms are about 33% female." The researchers concluded female winners were more likely to have traditional academic experience, such as attendance at Ivy League schools, metropolitan upbringing, or employment with an elite publication such as The New York Times . The findings suggest

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816-461: A spirit close to that with which Lovejoy pursued the history of ideas. The first chapter of Lovejoy's book The Great Chain of Being (1936) lays out a general overview of what he intended to be the programme and scope of the study of the history of ideas. In the History of Ideas, Lovejoy used the unit-idea (concept) as the basic unit of historical analysis. The unit-idea is the building block of

884-553: A writing field that has been expanded was the former Pulitzer Prize for the Novel (awarded 1918–1947), which has been changed to the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, which also includes short stories , novellas , novelettes , and poetry, as well as novels. Chronology of Pulitzer Prize categories Legend Note: The Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting was split into two categories in 1948 that still exist as Breaking News Reporting and Investigative Reporting. The Local Reporting category

952-410: Is a means for reproducing a historically valid interpretation of a philosophical argument, by implementation of a context in which to study ideas and philosophical movements. Michel Foucault rejected narrative , the historian's traditional mode of communication, because of what he believed to be the shallow treatment of facts, figures, and people in a long period, rather than deep research that shows

1020-506: Is called an entrant . The jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists and authors who were only submitted, but not nominated as finalists, still claim to be Pulitzer nominees in promotional material. The Pulitzer Board has cautioned entrants against claiming to be nominees. The Pulitzer Prize website's Frequently Asked Questions section describes their policy as follows: "Nominated Finalists are selected by

1088-488: Is provided. Since 1980, when we began to announce nominated finalists, we have used the term 'nominee' for entrants who became finalists. We discourage someone saying he or she was 'nominated' for a Pulitzer simply because an entry was sent to us." Bill Dedman of NBC News , the recipient of the 1989 investigative reporting prize , pointed out in 2012 that financial journalist Betty Liu was described as "Pulitzer Prize–Nominated" in her Bloomberg Television advertising and

1156-673: The Harvard Extension School . Miller wrote book reviews and articles in The Nation and The American Scholar . In his biography of Jonathan Edwards , published in 1949, Miller argued that Edwards was actually an artist working in the only medium available to him in the 18th century American frontier, namely that of religion and theology. His posthumously published The Life of the Mind in America, for which he received

1224-814: The United States Army and was stationed in Great Britain for the duration of World War II , where he worked for the Office of Strategic Services . Miller may have been instrumental in creating the Office of Strategic Services and certainly he worked for the Psychological Warfare Division for the duration of the war. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1943. After 1945, Miller returned to teaching at Harvard. He also offered courses at

1292-513: The history of economic thought . In continental Europe, the pertinent example of intellectual history is Begriffsgeschichte (History of Concepts, 2010), by Reinhart Koselleck . In Britain the history of political thought has been a particular focus since the late 1960s, and is especially associated with historians at Cambridge , such as John Dunn and Quentin Skinner , who studied European political thought in historical context, emphasizing

1360-405: The history of philosophy and cultural history as practiced since the times of Voltaire (1694–1778) and Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897). The scholarly efforts of the eighteenth century can be traced to The Advancement of Learning (1605), Francis Bacon 's call for what he termed "a literary history". In economics, John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) was both a historian of economic thought, and

1428-509: The " 'laborious work' of The Decline and Fall ." Thus "it was given to me, equally disconsolate on the edge of a jungle of central Africa, to have thrust upon me the mission of expounding what I took to be the innermost propulsion of the United States, while supervising, in that barbaric tropic, the unloading of drums of case oil flowing out of the inexhaustible wilderness of America." The epiphany "demanded" that he study "the beginning of

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1496-680: The 1898 ministry. The late 19th-century Episcopal Church of Illinois commonly issued notices of discipline for cases of "moral delinquency," "doctrinal errors," and "sickness and infirmity." Perry Miller was born seven years later. Perry Miller left home three months before his eighteenth birthday. Inspired by hearing about the adventures of World War I veterans in Europe, between 1922 and 1926, Miller traveled widely, by his own account working in California lettuce fields, acting on Broadway [Greenwich Village], writing for magazines, and working aboard

