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121-525: A school for Black students in Apopka began operating around 1886. This school later merged with another, initially known simply as "the colored school", which began operating sometime between 1910 and 1921 in a black neighborhood known as Mead's Bottom. In its early days, only younger Black children had any opportunity to attend school, as older children were expected to work. Over time, the school added grades until it served kindergarten through 12th grade. In 1927

242-452: A theocratic government limited to church members, although ministers were barred from holding governmental positions. Winthrop, Dudley, the Rev. John Cotton, and other leaders sought to prevent dissenting religious views, and many were banished because of differing religious beliefs, including Roger Williams of Salem and Anne Hutchinson of Boston , and unrepentant Quakers and Anabaptists. By

363-666: A 1773 trip to London with the Wheatleys' son, seeking publication of her work, Wheatley met prominent people who became her patrons. The publication in London of her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral on September 1, 1773, brought her fame both in England and the American colonies. Prominent figures, such as George Washington , praised her work. A few years later, African-American poet Jupiter Hammon praised her work in

484-565: A Plantation in Massachusetts Bay". The company elected Matthew Cradock as its first governor and immediately began organizing provisions and recruiting settlers. The company sent approximately 100 new settlers with provisions to join Conant in 1628, led by Governor's Assistant John Endecott , one of the grantees. The next year, Naumkeag was renamed Salem and fortified by another 300 settlers led by Rev. Francis Higginson , one of

605-519: A black enslaved person. A number of black literary scholars have viewed her work—and its widespread admiration—as a barrier to the development of black people during her time and as a prime example of Uncle Tom syndrome , believing that Wheatley's lack of awareness of her condition of enslavement furthers this syndrome among descendants of Africans in the Americas. However, others, more recently, have argued on her behalf. O'Neal notes that Wheatley "was

726-406: A body to veto the general court's act. The consequence of the ensuing debate was that the general court voted in 1644 that the council of assistants would sit and deliberate separately from the general court (they had sat together until then), and both bodies must concur for any legislation to be passed. Judicial appeals were to be decided by a joint session, since otherwise the assistants would be in

847-762: A child and enslaved in Boston; she taught herself to read and in 1773 published Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, "the first book written by an enslaved Black woman in America". In 1957, construction on a new building began. In 1954, in Brown v Board , the supreme court ruled that integration of public schools must occur with "all deliberate speed". In 1962, a ruling in a case brought by parents, Ellis v. Orange County Board of Public Instruction ruled that Black schools had not been given adequate funding, facilities, instructional materials, etc. - in other words, separate

968-471: A dedicated Anglican , and he sought to suppress the religious practices of Puritans and other nonconforming beliefs in England. The persecution of many Puritans in the 1620s led them to believe that religious reform would not be possible while Charles was king, and many decided to seek a new life in the New World. John White continued to seek funding for a colony. On 19 March 1628 [ O.S. 1627],

1089-644: A double reference to Christ. Wheatley also refers to "heav'nly muse" in two of her poems: "To a Clergy Man on the Death of his Lady" and "Isaiah LXIII," signifying her idea of the Christian deity. Classical allusions are prominent in Wheatley's poetry, which Shields argues set her work apart from that of her contemporaries: "Wheatley's use of classicism distinguishes her work as original and unique and deserves extended treatment." Particularly extended engagement with

1210-546: A house near their properties on the outskirts of the town. A town center that was well laid out would be fairly compact, with a tavern, school, possibly some small shops, and a meeting house that was used for civic and religious functions. The meeting house would be the center of the town's political and religious life. Church services might be held for several hours on Wednesday and all day Sunday. Puritans did not observe annual holidays, especially Christmas , which they said had pagan roots. Annual town meetings would be held at

1331-418: A larger kitchen (possibly with a brick or stone chimney including an oven), additional rooms, and a sleeping loft. These houses were the precursors to what is now called the saltbox style of architecture. Interiors became more elaborate in later years, with plaster walls, wainscoting , and potentially expensive turned woodwork in the most expensive homes. Colonists arriving after the first wave found that

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1452-577: A legal basis to continue their government, yet it remained intact until its official revocation in 1686. James II of England united Massachusetts with the other New England colonies in the Dominion of New England in 1686. The dominion was governed by Sir Edmund Andros without any local representation beyond his own hand-picked councillors, and it was extremely unpopular throughout New England. Massachusetts authorities arrested Andros in April 1689 after

1573-478: A major pestilence which killed as many as two-thirds of the population. The land-use patterns of the Indigenous people included plots cleared for agricultural purposes and woodland territories for hunting game. Land divisions among the tribes were well understood. During the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith . Plans began in 1606 for

1694-706: A number of new settlements that resulted in Connecticut Colony (by Hooker) and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (by Williams and others). Minister John Wheelwright was banished after the Antinomian controversy (like Anne Hutchinson ), and he moved north to found Exeter, New Hampshire . The advent of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in 1639 brought a halt to major migration, and

1815-493: A poem in his honor) that "the style and manner [of your poetry] exhibit a striking proof of your great poetical Talents." Critics consider her work fundamental to the genre of African-American literature , and she is honored as the first African-American woman to publish a book of poetry and the first to make a living from her writing. In 1892 a Phyllis Wheatley Circle was formed in Greenville, Mississippi . and in 1896

