Hokkien ( / ˈ h ɒ k i ɛ n / HOK -ee-en , US also / ˈ h oʊ k i ɛ n / HOH -kee-en ) is a variety of the Southern Min languages, native to and originating from the Minnan region , in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China . It is also referred to as Quanzhang (Chinese: 泉漳 ; pinyin: Quánzhāng ), from the first characters of the urban centers of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou .
176-741: Philippine Hokkien is a dialect of the Hokkien language of the Southern Min branch of Min Chinese descended directly from Old Chinese of the Sinitic family , primarily spoken vernacularly by Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines , where it serves as the local Chinese lingua franca within the overseas Chinese community in the Philippines and acts as the heritage language of
352-563: A liturgical language as one of the languages that Protestant Chinese Filipino churches typically minister in with their church service , which they sometimes also minister to students in Chinese Filipino schools that they also usually operate. It is also a liturgical language primarily used by Chinese Buddhist , Taoist , and Matsu veneration temples in the Philippines, especially in their sutra chanting services and temple sermons by monastics. The term Philippine Hokkien
528-553: A mixed language or a creole —a theory called the Middle English creole hypothesis . Although the great influence of these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern English is widely acknowledged, most specialists in language contact do not consider English to be a true mixed language. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares innovations with other Germanic languages including Dutch , German , and Swedish . These shared innovations show that
704-468: A socio-political perspective, it forms a significant pole of language usage due to the popularity of Holo-language media. Douglas (1873/1899) also noted that Formosa ( Taiwan ) has been settled mainly by emigrants from Amoy (Xiamen), Chang-chew (Zhangzhou), and Chin-chew (Quanzhou). Several parts of the island are usually found to be specially inhabited by descendants of such emigrants, but in Taiwan,
880-644: A 2012 official Eurobarometer poll (conducted when the UK was still a member of the EU), 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents. A working knowledge of English has become
1056-675: A Chinese Filipino school usually within the same campus also sometimes minister church or chapel service in "Amoy" (Hokkien) to their students too. Chinese Buddhist temples in the Philippines also primarily conduct their sutra chanting services and temple sermons in Hokkien via the venerable monks and nuns living in the temples across the Philippines. Many of the Chinese Buddhist monastics only speak Hokkien or Mandarin (if recently came from China), though some can also speak English , and rarely also Filipino ( Tagalog ). Some of
1232-440: A catalyst for converting the rest of China. During the late 20th century, despite Standard Chinese ( Mandarin ) taking the place as the usual Chinese class subject taught in Chinese Filipino schools as the topic of study, some schools had Chinese teachers that used Amoy Hokkien as medium of instruction in order to teach Mandarin Chinese to native- Hokkien -speaking Chinese Filipino students, but decades later around
1408-469: A child with her. A 1662 Sangley Massacre would ensue due to these mounting events and many Sangley Chinese fled by ship or to the mountains. Likewise during the 1700s, Spanish Dominican friar missionaries in Amoy/Xiamen would be severely persecuted in the region as well, but nevertheless continued to operate clandestinely. The Sangley Chinese community in the Philippines would survive through
1584-619: A distinct descendant dialect form of Zhangzhou Hokkien has developed. In Penang , Kedah and Perlis , it is called Penang Hokkien while across the Strait of Malacca in Medan , an almost identical variant is known as Medan Hokkien . Many Chinese Filipinos profess ancestry from Hokkien-speaking areas; Philippine Hokkien is also largely derived from the Quanzhou dialect, particularly Jinjiang and Nan'an dialects with some influence from
1760-658: A distinct language from Modern English and is virtually impossible for 21st-century unstudied English-speakers to understand. Its grammar was similar to that of modern German: nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs had many more inflectional endings and forms , and word order was much freer than in Modern English. Modern English has case forms in pronouns ( he , him , his ) and has a few verb inflections ( speak , speaks , speaking , spoke , spoken ), but Old English had case endings in nouns as well, and verbs had more person and number endings. Its closest relative
1936-574: A few expressions from Philippine English since the American colonial era , such as Philippine Hokkien also has some vocabulary that is unique to it compared to other varieties of Hokkien: Philippine Hokkien usually follows the 3 decimal place Hindu-Arabic numeral system used worldwide, but still retains the concept of 萬 ; bān ; 'ten thousand' from the Chinese numeral system , so 'ten thousand' would be 一萬 ; chi̍t-bān , but examples of
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#17327767857962112-490: A foreign language, make up the "expanding circle". The distinctions between English as a first language, as a second language, and as a foreign language are often debatable and may change in particular countries over time. For example, in the Netherlands and some other countries of Europe, knowledge of English as a second language is nearly universal, with over 80 percent of the population able to use it, and thus English
2288-460: A group are more mutually intelligible , but it is less so amongst the forementioned group, Quanzhou dialect, and Zhangzhou dialect. Although the Min Nan varieties of Teochew and Amoy are 84% phonetically similar including the pronunciations of un-used Chinese characters as well as same characters used for different meanings, and 34% lexically similar , , Teochew has only 51% intelligibility with
2464-408: A majority of Chinese Filipinos . Despite currently acting mostly as an oral language , Hokkien as spoken in the Philippines did indeed historically have a written language and is actually one of the earliest sources for written Hokkien using both Chinese characters (traditionally via Classical Chinese ( 漢文 ; Hàn-bûn ) worded from and read in Hokkien ) as early as around 1587 or 1593 through
2640-624: A mix of Philippine Hokkien, Cebuano Bisaya , Tagalog , Philippine English is used, while in Iloilo and Bacolod , a mix of Philippine Hokkien, Hiligaynon (Ilonggo) , and Philippine English is used, while in Vigan and Baguio , a mix of Philippine Hokkien, Ilocano , and Philippine English is used, while in Tacloban , a mix of Philippine Hokkien, Waray , Philippine English is used, while in Naga ,
2816-580: A mix of Philippine Hokkien, Central Bikolano , and Philippine English is used, while in Zamboanga City , a mix of Philippine Hokkien, Chavacano , Philippine English , and sometimes Cebuano and/or Tagalog are used. Hokkien Taiwanese Hokkien is one of the national languages in Taiwan . Hokkien is also widely spoken within the overseas Chinese diaspora in Singapore , Malaysia ,
2992-581: A mixture of the Zhangzhou and Quanzhou dialects, but rather it is formed on the foundation of the Tung'an dialect with further inputs from other sub-dialects. It has played an influential role in history, especially in the relations of Western nations with China , and was one of the most frequently learned dialects of Hokkien by Westerners during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. The Modern Representative form of Hokkien spoken around
