87-1364: First phase: Peruvian government and Anti-Communist victory Second phase: Ongoing [REDACTED] Peru State-affiliated paramilitaries: [REDACTED] Rondas campesinas Sole National Central of Peasant Rounds of Peru Franco Command (1985–1990) Grupo Colina (1990–1999) Supported by: [REDACTED] Shining Path Supported by: [REDACTED] MOVADEF [REDACTED] FUDEPP [REDACTED] Hezbollah [REDACTED] ICL Abu Nidal Organization (until 2002) RIM (until 2012) [REDACTED] Libya (until 2011) [REDACTED] MPCP Supported by: [REDACTED] China (claimed by MPCP) [REDACTED] ASPRET (until 2022) [REDACTED] Red Mantaro Base Committee [REDACTED] FARC-EP in Peru Supported by: [REDACTED] FARC dissidents [REDACTED] ASPRET [REDACTED] Ethnocacerist Movement Supported by: [REDACTED] Hezbollah [REDACTED] MPCP (until 2022) [REDACTED] Huallaga faction (1999–2012) Total civilians casualties: 50,000-70,000 civilans casualties 3,000,000 civilians displaced Attacks and Incidents Massacres Other conflicts: The Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000
174-771: A self-coup with the aim of dissolving the opposition-controlled Congress of Peru and replace the Judiciary branch. The 1979 Constitution was abolished and a Constitutional crisis took place. Fujimori also announced that Peru would no longer be under the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights . As Shining Path began to lose ground in the Andes to the Peruvian state and the rondas , it decided to speed up its overall strategic plan. Shining Path declared that it had reached "strategic equilibrium" and
261-545: A state of emergency until early 2000. Alberto Fujimori resigned the Presidency in 2000, but Congress declared him "morally unfit", installing the opposite congress member Valentín Paniagua into office. He rescinded Fujimori's announcement that Peru would leave the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CVR) to investigate the conflict. The commission
348-444: A tufted capuchin , and an Angolan talapoin ), were found to be infected with L. infantum and capable of infecting Lutzomyia longipalpis sand flies, although "parasite loads in infected sand flies observed in this study were considered low". Visceral disease is usually caused by Leishmania donovani , L. infantum , or L. chagasi , but occasionally these species may cause other forms of disease. The cutaneous form of
435-573: A car bomb exploded at "El Polo", a mall in a wealthy district of Lima near the U.S. embassy. On 9 June 2003, a Shining Path group attacked a camp in Ayacucho, and took 68 employees of the Argentine company Techint and three police guards hostage. The hostages worked at the Camisea gas pipeline project that takes natural gas from Cuzco to Lima. According to sources from Peru's Interior Ministry,
522-426: A combination of pentavalent antimonials and paromomycin is recommended. These, however, can have significant side effects. Miltefosine , an oral medication, is effective against both visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. Side effects are generally mild, though it can cause birth defects if taken within three months of getting pregnant. It does not appear to work for L. major or L. braziliensis . Trifluralin ,
609-441: A herbicide, is shown to be effective treatment as ointment, without hemolytic or cell-toxic side-effects. The evidence around the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis is poor. A number of topical treatments may be used for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Which treatments are effective depends on the strain, with topical paromomycin effective for L. major , L. tropica , L. mexicana , L. panamensis , and L. braziliensis . Pentamidine
696-534: A member of the Supreme Court, who died in the exchange of shots with the subversive group. The final result was the death of the 14 subversive members, including their leader and two officers (Lieutenant Colonel Juan Valer Sandoval and Lieutenant Raúl Jiménez Chávez) who fell in combat; With this coup, the MRTA disappeared as an armed actor in the conflict. Shining Path was confined to their former headquarters in
783-444: A slide to make a thin smear and stained with Leishman stain or Giemsa stain ( pH 7.2) for 20 minutes. Amastigotes are seen within blood and spleen monocytes or, less commonly, in circulating neutrophils and in aspirated tissue macrophages. They are small, round bodies 2–4 μm in diameter with indistinct cytoplasm, a nucleus, and a small, rod-shaped kinetoplast . Occasionally, amastigotes may be seen lying free between cells. However,
870-507: A very low parasite load. When needing to diagnose a specific species of Leishmania, as opposed to only detection, other PCR methods have been superior. Most forms of the disease are transmitted only from nonhuman animals, but some can be spread between humans. Infections in humans are caused by about 21 of 30 species that infect mammals; the different species look the same, but they can be differentiated by isoenzyme analysis, DNA sequence analysis , or monoclonal antibodies . The treatment