1936-413: A poem of his own. Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatleys shortly after the publication of her book of poems. The Wheatleys died soon thereafter and Phillis Wheatley married John Peters, a poor grocer. They lost three children, who all died young. Wheatley-Peters died in poverty and obscurity at the age of 31. Although the date and place of her birth are not documented, scholars believe that Wheatley

2057-489: A poem on slavery is "On being brought from Africa to America": Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land, Taught my benighted soul to understand That there's a God, that there's a Saviour too: Once I redemption neither sought nor knew. Some view our sable race with scornful eye, "Their colour is a diabolic dye." Remember, Christians, Negroes, black as Cain, May be refin'd, and join th' angelic train. Many colonists found it difficult to believe that an African slave

2178-410: A related Bible verse, that he thought would compel Wheatley to return to a Christian path in life. In 1838, Boston-based publisher and abolitionist Isaac Knapp published a collection of Wheatley's poetry, along with that of enslaved North Carolina poet George Moses Horton , under the title Memoir and Poems of Phillis Wheatley, A Native African and a Slave. Also, Poems by a Slave . Wheatley's memoir

2299-776: A result, over 3,000 students boycotted the schools. In 2010, the school district was recognized by the courts as having ended segregation but was additionally required to replace a group of old schools that predominantly served Black children. This construction was completed in 2018. The school's sports teams were known as the Panthers. In 1958 they placed third in the national championships. The school currently has an enrollment of 403 students in grades PK-5. 28°39′24″N 81°30′48″W  /  28.6568°N 81.5134°W  / 28.6568; -81.5134 Phillis Wheatley Phillis Wheatley Peters , also spelled Phyllis and Wheatly ( c.  1753 – December 5, 1784)

2420-561: A short-lived settlement on Cape Ann in 1623. The colony began in 1628 and was the company's second attempt at colonization. It was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s. The population was strongly Puritan and was governed largely by a small group of leaders strongly influenced by Puritan teachings. It was the first slave-holding colony in New England, and its governors were elected by an electorate limited to freemen who had been formally admitted to

2541-483: A sickly infant son to provide for, Phillis became a scullery maid at a boarding house, doing work she had never done before; she developed pneumonia and died on December 5, 1784, at the age of 31, after giving birth to a daughter, who died the same day as her. Wheatley wrote a letter to Reverend Samson Occom , commending him on his ideas and beliefs stating that enslaved people should be given their natural-born rights in America. Wheatley also exchanged letters with

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2662-657: A significant number of men returned to England to fight in the war. Massachusetts authorities were sympathetic to the Parliamentary cause and had generally positive relationships with the governments of the English Commonwealth and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell . The colony's economy began to diversify in the 1640s, as the fur trading, lumber, and fishing industries found markets in Europe and

2783-531: A slave for his wife Susanna. The Wheatleys named her Phillis, after the ship that had transported her to North America. She was given their last name of Wheatley, as was a common custom if any surname was used for enslaved people. The Wheatleys' 18-year-old daughter, Mary, was Phillis's first tutor in reading and writing. Their son, Nathaniel, also tutored her. John Wheatley was known as a progressive throughout New England; his family afforded Phillis an unprecedented education for an enslaved person, and one unusual for

2904-569: A strong force among contemporary abolitionist writers, and that, through the use of Biblical imagery, she incorporated anti-slavery statements in her work within the confines of her era and her position as a slave." Chernoh Sesay, Jr. sees a trend towards a more balanced view of Wheatley, looking at her "not in twentieth century terms, but instead according to the conditions of the eighteenth century," and Henry Louis Gates has argued for her rehabilitation, asking "What would happen if we ceased to stereotype Wheatley but, instead, read her, read her with all

3025-464: A subject of investigation. In 2020, American poet Honorée Fanonne Jeffers published her The Age of Phillis , based on the understanding that Margaretta Matilda Odell's account of Wheatley's life portrayed Wheatley inaccurately, and as a character in a sentimental novel; the poems by Jeffers attempt to fill in the gaps and recreate a more realistic portrait of Wheatley. With the 1773 publication of Wheatley's book Poems on Various Subjects, she "became

3146-653: A woman of any race at the time. By the age of 12, Phillis was reading Greek and Latin classics in their original languages, as well as difficult passages from the Bible. At the age of 14, she wrote her first poem, "To the University of Cambridge [Harvard], in New England". Recognizing her literary ability, the Wheatley family supported Phillis's education and left household labor to their other domestic enslaved workers. The Wheatleys often exhibited Phillis's abilities to friends and family. Strongly influenced by her readings of

3267-480: A year. An effort by Robert Gorges to establish an overarching civil and religious colonial structure for New England based in the same location likewise failed and most of the settlers left. Those families who remained after the departure of Gorges formed a permanent settlement the oldest in what would become Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1623, the Plymouth Council for New England , the successor to

3388-443: Is arranged into three stanzas of four lines in iambic tetrameter , followed by a concluding couplet in iambic pentameter . The rhyme scheme is ABABCC. Shields sums up her writing as being "contemplative and reflective rather than brilliant and shimmering." She repeated three primary elements: Christianity, classicism and hierophantic solar worship. The hierophantic solar worship was part of what she brought with her from Africa;