3168-520: A more standard version of English. They have many more speakers of English who acquire English as they grow up through day-to-day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction. Varieties of English learned by non-native speakers born to English-speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners. Most of those varieties of English include words little used by native speakers of English in
3344-695: A number of other Anglic languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian dialect and Yola language of Ireland. Like Icelandic and Faroese , the development of English in the British Isles isolated it from the continental Germanic languages and influences, and it has since diverged considerably. English is not mutually intelligible with any continental Germanic language, as it differs in vocabulary , syntax , and phonology . However, some of these, such as Dutch or Frisian, do show strong affinities with English, especially with its earlier stages. Unlike Icelandic and Faroese, which were isolated,
3520-572: A rebellion of the She people . In 885, (during the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang ), the two brothers Wang Chao and Wang Shenzhi , led a military expedition force to suppress the Huang Chao rebellion. Waves of migration from the north in this era brought the language of Middle Chinese into the Fujian region, which gave Hokkien and all the other Min languages its literary readings . During around
3696-619: A required class subject , which would most if not completely dissipate from mainstream use in later decades in the Philippines. The Spanish used decades before have been retained as a few Spanish loanwords in Philippine Hokkien, such as those found below. In the 21st century, the Philippines now only has 2 official languages , Filipino ( Tagalog ) and English , with currently 19 recognized regional languages , including Cebuano Bisaya , Hiligaynon , etc., which Philippine Hokkien speakers currently frequently codeswitch with, which
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#17327767857963872-684: A requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine and computing. English has become so important in scientific publishing that more than 80 percent of all scientific journal articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 percent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by 1995. International communities such as international business people may use English as an auxiliary language , with an emphasis on vocabulary suitable for their domain of interest. This has led some scholars to develop
4048-466: A result of the generations of intermarriage and assimilation . Those who chose to marry endogamously and retained speaking the language and as a result of gradual replenishment of migrants from Amoy/Xiamen and Chinchew/Quanzhou , especially relatives from Fujian , China of those already in the Philippines, throughout the centuries would later continue the Sangley Chinese community in
4224-407: A rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection and a fairly fixed subject–verb–object word order . Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the expression of complex tenses , aspects and moods , as well as passive constructions , interrogatives , and some negation . The earliest form of English
4400-424: A sentence turns a statement into a question or shows the attitudes of the speaker. Hokkien dialects preserve certain grammatical reflexes and patterns reminiscent of the broad stage of Archaic Chinese . This includes the serialization of verb phrases (direct linkage of verbs and verb phrases ) and the infrequency of nominalization , both similar to Archaic Chinese grammar. English language English
4576-758: A significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the United States (at least 231 million), the United Kingdom (60 million), Canada (19 million), Australia (at least 17 million), South Africa (4.8 million), Ireland (4.2 million), and New Zealand (3.7 million). In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents, and local people who speak other languages and new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces. The inner-circle countries provide
4752-447: A verb ending ( present plural): From the 8th to the 11th centuries, Old English gradually transformed through language contact with Old Norse in some regions. The waves of Norse (Viking) colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries put Old English into intense contact with Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Norse influence was strongest in the north-eastern varieties of Old English spoken in
4928-563: Is Old Frisian , but even some centuries after the Anglo-Saxon migration, Old English retained considerable mutual intelligibility with other Germanic varieties. Even in the 9th and 10th centuries, amidst the Danelaw and other Viking invasions, there is historical evidence that Old Norse and Old English retained considerable mutual intelligibility, although probably the northern dialects of Old English were more similar to Old Norse than
5104-540: Is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , whose speakers, called Anglophones , originated in early medieval England on the island of Great Britain . The namesake of the language is the Angles , one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to Britain . It is the most spoken language in the world, primarily due to the global influences of the former British Empire (succeeded by
5280-1069: Is also a great mixture of emigrants from Swatow [ Shantou ] . In modern times though, a mixed dialect descended from the Quanzhou , Amoy, and Zhangzhou dialects , leaning a little closer to the Quanzhou dialect, possibly due to being from the Tung'an dialect, is spoken by Chinese Singaporeans , Southern Malaysian Chinese , and Chinese Indonesians in Riau province and the Riau Islands . Variants include Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien and Singaporean Hokkien in Singapore. Among Malaysian Chinese of Penang, and other states in northern mainland Malaysia and ethnic Chinese Indonesians in Medan, with other areas in North Sumatra , Indonesia,
5456-440: Is also heavily based on Tung'an dialect while incorporating some vowels of Zhangzhou dialect, whereas Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien , including Singaporean Hokkien , is based on the Tung'an dialect, with Philippine Hokkien on the Quanzhou dialect, and Penang Hokkien & Medan Hokkien on the Zhangzhou dialect. There are some variations in pronunciation and vocabulary between Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects. The grammar
Philippine Hokkien - Misplaced Pages Continue
5632-720: Is also preserved in the Nan'an dialect ( 色 , 德 , 竹 ) but are pronounced as -iak in Quanzhou Hokkien. * Haklau Min ( Hai Lok Hong , including the Haifeng and Lufeng dialect), Chaw'an / Zhao'an (詔安話), Longyan Min , and controversially, Taiwanese , are sometimes considered as not Hokkien anymore, besides being under Southern Min (Min Nan). On the other hand, those under Longyan Min , Datian Min , Zhenan Min have some to little mutual intelligibility with Hokkien, while Teo-Swa Min ,
5808-466: Is also undergoing change under the influence of American English, fuelled by the strong presence of American English in the media and the prestige associated with the United States as a world power. As of 2016 , 400 million people spoke English as their first language , and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary language. English is the largest language by number of speakers . English