1564-672: The Atlantic Ocean, e.g. The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (2001), by Louis Menand and The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923–50 (1973), by Martin Jay . The historian Arthur O. Lovejoy (1873–1962) coined the phrase history of ideas and initiated its systematic study in the early decades of the 20th century. Johns Hopkins University

1632-881: The December 2017 Plan of Award: There are seven categories in letters and drama: In 2020, the Audio Reporting category was added. The first prize in this category was awarded to "The Out Crowd", an episode of the public radio program This American Life . In the second year, the Pulitzer was awarded for the NPR podcast No Compromise . There is one prize given for music: There have been dozens of Special Citations and Awards : more than ten each in Arts, Journalism, and Letters, and five for Pulitzer Prize service, most recently to Joseph Pulitzer, Jr. in 1987. In addition to

1700-600: The Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia's Pulitzer Hall and several administrators have held concurrent full-time or adjunct faculty appointments at the Journalism School, the board and administration have been operationally separate from the school since 1950. Some critics of the Pulitzer Prize have accused the organization of favoring those who support liberal causes or oppose conservative causes. Conservative columnist L. Brent Bozell Jr. said that

1768-544: The History of Ideas, the praxis of Intellectual History studies and deals with ideas in broad historical contexts. That unlike historians of ideas and philosophers ( History of Philosophy ), intellectual historians, "tend to be more relaxed about crossing the boundary between philosophical texts and non-philosophical contexts . . . [Intellectual historians regard] the distinction between 'philosophy' and 'non-philosophy' as something that is, itself, historically conditioned, rather than eternally fixed." Therefore, intellectual history

1836-758: The Journalism categories are not restricted by nationality, provided their submitted work appeared in a United States-based publication. Each year, more than 100 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 22 separate juries for the 23 award categories; one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards . Most juries consist of five members, except for those for Public Service , Investigative Reporting , Explanatory Reporting , Feature Writing , Commentary and Audio Reporting categories, which have seven members; however, all book juries have five members. For each award category,

1904-580: The Nominating Juries for each category as finalists in the competition. The Pulitzer Prize Board generally selects the Pulitzer Prize Winners from the three nominated finalists in each category. The names of nominated finalists have been announced only since 1980. Work that has been submitted for Prize consideration but not chosen as either a nominated finalist or a winner is termed an entry or submission. No information on entrants

1972-859: The Pulitzer Prize Advisory Board and the eventual Pulitzer Prize Board historically resisted the admission of magazines into the competition, resulting in the formation of the National Magazine Awards at the Columbia Journalism School in 1966. In 2015, magazines were allowed to enter for the first time in two categories (Investigative Reporting and Feature Writing). By 2016, this provision had expanded to three additional categories ( International Reporting , Criticism and Editorial Cartooning ). That year, Kathryn Schulz (Feature Writing) and Emily Nussbaum (Criticism) of The New Yorker became

2040-430: The Pulitzer Prize has a "liberal legacy", particularly in its prize for commentary. He pointed to a 31-year period in which only five conservatives won prizes for commentary. 2010 Pulitzer Prize winner for commentary Kathleen Parker wrote, "It's only because I'm a conservative basher that I'm now recognized." Alexander Theroux describes the Pulitzer Prize as "an eminently silly award, [that] has often been handed out as

2108-455: The Pulitzer Prize was nothing more than a 'mutual admiration society' and not to be taken seriously; the paper refused to compete for the prize during McCormick's tenure up until 1961. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media and the arts, but customarily those that have specifically been entered and reviewed for administrative compliance by the administrator's staff. Entries must fit in at least one of

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2176-502: The U.S. The Congo River "epiphany" from Perry Miller's early life produced much posthumous scrutiny by scholars and media outlets. In 1974, Elizabeth Miller, Perry Miller's widow, informed Stanford Searl, Jr., a Quaker disciple of her late husband's writings, that, " 'as for the Congo episode...yes, there is a kind of truth in Perry’s romantic reference in Errand . But Perry, who was a writer,

2244-555: The United States in "journalism, arts and letters." They were established in 1917 by the will of Joseph Pulitzer , who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher. Prizes in 2024 were awarded in these categories, with three finalists named for each: Each winner receives a certificate and $ 15,000 in cash, except in the Public Service category, where a gold medal is awarded. Newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch

2312-533: The age of 58. Miller was born in Chicago in 1905 to Eben Perry Sturges Miller, a physician from Mansfield, Ohio , and Sarah Gertrude Miller (née Eddy) from Bellows Falls, Vermont . His father appeared in the deacon's candidacy lists for Seabury-Western Theological Seminary in 1895 and 1898, but he also received a "notice of discipline" for "abandonment or forfeiture of the Holy Orders" and "deposition" from

2380-597: The anthology Global Intellectual History . In 2016, the Routledge journal Global Intellectual History (ed. Richard Whatmore ) was established. J. G. A. Pocock and John Dunn are among those who recently have argued for a more global approach to intellectual history in contrast to Eurocentrism . Pulitzer Prize The Pulitzer Prizes ( / ˈ p ʊ l ɪ t s ər / ) are 23 annual awards given by Columbia University in New York for achievements in

2448-408: The basic idea from a work of philosophy and from a philosophical movement, with the investigative principles of the methodology being: (1) assumptions, (2) dialectical motives, (3) metaphysical pathos, and (4) philosophical semantics . The principles of methodology define the overarching philosophical movement in which the historian can find the unit-idea, which then is studied throughout the history of

2516-475: The board for 31 years) in 1986, the chair has typically rotated to the most senior member (or members, in the case of concurrent elections) on an annual basis. Since 1975, the board has made all prize decisions; prior to this point, the board's recommendations were subsequently ratified by a majority vote of the Trustees of Columbia University . Although the administrator's office and staff are housed alongside

2584-425: The book , about the material aspects of book production (design, manufacture, distribution) developed from the history of ideas. The concerns of intellectual history are the intelligentsia and the critical study of the ideas expressed in the texts produced by intellectuals; therein the difference between intellectual history from other forms of cultural history that study visual and non-verbal forms of evidence. In

2652-434: The colonial rulebook"; foregrounded "the ways in which imperialism has been simultaneously formative and disavowed in the foundational discourse of American studies"; and, intentionally or unintentionally, depicted "an empire in the ascendant; moreover, an empire which would govern the conditions in which he worked and which might well expect a particular self-image to be upheld by its chroniclers...this has led some to reinforce

2720-441: The competition's two photography categories, which will continue to restrict entries to still images." In December 2008, it was announced that for the first time content published in online-only news sources would be considered. Although certain winners with magazine affiliations (most notably Moneta Sleet Jr. ) were allowed to enter the competition due to eligible partnerships or concurrent publication of their work in newspapers,

2788-496: The dean of the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism and the administrator of the prizes, who serves as the board's secretary. The administrator and the dean (who served on the board from its inception until 1954 and beginning again in 1976) participate in the deliberations as ex officio members, but cannot vote. Aside from the president and dean (who serve as permanent members for

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2856-567: The doctorate in History and Culture at Drew University is one of few graduate programs specializing in intellectual history, in the American and European contexts. Despite the pre-eminence of early modern intellectual historians (those studying the age from the Renaissance to the Age of Enlightenment ), the intellectual history of the modern period also has been very productive on both shores of

2924-514: The duration of their respective appointments) and the administrator (who is re-elected annually), the board elects its own members for a three-year term; members may serve a maximum of three terms. Members of the board and the juries are selected with close attention "given to professional excellence and affiliation, as well as diversity in terms of gender, ethnic background, geographical distribution and size of news organization." Former Associated Press and Los Angeles Times editor Marjorie Miller

2992-583: The emergence and development of concepts such as the State and Freedom . Skinner is known for provocative, methodological essays that give prominence to the practice of intellectual history. In the United States, intellectual history encompass different forms of intellectual production, not just the history of political ideas, and includes fields such as the history of historical thought, associated with Anthony Grafton (Princeton University) and J.G.A. Pocock (Johns Hopkins University). Formally established in 2010,

3060-465: The erroneous belief that Miller was a 'safe' historian, persuaded of the righteousness of America and the justice of its actions." American Studies specialist Paul Lauter has written and lectured on formulating pedagogical approaches to Perry Miller's "epiphany" in the Congo. According to Lauter, his students "...were suspicious of [Amy] Kaplan 's revelations of the implications of Miller's starting point for American Studies...'Isn't she really saying he's