957-732: Is also characterized by serious violations of human rights . The first guerrilla outbreaks arose in Peru in the early 1960s, during the Moderate Civil Reform, when the Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR), a guerrilla group founded and led by Luis de la Puente Uceda, began its first attacks against the Peruvian State in 1962. However, despite their training in Fidel Castro 's Cuba , the members of
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#17327727998541044-634: Is an area close to Calcutta ) and proposed them to be trypanosomes , found for the first time in India . A few months later, Captain Charles Donovan (1863–1951) confirmed the finding of what became known as Leishman-Donovan bodies in smears taken from people in Madras in southern India. But it was Ronald Ross who proposed that Leishman-Donovan bodies were the intracellular stages of a new parasite, which he named Leishmania donovani . The link with
1131-555: Is determined by where the disease is acquired, the species of Leishmania , and the type of infection. For visceral leishmaniasis in India, South America, and the Mediterranean, liposomal amphotericin B is the recommended treatment and is often used as a single dose. Rates of cure with a single dose of amphotericin have been reported as 95%. In India, almost all infections are resistant to pentavalent antimonials . In Africa,
1218-535: Is effective for L. guyanensis . Oral fluconazole or itraconazole appears effective in L. major and L. tropica . There is limited evidence to support the use of heat therapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis as of 2015. There are no studies determining the effect of oral nutritional supplements on visceral leishmaniasis being treated with anti-leishmanial drug therapy. Out of 200 countries and territories reporting to WHO, 97 countries and territories are endemic for leishmaniasis. The settings in which leishmaniasis
1305-452: Is estimated as the largest center of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the world, with around 67,500 cases as of 2004. Africa, in particular the East and North , is also home to cases of leishmaniasis. Leishmaniasis is considered endemic also in some parts of southern parts of western Europe and spreading towards north in recent years. For example, an outbreak of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis
1392-650: Is found across much of Asia, and in the Middle East. Within Afghanistan, leishmaniasis occurs commonly in Kabul , partly due to bad sanitation and waste left uncollected in streets, allowing parasite-spreading sand flies an environment they find favorable. In Kabul, the number of people infected was estimated to be at least 200,000, and in three other towns ( Herat , Kandahar , and Mazar-i-Sharif ) about 70,000 more occurred, according to WHO figures from 2002. Kabul
1479-569: Is found range from rainforests in Central and South America to deserts in western Asia and the Middle East. It affects as many as 12 million people worldwide, with 1.5–2.0 million new cases each year. The visceral form of leishmaniasis has an estimated incidence of 500,000 new cases. In 2014, more than 90% of new cases reported to WHO occurred in six countries: Brazil, Ethiopia, India, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan. As of 2010, it caused about 52,000 deaths, down from 87,000 in 1990. Different types of
1566-483: Is known as the "Sinchis" became notorious in the 1980s for their violations of human rights. The Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path's reaction to the Peruvian government's use of the military in the conflict was to increase violent warfare in the countryside. Shining Path attacked police officers, soldiers, and civilians that it considered being "class enemies", often using gruesome methods of killing their victims. These killings, along with Shining Path's disrespect for
1653-650: The rondas . The first reported attack was near Huata in January 1983, where some rondas killed 13 guerrillas. In February 1983 in Sacsamarca, rondas stabbed and killed the Shining Path commanders of that area. In March 1983, rondas brutally killed Olegario Curitomay, one of the commanders of the town of Lucanamarca . They took him to the town square, stoned him, stabbed him, set him on fire, and finally shot him. Shining Path responded by entering
1740-589: The Americas , evidence of the cutaneous form of the disease in Ecuador and Peru appears in pre-Inca pottery depicting skin lesions and deformed faces dating back to the first century CE. Some 15th- and 16th-century texts from the Inca period and from Spanish colonials mention "valley sickness", "Andean sickness", or "white leprosy", which are likely to be the cutaneous form. It remains unclear who first discovered