5984-610: Is also widely used in media and literature, and the number of English language books published annually in India is the third largest in the world after the US and UK. However, English is rarely spoken as a first language, numbering only around a couple hundred-thousand people, and less than 5% of the population speak fluent English in India. David Crystal claimed in 2004 that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in
6160-407: Is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world. The Indian linguist Braj Kachru distinguished countries where English is spoken with a three circles model . In his model, Kachru based his model on
6336-486: Is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon ( c. 450–1150 ). Old English developed from a set of West Germanic dialects, often grouped as Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic , and originally spoken along the coasts of Frisia , Lower Saxony and southern Jutland by Germanic peoples known to the historical record as the Angles , Saxons , and Jutes . From the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain as
6512-527: Is generally mutually comprehensible especially with other Quanzhou Hokkien variants, including Singaporean Hokkien and Quanzhou-based Taiwanese Hokkien variants, the local vocabulary, tones , and Filipino or Philippine Spanish and English loanwords as well as the extensive use of contractions and colloquialisms (even those which are now unused or considered archaic or dated in China) can result in confusion among Hokkien speakers from outside of
6688-531: Is generally the same. Additionally, extensive contact with the Japanese language has left a legacy of Japanese loanwords in Taiwanese Hokkien. On the other hand, the variants spoken in Singapore and Malaysia have a substantial number of loanwords from Malay and to a lesser extent, from English and other Chinese varieties, such as the closely related Teochew and some Cantonese . Meanwhile, in
6864-454: Is important to its meaning. A basic sentence follows the subject–verb–object pattern (i.e. a subject is followed by a verb then by an object ), though this order is often violated because Hokkien dialects are topic-prominent . Unlike synthetic languages , seldom do words indicate time , gender and plural by inflection. Instead, these concepts are expressed through adverbs, aspect markers, and grammatical particles, or are deduced from
7040-474: Is nearby Taiwan, where immigrants from Fujian arrived as workers during the 40 years of Dutch rule , fleeing the Qing dynasty during the 20 years of Ming loyalist rule , as immigrants during the 200 years of rule by the Qing dynasty , especially in the last 120 years after immigration restrictions were relaxed, and even as immigrants during the period of Japanese rule . The Taiwanese dialect mostly has origins with
7216-800: Is now defunct, especially under the Chinese-Filipino Catholic Apostolate of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP). It has a long history in using Hokkien to minister to Sangley Chinese living in the Philippines and Fujian as evidenced in the works of the Spanish friars , such as the Doctrina Christiana en letra y lingua china (1593), who aimed to use the Sangley Chinese Catholic converts as
Philippine Hokkien - Misplaced Pages Continue
7392-536: Is often arbitrarily defined as beginning with the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066, but it developed further in the period from 1150 to 1500. With the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the now-Norsified Old English language was subject to another wave of intense contact, this time with Old French , in particular Old Norman French , influencing it as a superstrate. The Norman French spoken by
7568-415: Is reportedly the native language of up to 80% of the ethnic Chinese people in the Philippines, among which is known locally as Lán-nâng-uē ("Our people's speech"). Hokkien speakers form the largest group of overseas Chinese in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Southern Fujian is home to four principal Hokkien dialects: Chiangchew , Chinchew , Tung'an , and Amoy , originating from
7744-424: Is routinely used to communicate with foreigners and often in higher education. In these countries, although English is not used for government business, its widespread use puts them at the boundary between the "outer circle" and "expanding circle". English is unusual among world languages in how many of its users are not native speakers but speakers of English as a second or foreign language. Many users of English in
7920-517: Is spoken by communities on every continent and on islands in all the major oceans. The countries where English is spoken can be grouped into different categories according to how English is used in each country. The "inner circle" countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms for English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English
8096-547: Is the Romance of the Litchi Mirror , with extant manuscripts dating from 1566 and 1581. In the early 17th century, Spanish friars in the Philippines produced materials documenting the Hokkien varieties spoken by the Chinese trading community who had settled there in the late 16th century: These texts appear to record a primarily Zhangzhou-descended dialect with some attested Quanzhou and Teo-Swa features, from
8272-564: Is the sole or dominant language for historical reasons without being explicitly defined by law (such as in the United States and United Kingdom ). It is a co-official language of the United Nations , the European Union , and many other international and regional organisations. It has also become the de facto lingua franca of diplomacy, science , technology, international trade, logistics, tourism, aviation, entertainment, and
8448-777: Is the third person pronoun group beginning with th- ( they, them, their ) which replaced the Anglo-Saxon pronouns with h- ( hie, him, hera ). Other core Norse loanwords include "give", "get", "sky", "skirt", "egg", and "cake", typically displacing a native Anglo-Saxon equivalent. Old Norse in this era retained considerable mutual intelligibility with some dialects of Old English, particularly northern ones. Englischmen þeyz hy hadde fram þe bygynnyng þre manner speche, Souþeron, Northeron, and Myddel speche in þe myddel of þe lond, ... Noþeles by comyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes, and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys asperyed, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbytting. Although, from
8624-543: Is used when differentiating the variety of Hokkien spoken in the Philippines from those spoken in China , Taiwan , Malaysia , Singapore , Indonesia , and other Southeast Asian countries. Historically, it was also known in Philippine English , Filipino ( Tagalog ), and other Philippine languages as Fookien or Fukien or Fukienese across the country, derived from the Chinese postal romanization of
8800-559: Is usually a door god or a statue by the doors and entrances of Chinese Buddhist temples to serve as a symbolic protector. Some Chinese Buddhist temples also run Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines, such as the Samantabhadra Institute, Philippine Academy of Sakya, and Philippine Buddhacare Academy. Roman Catholic Christianity in the Philippines used to also have Hokkien as one of the languages they used to conduct their liturgy in but its current use for ministry