3509-531: The American Revolution gained strength, Wheatley's writing turned to themes that expressed ideas of the rebellious colonists. In 1770, she wrote a poetic tribute to the evangelist George Whitefield . Her poetry expressed Christian themes, and many poems were dedicated to famous figures. Over one-third consist of elegies , the remainder being on religious, classical and abstract themes. She seldom referred to her own life in her poems. One example of

3630-462: The American Revolution . Many behaviors were frowned upon culturally which modern sensibilities might consider relatively trivial actions, and some led to criminal prosecution. These included sleeping during church services, playing cards, and engaging in any number of activities on the Sabbath. Conversely, there were laws which reflected attitudes that are still endorsed by popular sensibilities in

3751-552: The Colony of Massachusetts Bay , was an English settlement on the east coast of North America around the Massachusetts Bay , one of the several colonies later reorganized as the Province of Massachusetts Bay . The lands of the settlement were in southern New England , with initial settlements on two natural harbors and surrounding land about 15.4 miles (24.8 km) apart—the areas around Salem and Boston , north of

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3872-677: The Glorious Revolution of 1688 deposed James, and the Massachusetts Bay Colony reverted to rule under its revoked charter until 1691, when a new charter was issued for the Province of Massachusetts Bay. This new province combined the Massachusetts Bay territories with those of the Plymouth Colony and proprietary holdings on Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard . Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing

3993-644: The Merrimack River valley to the north, and the Nipmucs , Pocumtucs , and Mahicans occupied the western lands of Massachusetts, although some of those tribes were under tribute to the Mohawks , who were expanding aggressively from upstate New York. The total Indigenous population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000. This number was significantly larger as late as 1616; in later years, contemporaneous chroniclers interviewed Indigenous people who described

4114-601: The Navigation Acts , which had been passed by Parliament to regulate trade within the English colonial empire. These regulations determined whom the colonies could trade with and how trade could be conducted, and New England merchants were flaunting them by trading directly with European powers. This infuriated many English merchants, commercial societies, and Royal committees who petitioned the King for action, claiming that

4235-436: The "first Colony" and the "second Colony" were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony. The charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons named "Council of Virginia" which had overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise. The "first Colony" ranged from the 34th- to 41st-degree latitude north; the "second Colony" ranged from the 38th- to 45th-degree latitude. (The "first Colony" and

4356-542: The "second Colony" overlapped. The 1629 charter of King Charles I asserted that the second Colony ranged from 40th to 48th degrees north latitude, which reduced the overlap.) Investors from London were appointed to govern over any settlements in the "first Colony"; investors from the "Town of Plimouth in the County of Devon " were appointed to govern over any settlements in the "second Colony". The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown . The Plymouth Company under

4477-539: The 1640s. In 1652, a currency shortage prompted the colony to authorize silversmith John Hull to issue coinage, now known as the oak tree, willow tree, and pine tree shillings . Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the colonial charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control. The Dominion collapsed after

4598-463: The 1688 Glorious Revolution in England, and they re-established government under the forms of the vacated charter. However, dissenters from the Puritan rule argued that the government lacked a proper constitutional foundation, and some of its actions were resisted on that basis. King William III issued a charter in 1691, despite efforts by Massachusetts agents to revive the old colonial charter. It

4719-694: The 21st century US, against things such as smoking tobacco, abusing one's mother-in-law, profane dancing, and pulling hair. Children, newcomers, and people with disabilities were exempt from punishment for such infractions. The colony's council of assistants sat as the final court of appeal and as the principal court for criminal issues of "life, limb, or banishment" and civil issues where the damages exceeded £100. Lesser offenses were heard in county courts or by commissioners appointed for hearing minor disputes. The lower courts were also responsible for issuing licenses and for matters such as probate. Juries were authorized to decide questions of both fact and law, although

4840-536: The African-American poet Jupiter Hammon wrote an ode to Wheatley ("An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatley"). His master Lloyd had temporarily moved with his slaves to Hartford, Connecticut , during the Revolutionary War. Hammon thought that Wheatley had succumbed to what he believed were pagan influences in her writing, and so his "Address" consisted of 21 rhyming quatrains, each accompanied by

4961-672: The British philanthropist John Thornton , who discussed Wheatley and her poetry in correspondence with John Newton . Through her letter writing, Wheatley was able to express her thoughts, comments and concerns to others. In 1775, she sent a copy of a poem entitled "To His Excellency, George Washington" to the then-military general. The following year, Washington invited Wheatley to visit him at his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts , which she did in March 1776. Thomas Paine republished

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5082-496: The Classics can be found in the poem "To Maecenas", where Wheatley uses references to Maecenas to depict the relationship between her and her own patrons, as well as making reference to Achilles and Patroclus , Homer and Virgil . At the same time, Wheatley indicates to the complexity of her relationship with Classical texts by pointing to the sole example of Terence as an ancestor for her works: The happier Terence all

5203-699: The Council for New England issued a land grant to a new group of investors that included a few from the Dorchester Company. The land grant was for territory between the Charles River and Merrimack River that extended from "the Atlantick and westerne sea and ocean on the east parte, to the South sea on the west parte". The company to whom the grant was sold was styled "The New England Company for

5324-578: The General Court was supportive of Randolph and the changes that the crown wished to make, but the conservatives remained too powerful and blocked any attempt to side with England. However, as the tensions mounted between the crown and Massachusetts Bay, and threats mounted of legal action against the colony, the General Court did pass laws that acknowledged certain English admiralty laws while still making allowance for self-governance. Two delegates from Massachusetts Bay were sent to London to meet with