3128-479: The first magazine affiliates to receive the prize under the expanded eligibility criterion. In October 2016, magazine eligibility was extended to all journalism categories. Hitherto confined to the local reporting of breaking news, the Breaking News Reporting category was expanded to encompass all domestic breaking news events in 2017. Definitions of Pulitzer Prize categories as presented in

3196-540: The historical actors of the period under study. The philosopher Andreas Dorschel said that Skinner's restrictive approach to ideas, through verbal language, and notes that ideas can materialize in non-linguistic media and genres, such as music and architecture. The historian Dag Herbjørnsrud said that "the Skinner perspective is in danger of shutting the door to comparative philosophy, and the search for common problems and solutions across borders and time." The historian Peter Gordon said that unlike Lovejoy's practise of

3264-412: The history of ideas; though relatively stable in itself, the unit-idea combines with other unit-ideas into new patterns of meaning in the context of different historical eras. Lovejoy said that the historian of ideas is tasked with identifying unit-ideas and with describing their historical emergence and development into new conceptual forms and combinations. The methodology of the unit-idea means to extract

3332-471: The interconnections among the facts, figures, and people of a specific period of history. Foucault said that historians should reveal historical descriptions through the use of different perspectives of the "archaeology of knowledge", whose historical method for writing history is in four ideas. First, the archaeology of knowledge defines the period of history through philosophy, by way of the discourses among thought , representation , and themes. Second, that

3400-527: The jacket of her book, while National Review writer Jonah Goldberg made similar claims of "Pulitzer nomination" to promote his books. Dedman wrote, "To call that submission a Pulitzer 'nomination' is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters That's My Boy in the Academy Awards . Many readers realize that the Oscars don't work that way—the studios don't pick

3468-572: The nominees. It's just a way of slipping 'Academy Awards' into a bio. The Pulitzers also don't work that way, but fewer people know that." Nominally, the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service is awarded only to news organizations, not individuals. In rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs; infrequently, staff Prize citations also distinguish

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3536-468: The notion of discontinuity has an important role in the disciplines of history. Third, that discourse does not seek to grasp the moment in history, wherein the social and the persons under study are inverted into each other. Fourth, that Truth is not the purpose of history, but the discourse contained in history. In the 21st century, the field of global intellectual history has received increased attention. In 2013, Samuel Moyn and Andrew Sartori published

3604-531: The particular idea. The British historian Quentin Skinner criticized Lovejoy's unit-idea methodology as a "reification of doctrines" that has negative consequences. That the historian of ideas must be sensitive to the cultural context of the texts and ideas under analysis. Skinner's historical method is based upon the theory of speech acts, proposed by J.L. Austin . In turn, scholars criticized Skinner's historical method because of his inclination to reify social structures and sociological constructs in place of

3672-577: The position and returned to his previous role upon Miller's appointment. In addition to Canedy, past administrators include John Hohenberg (the youngest person to hold the position to date; 1954–1976), fellow Graduate School of Journalism professor Richard T. Baker (1976–1981), former Newsweek executive editor Robert Christopher (1981–1992), former New York Times managing editor Seymour Topping (1993–2002), former Milwaukee Journal editor Sig Gissler (2002–2014) and former Concord Monitor editor Mike Pride (the only former board member to hold

3740-492: The position to date; 2014–2017). Prior to the installation of Hohenberg, the program was jointly administered by members of the Journalism School's faculty (most notably longtime dean Carl W. Ackerman ) and officials in Columbia's central administration, with the latter primarily under the aegis of Frank D. Fackenthal . Following the retirement of Joseph Pulitzer Jr. (a grandson of the endower who served as permanent chair of

3808-443: The prizes, Pulitzer Traveling Fellowships are awarded to four outstanding students of the Graduate School of Journalism as selected by the faculty. Over the years, awards have been discontinued either because the field of the award has been expanded to encompass other areas; the award has been renamed because the common terminology changed; or the award has become obsolete, such as the prizes for telegraphic reporting. An example of

3876-410: The production of knowledge, the concept of the intellectual as a political citizen of public society dates from the 19th century, and identifies a man or a woman who is professionally engaged with critical thinking that is applicable to improving society. Nonetheless, anyone who explored his or her thoughts on paper can be the subject of an intellectual history. Intellectual history developed from