8976-826: The Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china and using the Latin script as early as the 1590s in the Boxer Codex and was actually the earliest to systematically romanize the Hokkien language throughout the 1600s in the Hokkien-Spanish works of the Spanish friars especially by the Dominican Order , such as in the Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum (1626-1642) and the Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu (1620) among others. The use of Hokkien in
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#17327767857969152-524: The Amoy dialect of Hokkien too from time to time and also typically use bibles and hymnal books from Xiamen (Amoy) typically written in the Amoy dialect of Hokkien. The endonym used by speakers of the dialect itself or the Hokkien language in general though is typically, Chinese : 咱人話 / 咱儂話 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe ; Tâi-lô : Lán-nâng-uē / Lán-lâng-uē / Nán-nâng-uē. Only 12.2% of all ethnic Chinese in
9328-485: The Augustinian canon Orrm , which highlights the blending of both Old English and Anglo-Norman elements in English for the first time. In Wycliff'e Bible of the 1380s, the verse Matthew 8:20 was written: Foxis han dennes, and briddis of heuene han nestis . Here the plural suffix -n on the verb have is still retained, but none of the case endings on the nouns are present. By the 12th century Middle English
9504-505: The Commonwealth of Nations ) and the United States . English is the third-most spoken native language , after Standard Chinese and Spanish ; it is also the most widely learned second language in the world, with more second-language speakers than native speakers. English is either the official language or one of the official languages in 59 sovereign states (such as India , Ireland , and Canada ). In some other countries, it
9680-546: The Danelaw area around York, which was the centre of Norse colonisation; today these features are still particularly present in Scots and Northern English . The centre of Norsified English was in the Midlands around Lindsey . After 920 CE, when Lindsey was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon polity, English spread extensively throughout the region. An element of Norse influence that continues in all English varieties today
9856-552: The European Free Trade Association , Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) set English as their organisation's sole working language even though most members are not countries with a majority of native English speakers. While the European Union (EU) allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of
10032-587: The Fujian region, which in ancient times was originally Minyue country, populated with non-Chinese Baiyue , causing the region for the first time in ancient times to incorporate Old Chinese dialects of which would later become Min Chinese . The massive migration of Han Chinese into Fujian region mainly occurred after the Disaster of Yongjia . The Jìn court fled from the north to the south, causing large numbers of Han Chinese to move into Fujian region. They brought
10208-663: The Internet . English accounts for at least 70% of total speakers of the Germanic language branch, and as of 2021 , Ethnologue estimated that there were over 1.5 billion speakers worldwide. Old English emerged from a group of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons . Late Old English borrowed some grammar and core vocabulary from Old Norse , a North Germanic language . Then, Middle English borrowed vocabulary extensively from French dialects , which are
10384-767: The Low Saxon and Frisian languages . English is an Indo-European language and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . Old English originated from a Germanic tribal and linguistic continuum along the Frisian North Sea coast, whose languages gradually evolved into the Anglic languages in the British Isles , and into the Frisian languages and Low German /Low Saxon on
10560-490: The Manila Bay area was largely derived from Coastal Zhangzhou ( 漳州 ; Chiang-chiu ) Hokkien dialects of Haicheng ( 海澄 ; Hái-têng ) and Longxi ( 龍溪 ; Liông-khe ), with also some features from the Coastal Quanzhou ( 泉州 ; Choân-chiu ) Hokkien dialects of Anhai ( 安海 ; Oaⁿ-hái ) and Tong'an ( 同安 ; Tâng-oaⁿ ). Haicheng and Longxi have since been merged by 1960 within modern-day Longhai ( 龍海 ; Liông-hái ) of Coastal Zhangzhou ( 漳州 ; Chiang-chiu ) on
10736-636: The Marcos Era , regulations became stricter and the medium of instruction for teaching Standard Chinese ( Mandarin ) in Chinese classes shifted from Amoy Hokkien Chinese to purely Mandarin Chinese (or in some schools to English ). Also, due to the increased rural to urban migration of Chinese Filipinos, Chinese Filipino schools in urban areas increased but those in the provinces gradually declined, some closing down or some turning into ordinary Philippine schools, where some tried to preserve their "Chinese" characteristic by instead teaching Hokkien as their Chinese class subject , deeming it as more practical in
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#173277678579610912-401: The Mexican War of Independence broke out, which the First Mexican Empire would gain independence from the Spanish Empire by 1821. From then on 1821 to 1898, Spanish Philippines would be under direct royal governance under Madrid in Spain . By 1832, Rev. Walter Henry Medhurst still noted in his Hokkien dictionary, originally as an account given by Conrad Malte-Brun (1775-1826) on
11088-404: The Minnan region . The Hokkien spoken in most areas of the three counties of southern Zhangzhou have merged the coda finals -n and -ng into -ng. The initial consonant j ( dz and dʑ ) is not present in most dialects of Hokkien spoken in Quanzhou, having been merged into the d or l initials. The -ik or -ɪk final consonant that is preserved in the native Hokkien dialects of Zhangzhou and Xiamen
11264-456: The Nanjing court dialect Mandarin reading of Fujian province in China , such as in the old newspaper, The Fookien Times . It was historically and is still also called as just "Chinese" in English or "Intsik" and "Tsino" in Filipino ( Tagalog ), usually generalized to refer to Chinese languages in general, usually by those unfamiliar with the Hokkien language compared with other Chinese languages or to promote to such people. It
11440-401: The Old Chinese spoken in the Central Plain of China from the prehistoric era to the 3rd century into Fujian that later became Min, which later split off into its respective branches, of which Hokkien descends from the Southern Min branch of it. In 677 (during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang ), Chen Zheng , together with his son Chen Yuanguang , led a military expedition to suppress
11616-441: The Philippine Islands under the Insular Government , which later, Tagalog was chosen as the basis of Filipino , the national language of the Philippines under the 1935 constitution of the Philippine Commonwealth . By 1987, under the current 1987 constitution of the Philippines, Spanish began to only be "promoted on a voluntary and optional basis", leading to most schools in the Philippines to no longer teach Spanish as
11792-434: The Philippines (especially Metro Manila ), are also mixed languages , with Hokkien as the base lexifier . Hokkien speakers in different regions refer to the language as: In parts of Southeast Asia and in the English-speaking communities, the term Hokkien ( [hɔk˥kiɛn˨˩] ) is etymologically derived from the Hokkien pronunciation of Fujian ( Hok-kiàn ), the province from which the language hails. In Southeast Asia and