5445-535: The Indigenous peoples of southern New England rose up against the colonists and were decisively defeated, although at great cost in life to all concerned. The Massachusetts frontier was particularly hard hit: several communities in the Connecticut and Swift River valleys were abandoned. By the end of the war, most of the Indigenous population of southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists. England had difficulty enforcing its laws and regulations in

5566-676: The London site where A. Bell Booksellers published Wheatley's first book in September 1773 (8 Aldgate , now the location of the Dorsett City Hotel), the unveiling took place of a commemorative blue plaque honoring her, organized by the Nubian Jak Community Trust and Black History Walks. Wheatley is the subject of a project and play by British-Nigerian writer Ade Solanke entitled Phillis in London , which

5687-508: The Lords of Trade when the crown threatened the colony with a quo warranto . The Lords demanded a supplementary charter to alleviate problems, but the delegates were under orders that they could not negotiate any change with the Charter and this enraged the Lords. The quo warranto was issued immediately. The King feared that this would stir problems within the colony and attempted to reassure

5808-547: The Massachusetts Bay colony, as it was a joint-stock colony which was unlike the royal colonies and proprietary colonies that the English crown administered. Massachusetts Bay was largely self-governing with its own house of deputies, governor, and other self-appointed officers. The colony also did not keep its headquarters and oversight in London but moved them to the colony. The Massachusetts Bay colonists viewed themselves as something apart from their "mother country" of England because of this tradition of self-rule, coupled with

5929-489: The Morning" as a specimen of her work, writing: "[t]hese poems display no astonishing power of genius; but when we consider them as the productions of a young untutored African, who wrote them after six months casual study of the English language and of writing, we cannot suppress our admiration of talents so vigorous and lively." Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral was printed in 11 editions until 1816. In 1778,

6050-561: The New England area for fishing and trade with the Indigenous population. In December 1620, a group of English religious Separatists , later referred to as " the Pilgrims ", established Plymouth Colony just to the south of Massachusetts Bay, seeking to preserve their cultural identity and attain religious freedom. Plymouth's colonists faced great hardships and earned few profits for their investors, who sold their interests to them in 1627. Edward Winslow and William Bradford were two of

6171-485: The New England colonists were hurting their trade. The Lords of Trade's complaints were so serious that the King sent Edward Randolph to Boston in an attempt to rein in and regulate the colony. When he arrived in Boston, he found a colonial government that refused to give in to the royal demands. Randolph reported to London that the General Court of Massachusetts Bay claimed that the King had no right to interfere with their commercial dealings. In response, Randolph asked

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6292-918: The Phyllis Wheatley Circle. She is commemorated on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail . The Phyllis Wheatley YWCA in Washington, D.C., and the Phillis Wheatley High School in Houston, Texas , are named for her, as are the Phyllis Wheatley School in Apopka, Florida, and the historic Phillis Wheatley School in Jensen Beach, Florida , now the oldest building on the campus of American Legion Post 126 (Jensen Beach, Florida). A branch of

6413-633: The Plymouth Company, established a small fishing village at Cape Ann under the supervision of the Dorchester Company, with Thomas Gardner as its overseer. This company was originally organized through the efforts of Puritan minister John White (1575–1648) of Dorchester , in the English county of Dorset . White has been called "the father of the Massachusetts Colony" because of his influence in establishing this settlement, even though he never emigrated. The Cape Ann settlement

6534-986: The Richland County Library in Columbia, South Carolina , which offered the first library services to black citizens, is named for her. A branch of the Rochester Public Library system in Rochester, New York was named for her when it was built in 1971. Phillis Wheatley Elementary School, New Orleans , opened in 1954 in Tremé , one of the oldest African-American neighborhoods in the US. The Phillis Wheatley Community Center opened in 1920 in Greenville, South Carolina , and in 1924 (spelled "Phyllis") in Minneapolis , Minnesota. On July 16, 2019, at

6655-598: The West Indies, and the colony's shipbuilding industry developed. The growth of a generation of people born in the colony and the rise of a merchant class began to slowly change the political and cultural landscape of the colony, even though its governance continued to be dominated by relatively conservative Puritans. Colonial support for the Commonwealth created tension after the throne was restored to Charles II in 1660. Charles sought to extend royal influence over

6776-456: The ability to vote in the colony. After a protest over the imposition of taxes by a meeting of the council of assistants, the general court ordered each town to send two representatives known as deputies to meet with the court to discuss matters of taxation. Questions of governance and representation arose again in 1634 when several deputies demanded to see the charter, which the assistants had kept hidden from public view. The deputies learned of

6897-432: The ancient works themselves. Both Shields and Greenwood have argued that Wheatley's use of classical imagery and ideas was designed to deliver "subversive" messages to her educated, majority white audience, and argue for the freedom of Wheatley herself and other enslaved people. Black literary scholars from the 1960s to the present in critiquing Wheatley's writing have noted the absence in it of her sense of identity as

7018-542: The charter and formally took charge of the new province, when the colony, beginning in Salem Village , was coming to grips with the witch trials crises. Before the arrival of European colonists on the eastern shore of New England, the area around Massachusetts Bay was the territory of several Algonquian-speaking peoples, including the Massachusetts , Nausets , and Wampanoags . The Pennacooks occupied