3944-551: The specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can only be entered in a maximum of two relevant categories, regardless of their properties. Currently, entrants in the Book, Drama and Music categories must be United States citizens, permanent residents of the United States or those who otherwise consider the United States to be their longtime primary home; however, eligible work must be published by United States-based entities. Entrants to

4012-541: The subject of study by historians of economic thought, because of the significance of the Keynesian revolution . The contemporary understanding of intellectual history emerged in the immediate postwar period of the 1940s, in its earlier incarnation as "the history of ideas" under the leadership of Arthur Lovejoy , the founder of the Journal of the History of Ideas . Since that time, Lovejoy's formulation of "unit-ideas"

4080-423: The work of prominent contributors. Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction. Reports and photographs by United States–based newspapers , magazines and news organizations (including news websites) that "[publish] regularly" are eligible for the journalism prize. Beginning in 2007 , "an assortment of online elements will be permitted in all journalism categories except for

4148-620: Was a "fertile cradle" to Lovejoy's history of ideas; he worked there as a professor of history, from 1910 to 1939, and for decades he presided over the regular meetings of the History of Ideas Club . Another outgrowth of his work is the Journal of the History of Ideas . Aside from his students and colleagues engaged in related projects (such as René Wellek and Leo Spitzer , with whom Lovejoy engaged in extended debates), scholars such as Isaiah Berlin , Michel Foucault , Christopher Hill , J. G. A. Pocock , and others have continued to work in

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4216-494: Was an atheist , like himself. Miller's attempts to analyze religious attitudes and ideas in Colonial America and later set a new standard for intellectual historiography. Historians report that Miller's work has influenced the work of later historians on topics ranging from Puritan studies to discussions of narrative theory. In his most famous book, The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century (1939), Miller adopted

4284-402: Was developed in different and divergent intellectual directions, such as contextualism, historically sensitive accounts of intellectual activity in the corresponding historical period, which investigative shift is reflected in the replacement of the term "history of ideas" with the term "intellectual history". Intellectual history is multidisciplinary and includes the history of philosophy and

4352-554: Was historically rooted in the starting points particular scholars in particular circumstances at particular times might recognize as different." At Harvard, he directed numerous Ph.D. dissertations. His most notable student was fellow Pulitzer winner Edmund Morgan , although Bernard Bailyn cited him as an influence, albeit a fractious one. Margaret Atwood dedicated The Handmaid's Tale to Perry Miller. Atwood had studied with Miller while attending Radcliffe before women were admitted to Harvard. Intellectual historian As

4420-497: Was in part creating, after the fact, an effective anecdote as well as an explanation of why his own errand had been undertaken.' " Five years later, in his introduction to a collection of Perry Miller's essays, Searl publicly responded to Elizabeth Miller, pointing out that "what is of significance is not how it came about---whether it was indeed vouchsafed or not." In fact, according to Searl, Walter J. Ong had confirmed that Perry Miller frequently claimed such epiphanies because " 'it

4488-581: Was named administrator in April 2022. She succeeded former New York Times senior editor Dana Canedy , who served in the role from 2017 to 2020. Canedy was the first woman and first person of color to hold the position. Edward Kliment, the program's longtime deputy administrator, was appointed acting administrator in July 2020 when Canedy became senior vice president and publisher of Simon & Schuster 's flagship eponymous imprint. He chose not to contend for

4556-557: Was revived in 2007 as a new category to replace the Beat Reporting category. The nineteen-member Pulitzer Prize Board convenes semi-annually, traditionally in the Joseph Pulitzer World Room at Columbia University's Pulitzer Hall. It comprises major editors, columnists and media executives in addition to six members drawn from academia and the arts, including the president of Columbia University ,

4624-450: Was the kind of thing he liked to remember.' " Searl then ascribed significance not to the veracity of the narrative itself, but to Perry Miller's intention of binding "the roles of actor and adventurer to the world of ideas." Historians have since critiqued Perry Miller's account of the Congo episode. The autobiographical passage, whether substantiated or not, revealed twentieth-century "U.S. investments in empire"; checked "off every box in

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