1827-469: The European colonization of the country . The high death toll includes many civilian casualties, due to deliberate targeting by many factions. The indigenous peoples of Peru were specifically targeted by killings, with 75% of those killed speaking Quechua as their native language. Since 2000, the number of deaths has dropped significantly and recently the conflict has become somewhat dormant. The conflict
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#17327727998541914-665: The Movement of the Revolutionary Left and identified with Castroite guerrilla movements in other parts of Latin America. The MRTA used techniques that were more traditional to Latin American leftist organizations, like wearing uniforms, claiming to fight for true democracy, and accusations of human rights abuses by the state; in contrast, the Shining Path did not wear uniforms, nor care for electoral processes. During
2001-567: The Peruvian Armed Forces fight Shining Path, granting them extraordinary power. Military leadership adopted practices used by Argentina during the Dirty War , committing many human right violations in the area where it had political control, with entire villages being massacred by the Peruvian armed forces while hundreds of civilians were forcibly disappear by troops. A special US-trained " counter terrorist " police battalion
2088-553: The San Cristóbal of Huamanga University . Guzmán had been inspired by the Chinese Cultural Revolution which he had witnessed first-hand during a trip to China. Shining Path members engaged in street fights with members of other political groups and painted graffiti encouraging an "armed struggle" against the Peruvian state. In June 1979, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by
2175-548: The Second World War ; research by Leonard Goodwin then showed pentostam was an effective treatment. The Institute for OneWorld Health has reintroduced the drug paromomycin for treatment of leishmaniasis, results with which led to its approval as an orphan drug . The Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative is also actively facilitating the search for novel therapeutics. A treatment with paromomycin will cost about US$ 10. The drug had originally been identified in
2262-546: The authoritarian trend of consolidating power within the executive to combat guerrilla groups, using his support in Congress to enact legislation and limit civil liberties. Gradually, the Shining Path committed more and more violent attacks on the National Police of Peru until bombings near Lima increased the gravity of the conflict. In December 1982, President Belaúnde declared a state of emergency and ordered that
2349-491: The Ñancahuazú Guerrilla , where they would be assassinated while trying to establish a guerrilla focus in the Andes. Prior to the conflict, Peru had undergone a series of coups with frequent switches between political parties and ideologies. On 2 October 1968, General Juan Velasco Alvarado staged a military coup and became Peru's 56th president under the administration of the Revolutionary Government of
2436-545: The 10th century CE, gave detailed descriptions of what was called balkh sore. In 1756, Alexander Russell , after examining a Turkish patient, gave one of the most detailed clinical descriptions of the disease. Physicians in the Indian subcontinent would describe it as kala-azar (pronounced kālā āzār , the Urdu , Hindi , and Hindustani phrase for "black fever", kālā meaning black and āzār meaning fever or disease). In
2523-552: The 1950s, but had been abandoned because it would not be profitable, as the disease mostly affects poor people. The Indian government approved paromomycin for sale in August 2006. By 2012 the World Health Organization had successfully negotiated with the manufacturers to achieve a reduced cost for liposomal amphotericin B , to US$ 18 a vial, but a number of vials are needed for treatment and it must be kept at
2610-495: The Armed Forces, left-leaning military dictatorship. Following a period of widespread poverty and unemployment, Velasco himself was overthrown in a bloodless military coup on 29 August 1975. He was replaced by Francisco Morales Bermúdez as the new President of Peru . Morales announced that his rule would provide a "Second Phase" to the previous administration, which would bring political and economic reforms. However, he
2697-483: The Chuschi incident. The Shining Path opted to fight in the manner advocated by Mao Zedong . They would open up "guerrilla zones" in which their guerrillas could operate and drive government forces out of these zones to create "liberated zones". These zones would then be used to support new guerrilla zones until the entire country was essentially a unified "liberated zone". There is some disagreement among scholars about
Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000 - Misplaced Pages Continue
2784-590: The Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path officially formed an armed wing known as the "People's Guerrilla Army". The Peruvian guerrillas were peculiar in that they had a high proportion of women, 50 percent of the combatants and 40 percent of the commanders were women. In 1982, the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) also launched its own guerrilla war against the Peruvian state. The group had been formed by remnants of