7139-481: The choir inspir'd, His soul replenish'd, and his bosom fir'd; But say, ye Muses, why this partial grace, To one alone of Afric's sable race; While some scholars have argued that Wheatley's allusions to classical material are based on the reading of other neoclassical poetry (such as the works of Alexander Pope ), Emily Greenwood has demonstrated that Wheatley's work demonstrates persistent linguistic engagement with Latin texts, suggesting good familiarity with

7260-480: The colonies, which Massachusetts resisted along with the other colonies. For example, the Massachusetts Bay colony repeatedly refused requests by Charles and his agents to allow the Church of England to become established, and the New England colonies generally resisted the Navigation Acts , laws that restricted colonial trade to England alone. The New England colonies were ravaged by King Philip's War (1675–76), when

7381-654: The colonists from trading with any nation other than England. Colonial resistance to those acts led King Charles to revoke the Massachusetts charter and consolidate all the colonies in New England, New York, and New Jersey into the Dominion of New England . Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended theoretically as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The Dutch colony of New Netherland disputed many of its territorial claims, arguing that they held rights to land beyond Rhode Island up to

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7502-599: The colonists or were sold into slavery after King Philips's War (apart from the Pequot tribe, whose survivors were largely absorbed into the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes following the Pequot War). The Massachusetts Bay Colony was economically successful, trading with England, Mexico, and the West Indies. In addition to barter, transactions were done in English pounds, Spanish " pieces of eight ", and wampum in

7623-524: The colonists that their private interests would not be infringed upon. The declaration did create problems, however, and the confrontations increased between the moderates and conservatives. The moderates controlled the office of the Governor and the Council of Assistants, and the conservatives controlled the Assembly of Deputies. This political turmoil ended in a compromise with the deputies voting to allow

7744-446: The colony were eligible to become freemen and gain the vote. This restriction was not changed until after the English Restoration. The process by which individuals became members of one of the colony's churches involved a detailed questioning by the church elders of their beliefs and religious experiences; as a result, only individuals whose religious views accorded with those of the church leadership were likely to become members and gain

7865-435: The colony's founders believed to be important for forming a proper relationship with God. Towns were obligated to provide education for their children, which was usually satisfied by hiring a teacher of some sort. The quality of these instructors varied, from minimally educated local people to Harvard-educated ministers. The structure of the colonial government changed over the lifetime of the charter. The Puritans established

7986-513: The colony's leaders and were likely the authors of a work published in England in 1622 called Mourt's Relation . This book in some ways resembles a promotional tract intended to encourage further immigration. Plymouth Colony would remain separate from Massachusetts Bay Colony until the creation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay . There were other attempts at colonies more closely tied to England in 1623 and 1624 at Weymouth, Massachusetts . Thomas Weston's Wessagusset Colony failed in under

8107-428: The court could decide if a jury failed to reach a decision. Sentences for offenses included fines and corporal punishments such as whipping and sitting in the stocks , with the punishments of banishment from the colony and death by hanging reserved for the most serious offenses. Evidence was sometimes based on hearsay and superstition. For example, the "ordeal of touch" was used in 1646 in which someone accused of murder

8228-434: The crown to cut off all trade to and from the colony and asked that further regulations be put in place. The crown did not wish to enforce such a harsh measure and risk alienating the moderate members of New England society who supported England, so the British offered conciliatory measures if Massachusetts Bay followed the law. Massachusetts Bay refused, and the Lords of Trade became wary of the colony's charter; they petitioned

8349-419: The crown to either revoke it or amend it. Randolph was made head of Customs and Surveyor General of New England, with his office in Boston. Despite this increased pressure, the General Court established laws that allowed merchants to circumvent Randolph's authority. Adding to Randolph's frustration was his reliance on the Admiralty Court to rule on the laws that he was attempting to enforce. The moderate faction of

8470-413: The delegates in London to negotiate and defend the colonial charter. When the warrant arrived in Boston, the General Court voted on what course the colony should take. The two options were to immediately submit to royal authority and dismantle their government or to wait for the crown to revoke their charter and install a new governmental system. The General Court decided to wait out the crown. They lacked

8591-472: The early towns did not have room for them. Seeking land of their own, groups of families would petition the government for land on which to establish a new town; the government would typically allow the group's leaders to select the land. These grants were typically about 40 square miles (10,000 ha), and were located sufficiently near other towns to facilitate defense and social support. The group leaders would also be responsible for acquiring native title to

8712-405: The early years of the colony. Many colonists lived in fairly crude structures, including dugouts , wigwams , and dirt-floor huts made using wattle and daub construction. Construction improved in later years, and houses began to be sheathed in clapboard , with thatch or plank roofs and wooden chimneys. Wealthier individuals would extend their house by adding a lean-to on the back, which allowed

8833-502: The first English chartered colony whose board of governors did not reside in England. This independence helped the settlers to maintain their Puritan religious practices without interference from the king, Archbishop Laud, or the Anglican Church of England . The charter remained in force for 55 years; Charles II revoked it in 1684. Parliament passed legislation collectively called the Navigation Acts which attempted to prevent

8954-499: The first ministers of the settlement. The first winters were difficult, with colonists struggling against starvation and disease, resulting in numerous deaths. The company leaders sought a royal charter for the colony because they were concerned about the legality of conflicting land claims given to several companies (including the New England Company) for the little-known territories of the New World, and because of