11968-401: The Philippines was historically influenced by Philippine Spanish , Filipino ( Tagalog ) and Philippine English . As a lingua franca of the overseas Chinese community in the Philippines, the minority of Chinese Filipinos of Cantonese and Taishanese descent also uses Philippine Hokkien for business purposes due to its status as "the Chinoy business language" [ sic ]. It is also used as
12144-428: The Philippines , Indonesia , Cambodia , Myanmar , Hong Kong , Thailand , Brunei , Vietnam , and elsewhere across the world. Mutual intelligibility between Hokkien dialects varies, but they are still held together by ethnolinguistic identity. In maritime Southeast Asia , Hokkien historically served as the lingua franca amongst overseas Chinese communities of all dialects and subgroups , and it remains today as
12320-446: The Philippines , there are also a few Spanish and Filipino ( Tagalog ) loanwords, while it is also currently a norm to frequently codeswitch with English , Tagalog, and in some cases other Philippine languages , such as Cebuano , Hiligaynon , Bicol Central , Ilocano , Chavacano , Waray-waray , Kapampangan , Pangasinense , Northern Sorsogonon , Southern Sorsogonon , etc. Tong'an, Xiamen, Taiwanese, Singaporean dialects as
12496-415: The Sanxiang dialect of Zhongshan Min , and Qiong - Lei Min also have historical linguistic roots with Hokkien, but are significantly divergent from it in terms of phonology and vocabulary, and thus have almost little to no practical face-to-face mutual intelligibility with Hokkien. The Xiamen dialect is a variant of the Tung'an dialect. Majority of Taiwanese , from Tainan , to Taichung , to Taipei ,
12672-594: The Spaniards by the mid-1800s, as noted by the British , such as James Matheson , co-founder of Jardine Matheson : Amoy, a much more substantial port giving access to the tea-growing province of Fukien, was open to Spanish trade only. But the right was merely nominal because Chinese junks could transport goods to and from the Philippines much more cheaply than could the Spaniards. The latter had practically given up
12848-822: The Spanish Empire , which was part of the main artery that linked the trans-Pacific trade carried by the Manila galleon over the Pacific to Acapulco in New Spain (modern-day Mexico ) of the Spanish Americas , that was also linked to the trans-Atlantic trade from the port of Veracruz to Seville in Spain , spreading trade goods from Asia across the Americas and later across Iberia and Europe . Later,
13024-691: The Tung'an , Quanzhou and Zhangzhou variants, but since then, the Amoy dialect, also known as the Xiamen dialect, has become the modern prestige representative for the language in China. Both Amoy and Xiamen come from the Chinese name of the city ( 厦门 ; Xiàmén ; Ē-mûi ); the former is from Zhangzhou Hokkien, whereas the latter comes from Mandarin. There are many Min Nan speakers among overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, as well as in
13200-604: The United Nations at the end of World War II , English had become pre-eminent and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations. It is one of six official languages of the United Nations. Many other worldwide international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee , specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation. Many regional international organisations such as
13376-502: The cha-po͘-kiáⁿ and cha-bó͘-kiáⁿ pronunciation differ only in the second syllable in consonant voicing and in tone . Unlike Mandarin, Hokkien retains all the final consonants corresponding to those of Middle Chinese. While Mandarin only preserves the [n] and [ŋ] finals, Hokkien also preserves the [m] , [p] , [t] and [k] finals and has developed the glottal stop [ʔ] . The vowels of Hokkien are listed below: (*)Only certain dialects The following table illustrates some of
13552-518: The palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic (see Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization ). The earliest varieties of an English language, collectively known as Old English or "Anglo-Saxon", evolved from a group of North Sea Germanic dialects brought to Britain in the 5th century. Old English dialects were later influenced by Old Norse -speaking Viking invaders and settlers , starting in
13728-505: The "outer circle" countries are countries such as the Philippines , Jamaica , India , Pakistan , Singapore , Malaysia and Nigeria with a much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education, government, or domestic business, and its routine use for school instruction and official interactions with the government. Those countries have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English-based creole to
13904-440: The 1700s but intermix locally to create Chinese Mestizos ( Mestizos de Sangley ) and be replenished by migrants from Amoy/Xiamen and Chinchew/Quanzhou . Some of whom even aided the British during the British occupation of Manila in 1762-1764. The Chinese Mestizo ( Mestizos de Sangley ) descendants throughout the centuries with each succeeding generation would gradually stop speaking Hokkien though in favor of assimilating to
14080-569: The 3 decimal place logic have produced words like: Hokaglish is code-switching involving Philippine Hokkien, Tagalog and English . Hokaglish shows similarities to Taglish (mixed Tagalog and English ), the everyday mesolect register of spoken Filipino language within Metro Manila and its environs. Both ways of speaking are very common among Chinese Filipinos, who tend to code-switch these languages in everyday conversation, where it can be observed that older generations typically use
14256-617: The 8th and 9th centuries. Middle English began in the late 11th century after the Norman Conquest of England, when a considerable amount of Old French vocabulary was incorporated into English over some three centuries. Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the start of the Great Vowel Shift and the Renaissance trend of borrowing further Latin and Greek words and roots, concurrent with
14432-785: The Amoy Dialect" , and Rev. Carstairs Douglas 's 1873 dictionary, "Chinese-English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy, with the Principal Variations of the Chang-Chew and Chin-Chew Dialects" , and its 1899 New Edition with Rev. Thomas Barclay . Hokkien has one of the most diverse phoneme inventories among Chinese varieties, with more consonants than Standard Mandarin and Cantonese . Hokkien varieties retain many pronunciations that are no longer found in other Chinese varieties. These include
14608-552: The Amoy dialect. There are also Hokkien speakers scattered throughout other parts of Indonesia—including Jakarta and the island of Java —Thailand, Myanmar , East Malaysia , Brunei, Cambodia , and Southern Vietnam, though there is notably more Teochew and Swatow background among descendants of Chinese migrants in Peninsular Malaysia , Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Southern Vietnam. Variants of Hokkien dialects can be traced to 2-4 main principal dialects of origin:
14784-608: The Angles. English may have a small amount of substrate influence from Common Brittonic, and a number of possible Brittonicisms in English have been proposed, but whether most of these supposed Brittonicisms are actually a direct result of Brittonic substrate influence is disputed. Old English was divided into four dialects: the Anglian dialects ( Mercian and Northumbrian ) and the Saxon dialects ( Kentish and West Saxon ). Through
14960-524: The British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies. For example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India. English