2871-617: The MIR often were in an unstable state, as they were often based in the Amazon . As a result, its members were easily killed by the police and the armed forces. During these counterattacks, their leader and founder was killed and the group eventually would collapse completely by 1965. Another guerrilla group that also emerged simultaneously was the National Liberation Army (ELN) led by Juan Pablo Chang Navarro and trained by Cuba. It
2958-529: The Meta and Guaviare departments), were infected with leishmaniasis. Allegedly, a contributing factor was that many of the affected soldiers did not use the officially provided insect repellent because of its disturbing odor. Nearly 13,000 cases of the disease were recorded in all of Colombia throughout 2004, and about 360 new instances of the disease among soldiers had been reported in February 2005. The disease
3045-486: The Peruvian government prior to the U.S. decree. This decree froze all Shining Path financial assets in the United States. U.S. Treasury official John Smith stated that the decree would help "the government of Peru's efforts to actively combat the group". Participants Timeline Key aspects List of ongoing armed conflicts The following is a list of ongoing armed conflicts that are taking place around
3132-483: The Peruvian jungle and continued smaller attacks against the military, like the one that occurred on 2 October 1999, when a Peruvian Army helicopter was shot down by Shining Path guerrillas near Satipo (killing 5) and stealing a PKM machine gun which was reportedly used in another attack against an Mi-17 in July 2003. Despite Shining Path being mostly defeated, more than 25% of Peru's national territory remained under
3219-441: The Shining Path also occurred at this stage. The Peruvian government began a massive crackdown on the Shining Path using unused methods. Military personnel were dispatched to areas dominated by the Shining Path, especially Ayacucho , to fight the rebels. Ayacucho, Huancavelica , Apurímac and Huánuco were declared emergency zones, allowing for some constitutional rights to be suspended in those areas. On 5 April 1992, Fujimori made
3306-501: The Shining Path. The government began to use death squads in order to combat and eliminate suspected communist sympathizers, including the Grupo Colina and Rodrigo Franco Command . These groups often committed human rights abuses throughout Peru. Fujimori's government also used the peasant rounds in order to combat the Shining Path and the MRTA in the rural countryside. Events such as the " Asháninka holocaust" perpetrated by
3393-683: The administration of Alberto Fujimori , the state began its widespread use of intelligence agencies in the fight against Shining Path. Some atrocities were committed by the National Intelligence Service , notably the La Cantuta massacre , the Barrios Altos massacre and the Santa massacre . Under the government of Alberto Fujimori, the confrontation was waged mainly through bomb attacks and selective assassinations by
3480-430: The apartment, as a number of suspected Shining Path militants had visited it. An inspection of the garbage of the apartment produced empty tubes of a skin cream used to treat psoriasis , a condition that Guzmán was known to have. Shortly after the raid that captured Guzmán, most of the remaining Shining Path leadership fell as well. Guzmán's role as the leader of Shining Path was taken over by Óscar Ramírez , who himself
3567-400: The army: 18 people were killed according to official figures, but non-governmental estimates suggest several dozen deaths. This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and the outbreak of the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path's actions. When Peru's military government allowed elections for the first time in 1980, the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path
Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000 - Misplaced Pages Continue
3654-479: The biology of the parasite . For example, in Leishmania , protein-coding genes are understood to be organized as large polycistronic units in a head-to-head or tail-to-tail manner; RNA polymerase II transcribes long polycistronic messages in the absence of defined RNA pol II promoters, and Leishmania has unique features with respect to the regulation of gene expression in response to changes in
3741-697: The bombing of two Coca-Cola plants on 22 January (by Shining Path); the RPG attack against the USIS Binational Center on 16 January; the bombing of a KFC restaurant on 21 January (both by the MRTA) and the car-bombing of the Peruvian headquarters of IBM on 28 January (by Shining Path). On 27 July 1993, Shining Path militants drove a car bomb into the US Embassy in Lima, which left extensive damage on