9075-402: The first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America. On April 10, 1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint-stock companies. Neither of these corporations was given a name by this charter, but the territories were named as the "first Colony" and "second Colony", over which they were respectively authorized to settle and to govern. Under this charter,

9196-540: The future direction of the colony. Many wealthy merchants and colonists wished to expand their economic base and commercial interests and saw the conservative Puritan leadership as thwarting that. Even in Puritan society, the younger generation wished to liberalize society in a way that would help with commerce. Those who wanted Massachusetts Bay and New England to be a place for religious observance and theocracy were most hostile to any change in governance. The Crown learned of these divisions and sought to include non-Puritans in

9317-425: The government and legal system of the colonies. These commissioners were to bring the New England colonies into a stronger connection with England, including allowing the crown to nominate the governor of the colony. The New England colonists refused, claiming that the King had no right to "supervise" Massachusetts Bay's laws and courts, and saying that they ought to continue as they were so long as they remained within

9438-413: The governor and deputy from among themselves. The general court determined at the next session that it would elect the governor and deputy. An additional 116 settlers were admitted to the general court as freemen in 1631, but most of the governing and judicial power remained with the council of assistants. They also enacted a law specifying that only those men who "are members of some of the churches" in

9559-564: The guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including New England , and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in Maine . The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, and the surviving colonists abandoned the colony after only one year. Gorges noted that "there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts" for a number of years. English ships continued to come to

9680-441: The home and she was prevented from doing anything other than very light housework. This shaping prevented Phillis from ever becoming a threat to the Wheatley family or other people from the white community. As a result, Phillis was allowed to attend white social events and this created a misconception of the relationship between black and white people for her. The matter of Wheatley's biography, "a white woman's memoir", has been

9801-403: The increasing number of Puritans who wanted to join them. Charles granted the new charter on 4 March 1629 [O.S. 1628], superseding the land grant and establishing a legal basis for the new English colony at Massachusetts, appointing Endecott as governor. It was not apparent whether Charles knew that the company was meant to support the Puritan emigration, and he was likely left to assume that it

9922-407: The lands that they selected. By this means, the colony expanded into the interior, spawning settlements in adjacent territories as well. The land within a town would be divided by communal agreement, usually allocating by methods that originated in England. Outside a town center, land would be allocated for farming, some of which might be held communally. Farmers with large plots of land might build

10043-429: The leadership in the hope of managing the colony. The charges of insubordination against the colony included denying the crown's authority to legislate in New England, asserting that Massachusetts Bay was governing in the Province of New Hampshire and Maine , and denying freedom of conscience. However, chief among the colonists' transgressions were the coining of money ( the pine tree shilling ) and their violations of

10164-476: The legal rights and privileges of their charter. The Commissioners asked that the colony pay its obligated 20 percent of all gold and silver found in New England, but the colonists responded that they were "not obligated to the king but by civility". Massachusetts Bay extended the right to vote only to Puritans, but the population of the colony was increasing and the non-Puritan population was growing along with it; thus, tensions and conflicts were growing concerning

10285-553: The local church. As a consequence, the colonial leadership showed little tolerance for other religious views, including Anglican , Quaker , and Baptist theologies. The colonists had good relationships with the local Native Americans ; however, they did join their neighbor colonies in the Pequot War (1636–1638) and King Philip's War (1675–1678). After that, most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with

10406-774: The meeting house, generally in May, to elect the town's representatives to the general court and to transact other community business. Towns often had a village green , used for outdoor celebrations and activities such as military exercises of the town's trainband or militia . Many of the early colonists who migrated from England came with some or all of their family. It was expected that individuals would marry fairly young and begin producing offspring. Infant mortality rates were comparatively low, as were instances of childhood death. Men who lost their wives often remarried fairly quickly, especially if they had children needing care. Older widows would also sometimes marry for financial security. It

10527-527: The mid-1640s, Massachusetts Bay Colony had grown to more than 20,000 inhabitants. The charter granted the general court the authority to elect officers and to make laws for the colony. Its first meeting in North America was held in October 1630, but it was attended by only eight freemen. They formed the first council of assistants and voted (contrary to the terms of the charter) that they should elect

10648-531: The most famous African on the face of the earth." Voltaire stated in a letter to a friend that Wheatley had proved that black people could write poetry. John Paul Jones asked a fellow officer to deliver some of his personal writings to "Phillis the African favorite of the Nine (muses) and Apollo." She was honored by many of America's founding fathers, including George Washington , who wrote to her (after she wrote

10769-493: The poem in the Pennsylvania Gazette in April 1776. In 1779, Wheatley issued a proposal for a second volume of poems but was unable to publish it because she had lost her patrons after her emancipation; publication of books was often based on gaining subscriptions for guaranteed sales beforehand. The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) was also a factor. However, some of her poems that were to be included in

10890-470: The poet. Their love is ardent, but it kindles the senses only, not the imagination. Religion indeed has produced a Phyllis Whately [ sic ] but it could not produce a poet. The compositions published under her name are below the dignity of criticism. Jefferson was not the only noted, Enlightenment figure who held racist views. Such luminaries as David Hume and Emmanuel Kant likewise believed Africans were not fully human. Wheatley believed that