15136-619: The Chang-chew [Zhangzhou] prefecture; Manila and other parts of the Philippines have great numbers from Chin-chew [Quanzhou] , and emigrants are largely scattered in like manner in Siam [Thailand] , Burmah [Myanmar] , the Malay Peninsula [peninsular Malaysia] , Cochin China [Southern Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos] , Saigon [ Ho Chi Minh City ] , &c. In many of these places there
15312-597: The Chinese Buddhist temples are associated as well with the Tzu Chi Foundation from Taiwan. Most Chinese Buddhist temples in the Philippines are rooted in the Chinese Mahāyāna tradition with some syncretizing Taoism , while also practicing Confucian principles. For example, Guandi or known in Hokkien as 帝爺公 ; Tè-iâ-kong or 關公 ; Koan-kong or 關帝爺 ; Koan-tè-iâ , the Chinese God of War,
15488-446: The Chinese trading community who had settled there in the late 16th century: These texts appear to record a dialect descended primarily from a coastal Chiangchiu (Zhangzhou) dialect of Hokkien, specifically modern-day Haicheng ( 海澄 ; Hái-têng ) from the area around the old port of Yuegang (an old initially illegal smuggling port that was later legalized in 1567 and is now part of Longhai ), but also with some attested features of
15664-547: The Early Modern period includes the works of William Shakespeare and the translation of the Bible commissioned by King James I . Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from Modern English: for example, the consonant clusters /kn ɡn sw/ in knight , gnat , and sword were still pronounced. Many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent
15840-655: The English Language , which introduced standard spellings of words and usage norms. In 1828, Noah Webster published the American Dictionary of the English language to try to establish a norm for speaking and writing American English that was independent of the British standard. Within Britain, non-standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of
16016-512: The English press, Hokkien is used in common parlance to refer to the Southern Min dialects of southern Fujian, and does not include reference to dialects of other Sinitic branches also present in Fujian such as the Fuzhou language ( Eastern Min ), Pu-Xian Min , Northern Min , Gan Chinese or Hakka . The term Hokkien was first used by Walter Henry Medhurst in his 1832 Dictionary of
16192-557: The English-speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce koineised forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers. English has ceased to be an "English language" in
16368-690: The Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms , considered to be the earliest English-based Hokkien dictionary and the first major reference work in POJ, though its romanization system differs significantly from modern POJ. In this dictionary, the word Hok-këèn was used. In 1869, POJ was further revised by John Macgowan in his published book A Manual Of The Amoy Colloquial . In this book, këèn
16544-589: The Hokkien Chinese sentence structure base while injecting English and Tagalog words while the younger ones use the Filipino/Tagalog sentence structure as the base while injecting the few Hokkien terms they know in the sentence. The latter therefore, in a similar sense with Taglish using Tagalog grammar and syntax , tends to code-mix via conjugating the Hokkien terms the way they do for Filipino/Tagalog words. In other provinces / regions of
16720-671: The Malay Peninsula [ Peninsular Malaysia ], Cochin China [ Southern Vietnam ], Saigon [ Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam ], &c. In many of these places there is also a great mixture of emigrants from Swatow . By 1883, Rev. John Macgowan also records 3 entries explicitly defining Hokkien Chinese : 呂宋 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Lū-sòng ; lit. ' Luzon ' in his Hokkien dictionary: Luzon, 呂宋 Lū-sòng,—belongs to Spain, 呂宋是大°呂宋之°屬國 Lū-sòng sī Tōa lū-sòng ê siók kok Manilla [ sic ], 呂宋 Lū-sòng, very many Chinese go to—, 唐°人°去°呂宋盡多° tn̂g lâng khì Lū-sòng tsīn tsōe. Philippines, 呂宋 Lū-sòng. The Chinese community of
16896-853: The Philippine-Chinese setting. As of 2019, the Ateneo de Manila University , under their Chinese Studies Programme, offers Hokkien 1 (Chn 8) and Hokkien 2 (Chn 9) as electives. Chiang Kai Shek College offers Hokkien classes in their CKS Language Center. 21st century Philippine Hokkien ( 咱人話 ; Lán-nâng-ōe ) is largely derived from the Coastal Quanzhou ( 泉州 ; Choân-chiu ) Hokkien dialects of Jinjiang ( 晉江 ; Chìn-kang ), Coastal Nan'an ( 海南安 / 下南安 ; Hái Lâm-oaⁿ / Ě Lâm-oaⁿ ), Shishi ( 石狮 ; Chio̍h-sai ), Quanzhou City Proper ( 泉州市 ; Choân-chiu ), Hui’an ( 惠安 ; Hūi-oaⁿ ), but has possibly also absorbed influences from
17072-494: The Philippines during the Spanish colonial era used to also speak a sort of Spanish pidgin variety known as " Caló Chino Español " or "La Lengua del Parian" in Spanish or " Kastilang tindahan " in Tagalog , especially because the Chinese community before obligates Chinese cabecillas (community leaders), such as Capitan Carlos Palanca Tan Quien Sien , to teach rudimentary Spanish to new Chinese immigrants which
17248-425: The Philippines have a variety of Chinese as their mother tongue . Nevertheless, the vast majority (77%) still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as a second or third language . From the late 16th century to the early 17th century, Spanish friars in the Philippines , such as the Dominican Order and Jesuits specifically in Manila , produced materials documenting the Hokkien varieties spoken by
17424-698: The Philippines that spoke Hokkien. Later in the early 1800s, the Spanish Empire would also have its issues with conflicts and wars that would seriously destabilize it, starting with the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, and the numerous conflicts and wars of independence across the Spanish Americas , which eliminated the Spanish Americas as the center of the Spanish Empire . Around 1815, the Manila–Acapulco galleon trade would finally cease when
17600-542: The Philippines writing in Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ) for Hokkien in the Philippines, such as Victoria W. Peralta-Ang Gobonseng's "Amoy Vernacular Handbook" Vol. 1 Revised Edition (2003). Hokkien in the Philippines has been used as a liturgical language in Christianity (both Roman Catholicism and Protestant denominations), Chinese Buddhism , Taoism , and Matsu worship for centuries. For Roman Catholic Christianity, it
17776-575: The Philippines" : Spanish, of course, is the court and commercial language and, except among uneducated natives who have a lingo of their own or among the few members of the Anglo-Saxon colony, it has a monopoly everywhere. No one can really get on without it, and even the Chinese come in with their peculiar pidgin variety By 1941, Vicente Lim publishes a dictionary in Manila, titled "Chinese-English-Tagalog-Spanish Business conversation and social contact with Amoy pronunciation" giving equivalent words in
17952-489: The Philippines) and CCOWE (Chinese Congress on World Evangelization) and their respective Chinese Filipino schools that each Chinese Filipino church may also usually operate and sometimes also teach Hokkien usually known as "Amoy" or use it as language of instruction to teach Mandarin, which is also typically known as just "Chinese" in school classes. These Protestant Chinese Filipino churches that also operate with
18128-643: The Philippines, a similar code-switching medium is also done with Philippine Hokkien and English, but instead of or along with Tagalog , other regional languages are used as well, such as Cebuano Bisaya (akin to Bislish ), Hiligaynon/Ilonggo , Ilocano , Bikolano , Waray , Kapampangan , Pangasinense , etc., so in Metro Cebu , Chinese Filipino families speak a code-swtiching mix of Philippine Hokkien, Cebuano Bisaya , and Philippine English , while in Metro Davao , Butuan , and Cagayan de Oro (CDO) ,