3828-514: The burned ballots; the elections proceeded without any further incidents. The incident received very little attention in the Peruvian press. A few days later, on 13 June, a group of young people belonging to the "generated organization" Movement of Labourers y Workers Clasistas (MOTC) carried out an attack on the Municipality of San Martín de Porres in Lima with Molotov cocktails commemorating
3915-532: The casualty figures from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, estimating instead "a total of 48,000 killings, substantially lower than the TRC estimate" and concluding that "the Peruvian State accounts for a significantly larger share than the Shining Path." The TRC later came out to respond to these statements. Since 2002, there have been a number of incidents relating to internal conflict within Peru. On 20 March 2002,
4002-558: The complex (worth some US$ 250,000) and nearby buildings. As for the MRTA, its forces were decimated both by the Repentance Law and by the imprisonment of its main leaders; among them, its main leader Víctor Polay , who had escaped from prison in 1990 and was recaptured in 1992. In 1996, an armed commando of 14 members of the MRTA, led by Néstor Cerpa Cartolini , stormed the residence of the Japanese ambassador in Peru, beginning
4089-464: The conflict, the MRTA and the Shining Path engaged in combat with each other. The MRTA only played a small part in the overall conflict, being declared by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to have been responsible for 1.5 percent of casualties accumulated throughout the conflict. At its height, the MRTA was believed to have consisted of only a few hundred members. President Fernando Belaúnde began
4176-433: The crisis of 72 hostages that lasted 126 days. The MRTA demanded the release of 462 members of the insurgent group, imprisoned by the government to free the hostages, a demand emphatically rejected by the government. The crisis ended when the Peruvian armed forces recaptured the embassy in a military action called Operation Chavín de Huántar , which allowed the release of the hostages with the exception of Carlos Giusti Acuña,
4263-445: The culture of indigenous peasants, turned many civilians in the Andes away from the group. Faced with a hostile population, Shining Path's guerrilla campaigns began to falter. In some areas, fearful, well-off peasants formed anti-Shining Path patrols called rondas campesinas or simply rondas . They were generally poorly equipped despite donations of guns from the armed forces. Nevertheless, Shining Path guerrillas were attacked by
4350-684: The current or previous calendar year. Leishmaniasis Leishmaniasis is a wide array of clinical manifestations caused by protozoal parasites of the Trypanosomatida genus Leishmania . It is generally spread through the bite of phlebotomine sandflies , Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia , and occurs most frequently in the tropics and sub-tropics of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and southern Europe. The disease can present in three main ways: cutaneous , mucocutaneous , or visceral . The cutaneous form presents with skin ulcers, while
4437-492: The current or previous calendar year. Conflicts causing at least 1,000 deaths in one calendar year are considered wars by the Uppsala Conflict Data Program . The 20 conflicts in the following list have caused at least 100, and fewer than 1,000, direct, violent deaths in the current or previous calendar year. The 15 conflicts in the following list have caused fewer than 100 direct, violent deaths in
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#17327727998544524-449: The detection of Leishmania DNA. With this assay, a specific and sensitive diagnostic procedure is finally possible. The most sensitive PCR tests use minicircle kinetoplast DNA found in the parasite. Kinetoplast DNA contains sequences for mitochondrial proteins in its maxicircles(~25–50 per parasite), and guide RNA in its minicircles(~10'000 per parasite) of the kinetoplast. With this specific method, one can still detect Leishmania even with
4611-535: The disease kala-azar was first suggested by Charles Donovan, and was conclusively demonstrated by Charles Bentley's discovery of L. donovani in patients with kala-azar . Transmission by the sandfly was hypothesized by Lionel Napier and Ernest Struthers at the School of Tropical Medicine at Calcutta and later proven by his colleagues. The disease became a major problem for Allied troops fighting in Sicily during
4698-438: The disease is caused by more than 15 species of Leishmania . Risk factors include malnutrition, deforestation, lack of sanitation, suppressed immune system and urbanization. Leishmaniasis is diagnosed in the hematology laboratory by direct visualization of the amastigotes (Leishman–Donovan bodies). Buffy-coat preparations of peripheral blood or aspirates from marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, or skin lesions should be spread on