11011-541: The position to veto attempts to overturn their own decisions. The King and the British government held enough power in Massachusetts Bay in the 1630s that Puritans and others were afraid of being sent home if they got word of unorthodox beliefs such as what Roger Williams expounded. During 1641, the colony formally adopted the Massachusetts Body of Liberties , which Nathaniel Ward compiled. This document consisted of 100 civil and criminal laws based upon

11132-461: The power of poetry was immeasurable. John C. Shields, noting that her poetry did not simply reflect the literature she read but was based on her personal ideas and beliefs, writes: Wheatley had more in mind than simple conformity. It will be shown later that her allusions to the sun god and to the goddess of the morn, always appearing as they do here in close association with her quest for poetic inspiration, are of central importance to her. This poem

11253-485: The previously established Plymouth Colony . The territory nominally administered by the Massachusetts Bay Colony covered much of central New England, including portions of Massachusetts , Maine , New Hampshire , and Connecticut . The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by the owners of the Massachusetts Bay Company , including investors in the failed Dorchester Company , which had established

11374-404: The provisions that the general court should make all laws, and that all freemen should be members of the general court. They then demanded that the charter be enforced to the letter, which Governor Winthrop pointed out was impractical given the growing number of freemen. The parties reached a compromise and agreed that the general court would be made up of two deputies representing each town. Dudley

11495-439: The resourcefulness that she herself brought to her craft?" Some scholars thought Wheatley's perspective came from her upbringing. Writing in 1974, Eleanor Smith argued that the Wheatley family took interest in her at a young age because of her timid and submissive nature. Using this to their advantage, the Wheatley family was able to mold and shape her into a person of their liking. The family separated her from other slaves in

11616-458: The school moved from its original two-story building on Central Avenue to a four-room building on 18th street. Due to overcrowding, classes and offices were housed in the hallway. The school was initially supported by private contributions. Students cooked their own meals; men from the community provided maintenance. The school was renamed in honor of Phillis Wheatley , who was kidnapped in Africa as

11737-695: The second volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers. In 1768, Wheatley wrote "To the King's Most Excellent Majesty", in which she praised King George III for repealing the Stamp Act . But while discussing the idea of freedom, Wheatley was able subtly to raise the idea of freedom for enslaved subjects of the king as well: May George, beloved by all the nations round, Live with heav’ns choicest constant blessings crown’d! Great God, direct, and guard him from on high, And from his head let ev’ry evil fly! And may each clime with equal gladness see A monarch’s smile can set his subjects free! As

11858-640: The social sanctions recorded in the Bible. These laws formed the nucleus of colonial legislation until independence and contained some provisions later incorporated into the United States Constitution , such as the ideas of equal protection and double jeopardy . Massachusetts Bay was the first colony to formalize laws concerning slavery with provision 91 of the Massachusetts Body of Liberties which developed protections for people unable to perform public service. Another law

11979-411: The theocratic nature of New England Puritan society. The Puritan founders of Massachusetts and Plymouth saw themselves as having been divinely given their lands in the New World with a duty to implement and observe religious law. English colonists took control of New Netherland in 1664, and the crown sent royal commissioners to New England from the new Province of New York to investigate the status of

12100-479: The voyage. Over the next ten years, about 20,000 Puritans emigrated from England to Massachusetts and the neighboring colonies during the Great Migration . Many ministers reacted to the repressive religious policies of England, making the trip with their congregations, among whom were John Cotton , Roger Williams , Thomas Hooker , and others. Religious divisions and the need for additional land prompted

12221-515: The western side of Cape Cod, under the jurisdiction of Plymouth Colony at the time. A flotilla of ships sailed from England beginning in April 1630, sometimes known as the Winthrop Fleet . They began arriving at Salem in June and carried more than 700 colonists, Governor John Winthrop , and the colonial charter. Winthrop delivered his famous sermon " City upon a Hill " either before or during

12342-433: The works of Alexander Pope , John Milton , Homer , Horace and Virgil , Phillis began to write poetry. In 1773, at the age of 20, Phillis accompanied Nathaniel Wheatley to London in part for her health (she suffered from chronic asthma), but primarily because Susanna believed Phillis would have a better chance of publishing her book of poems there than in the colonies. Phillis had an audience with Frederick Bull , who

12463-429: The worship of sun gods is expressed as part of her African culture, which may be why she used so many different words for the sun. For instance, she uses Aurora eight times, "Apollo seven, Phoebus twelve, and Sol twice." Shields believes that the word "light" is significant to her as it marks her African history, a past that she has left physically behind. He notes that Sun is a homonym for Son, and that Wheatley intended

12584-420: Was also normal for older widowed parents to live with one of their children. Due to the Puritan perception of marriage as a civil union, divorce did sometimes occur and could be pursued by both genders. Sexual activity was expected to be confined to marriage. Sex outside of marriage was considered fornication if neither partner was married, and adultery if one or both were married to someone else. Fornication

12705-459: Was an American author who is considered the first African-American author of a published book of poetry . Born in West Africa , she was kidnapped and subsequently sold into slavery at the age of seven or eight and transported to North America, where she was bought by the Wheatley family of Boston . After she learned to read and write, they encouraged her poetry when they saw her talent. On