18304-398: The Philippines. Some terms have contracted into one syllable. Examples include: Philippine Hokkien, like other Southeast Asian variants of Hokkien (e.g. Singaporean Hokkien , Penang Hokkien , Johor Hokkien and Medan Hokkien ), has borrowed words from other languages spoken locally, specifically Spanish , Tagalog and English . Examples include: Philippine Hokkien has also calqued
18480-554: The Roman economy and administration collapsed . By the 7th century, this Germanic language of the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in Britain , replacing the languages of Roman Britain (43–409): Common Brittonic , a Celtic language , and British Latin , brought to Britain by the Roman occupation. At this time, these dialects generally resisted influence from the then-local Brittonic and Latin languages. England and English (originally Ænglaland and Ænglisc ) are both named after
18656-470: The Taiwanese city of Tainan heavily resembles the Tung'an dialect. All Hokkien dialects spoken throughout the whole of Taiwan are collectively known as Taiwanese Hokkien, or Holo locally, although there is a tendency to call these Taiwanese language for historical reasons. It is spoken by more Taiwanese than any Sinitic language except Mandarin, and it is known by a majority of the population; thus, from
18832-454: The Tong'an Hokkien|Tung'an dialect (Cheng 1997) whereas Mandarin and Amoy Min Nan are 62% phonetically similar and 15% lexically similar. In comparison, German and English are 60% lexically similar. Hainanese , which is sometimes considered Southern Min, has almost no mutual intelligibility with any form of Hokkien. Hokkien is an analytic language ; in a sentence, the arrangement of words
19008-494: The Union, in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations. Although in most countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language . In the countries of the EU, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty-five member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than Ireland and Malta ). In
19184-498: The United States ( Hoklo Americans ). Many ethnic Han Chinese emigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian, and brought the language to what is now Myanmar, Vietnam , Indonesia (the former Dutch East Indies ) and present day Malaysia and Singapore (formerly Malaya and the British Straits Settlements ). Most of the Min Nan dialects of this region have incorporated some foreign loanwords. Hokkien
19360-440: The Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy, With the Principal Variations of the Chang-chew and Chin-chew Dialects , where the language was referred to as the "Language of Amoy" or as the "Amoy Vernacular" and by 1883, John Macgowan would publish another dictionary, the English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect . Due to possible conflation between the language as a whole with its Xiamen dialect , many proscribe referring to
19536-422: The adjacent Amoy dialects of Xiamen ( 廈門 ; Ē-mn̂g ), Coastal Tong’an ( 同安 ; Tâng-oaⁿ ), Kinmen ( 金門 ; Kim-mn̂g ), Highland Nan'an ( 頂南安 / 山南安 ; Téng Lâm-oaⁿ / Soaⁿ Lâm-oaⁿ ), Inland Yongchun ( 永春 ; Éng-chhun ), and Inland Anxi ( 安溪 ; An-khoe ) dialects of Xiamen and Highland Quanzhou respectively. Meanwhile, the older late 16th to 17th century Early Manila Hokkien once spoken around
19712-544: The author's level of literacy on written Hokkien . Sometimes the Chinese characters used in these 20th to 21st century books only use Chinese characters more appropriate to Mandarin Standard Chinese , so it is mostly the Romanized Latin script section that can be properly identified as Philippine Hokkien, although due to different author's level of literacy on written Hokkien , the orthographies of
19888-407: The base from which English spreads to other countries in the world. Estimates of the numbers of second language and foreign-language English speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than 1 billion, depending on how proficiency is defined. Linguist David Crystal estimates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. In Kachru's three-circles model,
20064-453: The basis for the required controlled natural languages Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages of seafaring and aviation. English used to have parity with French and German in scientific research, but now it dominates that field. It achieved parity with French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919. By the time of the foundation of
20240-400: The beginning, Englishmen had three manners of speaking, southern, northern and midlands speech in the middle of the country, ... Nevertheless, through intermingling and mixing, first with Danes and then with Normans, amongst many the country language has arisen, and some use strange stammering, chattering, snarling, and grating gnashing. John Trevisa , c. 1385 Middle English
20416-507: The cities of Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, historical Tung'an County ( 同安縣 , now Xiamen and Kinmen ) and the Port of Amoy , respectively. In the late 1800s, the Amoy dialect attracted special attention, because Amoy was one of the five ports opened to foreign trade by the Treaty of Nanking , but before that it had not attracted attention. The Amoy dialect is adopted as the 'Modern Representative Min Nan'. The Amoy dialect cannot simply be interpreted as
20592-638: The consensus of educated English speakers around the world, without any oversight by any government or international organisation. American listeners readily understand most British broadcasting, and British listeners readily understand most American broadcasting. Most English speakers around the world can understand radio programmes, television programmes, and films from many parts of the English-speaking world. Both standard and non-standard varieties of English can include both formal or informal styles, distinguished by word choice and syntax and use both technical and non-technical registers. The settlement history of
20768-474: The context. Different particles are added to a sentence to further specify its status or intonation . A verb itself indicates no grammatical tense . The time can be explicitly shown with time-indicating adverbs. Certain exceptions exist, however, according to the pragmatic interpretation of a verb's meaning. Additionally, an optional aspect particle can be appended to a verb to indicate the state of an action. Appending interrogative or exclamative particles to
20944-701: The continent. The Frisian languages, which together with the Anglic languages form the Anglo-Frisian languages , are the closest living relatives of English. Low German/Low Saxon is also closely related, and sometimes English, the Frisian languages, and Low German are grouped together as the North Sea Germanic languages, though this grouping remains debated. Old English evolved into Middle English , which in turn evolved into Modern English. Particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into
21120-476: The development of English was influenced by a long series of invasions of the British Isles by other peoples and languages, particularly Old Norse and French dialects . These left a profound mark of their own on the language, so that English shows some similarities in vocabulary and grammar with many languages outside its linguistic clades —but it is not mutually intelligible with any of those languages either. Some scholars have argued that English can be considered