4785-424: The disease is common. The World Health Organization has obtained discounts on some medications to treat the disease. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . The disease may occur in a number of other animals, including dogs and rodents . The symptoms of leishmaniasis are skin sores which erupt weeks to months after the person is bitten by infected sand flies. Leishmaniasis may be divided into
4872-706: The disease occur in different regions of the world. Cutaneous disease is most common in Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, and Iran, while mucocutaneous disease is most common in Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru, and visceral disease is most common in Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, India, and Sudan. Leishmaniasis is found through much of the Americas from northern Argentina to South Texas , though not in Uruguay or Chile , and has recently been shown to be spreading to North Texas and Oklahoma, and further expansion to
4959-494: The disease was contracted by at least four Dutch marines who were stationed in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, and subsequently repatriated for treatment. Descriptions of conspicuous lesions similar to cutaneous leishmaniasis appear on tablets from King Ashurbanipal from the seventh century BCE, some of which may have derived from even earlier texts from 1500 to 2500 BCE. Persian physicians, including Avicenna in
5046-477: The elections. Despite this, national elections continued and Fernando Belaúnde was elected as the 58th President of Peru in 1980. Belaúnde had already served as the country's 55th president prior to Velasco's coup in 1968. During the governments of Velasco and Morales, the Shining Path had been organized as a Maoist political group formed in 1970 by Abimael Guzmán , a communist professor of philosophy at
5133-473: The environment. The new knowledge from these studies may help identify new targets for urgently needed drugs and aid the development of vaccines. Although most of the literature mentions only one genus transmitting Leishmania to humans ( Lutzomyia ) in the New World, a 2003 study by Galati suggested a new classification for New World sand flies, elevating several subgenera to the genus level. Elsewhere in
5220-416: The extent of Maoist influence on the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path, but the majority of scholars consider the Shining Path to be a violent Maoist organization. One of the factors contributing to support for this view among scholars is that the Shining Path's economic and political base were located primarily in rural areas and they sought to build up their influence in these areas. On 3 December 1982,
5307-427: The following types: Leishmaniasis is considered one of the classic causes of a markedly enlarged (and therefore palpable) spleen ; the organ, which is not normally felt during examination of the abdomen, may even become larger than the liver in severe cases. Leishmaniasis is transmitted by the bite of infected female phlebotomine sandflies which can transmit the protozoa Leishmania . The sandflies inject
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#17327727998545394-456: The hostage-takers asked for a sizable ransom to free the hostages. Two days later, after a rapid military response, the hostage-takers abandoned the hostages. According to some sources, the company paid the ransom. In 2015, the U.S. Treasury Department declared the Shining Path a narco-terrorist organization engaged in the taxing of production, processing, and transport, of cocaine. The allegations of Shining Path drug trafficking had been made by
5481-425: The infective stage, metacyclic promastigotes , during blood meals. Metacyclic promastigotes in the puncture wound are phagocytized by macrophages , and transform into amastigotes . Amastigotes multiply in infected cells and affect different tissues, depending in part on the host, and in part on which Leishmania species is involved. These differing tissue specificities cause the differing clinical manifestations of
5568-638: The military and the Catholic Church, which claimed that many of the Commission members were former members of extreme leftists movements and that the final report wrongfully portrayed Shining Path and the MRTA as "political parties" rather than as terrorist organizations, even though, for example, Shining Path has been clearly designated as a terrorist organization by the United States, the European Union, and Canada. A 2019 study disputed
5655-411: The mucocutaneous form presents with ulcers of the skin, mouth, and nose. The visceral form starts with skin ulcers and later presents with fever, low red blood cell count, and enlarged spleen and liver. Infections in humans are caused by more than 20 species of Leishmania . Risk factors include poverty , malnutrition , deforestation , and urbanization . All three types can be diagnosed by seeing