12826-439: Was born in 1753 in West Africa , most likely in present-day Gambia or Senegal . She was sold by a local chief to a visiting trader, who took her to Boston in the then British Colony of Massachusetts , on July 11, 1761, on a slave ship called The Phillis . The vessel was owned by Timothy Fitch and captained by Peter Gwinn. On arrival in Boston, Wheatley was bought by the wealthy Boston merchant and tailor John Wheatley as

12947-460: Was chiefly negotiated by Increase Mather in his role as the colony's ambassador-extraordinary, unifying Massachusetts Bay with Plymouth Colony , Martha's Vineyard , Nantucket , and territories that roughly encompass Maine , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay . This new charter additionally extended voting rights to non-Puritans, an outcome that Mather had tried to avoid. Life could be quite difficult in

13068-439: Was developed to protect married women, children, and people with mental disabilities from making financial decisions. Colonial law differentiated among types of mental disabilities, classifying them as "distracted persons", "idiots", and "lunaticks". In 1693, "poor laws" enabled communities to use the estates of people with disabilities to defer the cost of community support of those individuals. Many of these laws remained until

13189-458: Was earlier published in 1834 by Geo W. Light but did not include poems by Horton. Thomas Jefferson , in his book Notes on the State of Virginia , was unwilling to acknowledge the value of her work or the work of any black poet. He wrote: Misery is often the parent of the most affecting touches in poetry. Among the blacks is misery enough, God knows, but no poetry. Love is the peculiar oestrum of

13310-413: Was elected governor in 1634, and the general court reserved a large number of powers for itself, including those of taxation, distribution of land, and the admission of freemen. A legal case in 1642 brought about the separation of the council of assistants into an upper house of the general court. The case involved a widow's lost pig and had been overturned by the general court, but the assistants voted as

13431-407: Was generally punished by fines and pressure to marry; a woman who gave birth to an illegitimate child could also be fined. Adultery and rape were more serious crimes, and both were punishable by death. Rape, however, required more than one witness, and was therefore rarely prosecuted. Sexual activity between men was called sodomy , and was also punishable by death. Within the marriage, the husband

13552-399: Was ill, the two never met. After Phillis's book was published, by November 1773, the Wheatleys manumitted Phillis. Susanna Wheatley died in the spring of 1774, and John in 1778. Shortly after, Phillis met and married John Peters, an impoverished free black grocer. They lived in poor conditions and two of their babies died. John was improvident and was imprisoned for debt in 1784. With

13673-596: Was included in the preface of her book of collected works: Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral , published in London in 1773. Publishers in Boston had declined to publish it, but her work was of great interest to influential people in London. There, Selina, Countess of Huntingdon and the Earl of Dartmouth acted as patrons to help Wheatley gain publication. Her poetry received comment in The London Magazine in 1773, which published her poem "Hymn to

13794-440: Was not equal - and that the district must fully desegregate. In 1969, Orange County Public Schools eventually responded by closing Wheatley and sent the high school students to Apopka High School . Wheatley was converted to an elementary school. The changes were opposed by a large percentage of residents of both races: 95% of Black residents wanted Wheatley to stay open, while most white residents did not want integration at all. As

13915-489: Was not profitable, and the financial backers of the Dorchester Company terminated their support by the end of 1625. Their settlement was abandoned at present-day Gloucester , but a few settlers remained in the area, including Roger Conant , establishing a settlement a little further south at what is now Salem , near the village of the Naumkeag tribe . Archbishop William Laud was a favorite advisor of King Charles I and

14036-579: Was purely for business purposes, as was the custom. The charter omitted a significant clause: the location for the annual stockholders' meeting. Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629, whereupon the company's directors met to consider the possibility of moving the company's seat of governance to the colony. This was followed later that year by the Cambridge Agreement , in which a group of investors agreed to emigrate and work to buy out others who would not emigrate. The Massachusetts Bay Colony became

14157-769: Was showcased at the Greenwich Book Festival in June 2018. A 90-minute play by Solanke titled Phillis in Boston was presented at the Old South Meeting House in November 2023. A 30-item collection of material related to Wheatley, including publications from her lifetime containing poems by her, was acquired by the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2023. Colony of Massachusetts The Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628–1691), more formally

14278-470: Was the Lord Mayor of London , and other prominent members of British society. (An audience with King George III was arranged, but Phillis had returned to Boston before it could take place.) Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon , became interested in the talented young African woman and subsidized the publication of Wheatley's volume of poems, which appeared in London in the summer of 1773. As Hastings

14399-419: Was typically responsible for supplying the family's financial needs, although it was not uncommon for women to work in the fields and to perform some home labor (for example, spinning thread or weaving cloth) to supplement the family income. Women were almost exclusively responsible for seeing to the welfare of the children. Children were baptized at the local meeting house within a week of being born. The mother

14520-419: Was usually not present because she was still recovering from the birth, and the child's name was usually chosen by the father. Names were propagated within the family, and names would be reused when infants died. If an adult died without issue, his (or her) name could be carried on when the siblings of the deceased named children in his or her memory. Most children received some form of schooling, something which

14641-412: Was writing "excellent" poetry. Wheatley had to defend her authorship of her poetry in court in 1772. She was examined by a group of Boston luminaries, including John Erving , Reverend Charles Chauncey , John Hancock , Thomas Hutchinson , the governor of Massachusetts, and his lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver . They concluded she had written the poems ascribed to her and signed an attestation , which

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