5742-518: The north may be facilitated by climate change as more habitat becomes suitable for vector and reservoir species for leishmaniasis. Leishmaniasis is also known as papalomoyo , papa lo moyo, úlcera de los chicleros , and chiclera in Latin America. During 2004, an estimated 3,400 troops from the Colombian army, operating in the jungles near the south of the country (in particular around
5829-530: The organism. David Douglas Cunningham , Surgeon Major of the British Indian army , may have seen it in 1885 without being able to relate it to the disease. Peter Borovsky , a Russian military surgeon working in Tashkent , conducted research into the etiology of "oriental sore", locally known as sart sore, and in 1898 published the first accurate description of the causative agent, correctly described
5916-454: The parasite's relation to host tissues and correctly referred it to the protozoa . However, because his results were published in Russian in a journal with low circulation, his results were not internationally acknowledged during his lifetime. In 1901, William Boog Leishman identified certain organisms in smears taken from the spleen of a patient who had died from "dum-dum fever" ( Dum Dum
6003-425: The parasites under microscopy. Additionally, visceral disease can be diagnosed by blood tests. Leishmaniasis can be partly prevented by sleeping under nets treated with insecticide . Other measures include spraying insecticides to kill sandflies and treating people with the disease early to prevent further spread. The treatment needed is determined by where the disease is acquired, the species of Leishmania , and
6090-469: The people who were either killed or disappeared spoke Quechua as their native language, despite the fact that the 1993 census found that only 20% of Peruvians speak Quechua or another indigenous language as their native language. Nevertheless, the final report of the CVR was surrounded by controversy. It was criticized by almost all political parties (including former Presidents Fujimori, García and Paniagua),
6177-780: The province of Huancasancos and the towns of Yanaccollpa, Ataccara, Llacchua, Muylacruz, and Lucanamarca, where they killed 69 people . Other similar incidents followed, such as ones in Hauyllo, the Tambo District , and the La Mar Province . In the Ayacucho Department, Shining Path killed 47 peasants. Additional massacres would culminate in August 1985, with the infamous Accomarca massacre perpetrated by Peruvian troops on 16 August 1985 and one in Marcas that
6264-515: The retrieval of tissue samples is often painful for the patient and identification of the infected cells can be difficult. So, other indirect immunological methods of diagnosis are developed, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, antigen-coated dipsticks, and direct agglutination test. Although these tests are readily available, they are not the standard diagnostic tests due to their insufficient sensitivity and specificity . Several different polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests are available for
6351-507: The total deaths and disappearances. According to a summary of the report by Human Rights Watch , "Shining Path ... killed about half the victims, and roughly one-third died at the hands of government security forces ... The commission attributed some of the other slayings to a smaller guerrilla group and local militias. The rest remain unattributed." According the final report, rural areas were disproportionately affected by violence, especially those of indigenous communities. 75% of
6438-610: The type of infection. Some possible medications used for visceral disease include liposomal amphotericin B , a combination of pentavalent antimonials and paromomycin , and miltefosine . For cutaneous disease, paromomycin, fluconazole , or pentamidine may be effective. About 4 to 12 million people are currently infected in some 98 countries. About 2 million new cases and between 20 and 50 thousand deaths occur each year. About 200 million people in Asia, Africa, South and Central America, and southern Europe live in areas where
6525-498: The various forms of leishmaniasis. Sandflies become infected during blood meals on infected hosts when they ingest macrophages infected with amastigotes. In the sandfly's midgut, the parasites differentiate into promastigotes, which multiply, differentiate into metacyclic promastigotes, and migrate to the proboscis. The genomes of three Leishmania species ( L. major , L. infantum , and L. braziliensis ) have been sequenced, and this has provided much information about
6612-472: The world, the genus Phlebotomus is considered the vector of leishmaniasis. Some cases of infection of non-human animals of human-infecting species of Leishmania have been observed. In one study, L. major was identified in twelve out of ninety-one wild western lowland gorilla fecal samples and in a study of fifty-two captive non-human primates under zoo captivity in a leishmaniasis endemic area, eight (all three chimpanzees , three golden lion tamarins ,
6699-477: The world. This list of ongoing armed conflicts identifies present-day conflicts and the death toll associated with each conflict. The criteria of inclusion are the following: The 6 conflicts in the following list have caused at least 10,000 direct, violent deaths per year in battles between identified groups, in the current or previous calendar year. The 15 conflicts in the following list have caused at least 1,000 and fewer than 10,000 direct, violent deaths in
6786-664: Was an armed conflict between the Government of Peru and the Maoist guerrilla group Shining Path . The conflict's main phase began on 17 May 1980 and ended in December 2000. From 1982 to 1997 the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement waged its own insurgency as a Marxist–Leninist rival to the Shining Path. It is estimated that there have been between 50,000 and 70,000 deaths, making it the bloodiest war in Peruvian history , since
6873-465: Was captured by Peruvian authorities in 1999. After Ramírez's capture, the group splintered, guerrilla activity diminished sharply and previous conditions returned to the areas where the Shining Path had been active. Some Shining Path and MRTA remnants managed to stage minor scale attacks, such as the January 1993 wave of attacks and political assassinations that occurred in the run-up to the municipal elections, which also targeted US interests; these included
6960-475: Was elected president. Between February 1966 and July 1980 approximately 500 people died of political violence. Many affiliated with Peru's Communist Party had opposed the creation of the new constitution and formed the extremist organization known as the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path . This ultimately led to the emergence of internal conflict, with the first attacks taking place a day before
7047-580: Was headed by the President of the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru Salomón Lerner Febres. The Commission found in its 2003 Final Report that 69,280 people died or disappeared between 1980 and 2000 as a result of the armed conflict. A statistical analysis of the available data led the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to estimate that the Shining Path was responsible for the death or disappearance of 31,331 people, 45% of
7134-489: Was made up of some former members of the MIR and other people who were recruited. However, this organization suffered the same fate as the MIR since many of its members were infected with leishmaniasis . As a result, the armed forces killed its members. The ELN received military training in Cuba and operated from 1962 to 1965. After its dismantling, its main leaders fled to Bolivia where they would fight alongside Che Guevara in
7221-405: Was one of the few leftist political groups that declined to take part. They opted instead to launch guerrilla warfare actions against the state in the province of Ayacucho . On 17 May 1980—the eve of the presidential elections —members of the Shining Path burned ballot boxes in the town of Chuschi , Ayacucho. The perpetrators were quickly caught and additional ballots were brought in to replace
7308-547: Was perpetrated by Shining Path on 29 August 1985. During the government of Alan García , rivalries between the National Police and the Armed Forces increased. In one incident in 1989 in the Uchiza District , the Armed Forces ignored calls for assistance from the National Police despite being ten minutes away and having helicopters, resulting with the National Police post being captured by Shining Path. Under
7395-631: Was ready to begin its final assault on the cities of Peru. In 1992, Shining Path set off a powerful bomb in the Miraflores District of Lima in what became known as the Tarata bombing . This was part of a larger bombing campaign to follow suit in Lima. On 12 September 1992, Peruvian police captured Guzmán and several Shining Path leaders in an apartment above a dance studio in the Surquillo district of Lima. The police had been monitoring
7482-565: Was reported from Madrid, Spain, between 2010 and 2012. Leishmaniasis is mostly a disease of the developing world , and is rarely known in the developed world outside a small number of cases, mostly in instances where troops are stationed away from their home countries. Leishmaniasis has been reported by U.S. troops stationed in Saudi Arabia and Iraq since the Gulf War of 1990 , including visceral leishmaniasis. In September 2005,
7569-490: Was unsuccessful in delivering these promises, and in 1978, a Constitutional Assembly was created to replace Peru's 1933 Constitution. Morales then proclaimed that national elections would be held by 1980. Elections were held for the Constituent Assembly on 18 June 1978, whilst martial law was imposed on 6 January 1979. The Assembly approved the new constitution in July 1979. On 18 May 1980, Fernando Belaúnde Terry
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