21296-416: The dialects of Chuanchiu (Quanzhou) , such as from Anhai ( 安海 ; Oaⁿ-hái ) and Tong'an ( 同安 ; Tâng-oaⁿ ), and Teo-Swa as well, hence Klöter (2011) considers it to be a contact variety , known as Early Manila Hokkien (EMH) . Yuegang ( 月港 ; Goe̍h-káng ), part of Zhangzhou Prefecture under the late Ming China and Qing China used to be the Chinese terminus to and from Spanish Manila , under
21472-476: The distinct characteristics of Early Modern English. In the 1611 King James Version of the Bible, written in Early Modern English, Matthew 8:20 says, "The Foxes haue holes and the birds of the ayre haue nests." This exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure (replacement with subject–verb–object word order, and the use of of instead of the non-possessive genitive), and
21648-401: The early period of Old English were written using a runic script . By the 6th century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms . It included the runic letters wynn ⟨ ƿ ⟩ and thorn ⟨ þ ⟩ , and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ ð ⟩ , and ash ⟨ æ ⟩ . Old English is essentially
21824-603: The eastern part of Namoa in China; Taiwan; Metro Manila , Metro Cebu , Metro Davao and other cities in the Philippines ; Singapore; Brunei; Medan , Riau and other cities in Indonesia ; and from Perlis , Kedah , Penang and Klang in Malaysia. Hokkien originated in the southern area of Fujian province, an important center for trade and migration, and has since become one of the most common Chinese varieties overseas. The major pole of Hokkien varieties outside of Fujian
22000-551: The educational reforms of King Alfred in the 9th century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex , the West Saxon dialect became the standard written variety . The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Cædmon's Hymn , is written in Northumbrian. Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from
22176-695: The elite in England eventually developed into the Anglo-Norman language . Because Norman was spoken primarily by the elites and nobles, while the lower classes continued speaking English, the main influence of Norman was the introduction of a wide range of loanwords related to politics, legislation and prestigious social domains. Middle English also greatly simplified the inflectional system, probably in order to reconcile Old Norse and Old English, which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar. The distinction between nominative and accusative cases
22352-408: The expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle, so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use the language. Non-native varieties of English are widely used for international communication, and speakers of one such variety often encounter features of other varieties. Very often today a conversation in English anywhere in
22528-423: The form using Filipino ( Tagalog ) and English together with Hokkien is known as Hokaglish , akin to Taglish . From the 20th to the 21st century, there have been a few books published about Hokkien from the Philippines based on what is used at least by the author in the Philippines and many of whom have been utilizing the Latin script often together with Chinese characters to try and write Hokkien based on
22704-620: The former as "Amoy", a usage that is more commonly found in older media and some conservative institutions. In the classification used by the Language Atlas of China , the Quanzhang branch of Southern Min consists of the Min varieties originating from Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Xiamen and the eastern counties of Longyan ( Xinluo and Zhangping ). Hokkien is spoken in the southern seaward quarter of Fujian, southeastern Zhejiang , as well as
22880-721: The growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster. In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been. As Modern English developed, explicit norms for standard usage were published, and spread through official media such as public education and state-sponsored publications. In 1755, Samuel Johnson published his A Dictionary of
23056-479: The history of English was Early Modern English (1500–1700). Early Modern English was characterised by the Great Vowel Shift (1350–1700), inflectional simplification, and linguistic standardisation. The Great Vowel Shift affected the stressed long vowels of Middle English. It was a chain shift , meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system. Mid and open vowels were raised , and close vowels were broken into diphthongs . For example,
23232-407: The history of how English spread in different countries, how users acquire English, and the range of uses English has in each country. The three circles change membership over time. Countries with large communities of native speakers of English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where
23408-403: The inner-circle countries, and they may show grammatical and phonological differences from inner-circle varieties as well. The standard English of the inner-circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer-circle countries. In the three-circles model, countries such as Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt, and other countries where English is taught as
23584-531: The introduction of loanwords from French ( ayre ) and word replacements ( bird originally meaning "nestling" had replaced OE fugol ). By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication. English
23760-475: The introduction of the printing press to London. This era notably culminated in the King James Bible and the works of William Shakespeare . The printing press greatly standardised English spelling, which has remained largely unchanged since then, despite a wide variety of later sound shifts in English dialects. Modern English has spread around the world since the 17th century as a consequence of
23936-431: The languages have descended from a single common ancestor called Proto-Germanic . Some shared features of Germanic languages include the division of verbs into strong and weak classes, the use of modal verbs , and the sound changes affecting Proto-Indo-European consonants, known as Grimm's and Verner's laws . English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as
24112-676: The late 17th century when sea bans were lifted, the Port of Xiamen , which overshadowed the old port of Yuegang , became Fujian's main port where trade was legalized. From then, the Xiamen dialect, historically "Amoy", became the main principal dialect spoken overseas, such as in Taiwan under Qing rule , British Malaya , the Straits Settlements ( British Singapore ), British Hong Kong , Spanish Philippines (then later American Philippines ), Dutch East Indies ,and French Cochinchina , etc. Historically, Xiamen had always been part of Tung'an County until after 1912. The Amoy dialect
24288-522: The local mainstream languages of their time, especially Tagalog and Spanish , such as in the mestizo family of Philippine national hero , Jose Rizal . The Hokkien spoken across the Philippines throughout the past centuries introduced certain amounts of Hokkien loanwords to Philippine Spanish and the major lowland Austronesian languages of the Philippines , such as Tagalog , Kapampangan , Cebuano Bisaya , Hiligaynon , Central Bicolano , Pangasinense , Ilocano , Waray-waray , Chavacano , etc. as
24464-581: The loss of Spanish Formosa to the Dutch in 1642, and the victory of Koxinga ( 國姓爺 ; Kok-sèng-iâ ) in 1662 against the Dutch at the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in Taiwan , which caused the founding of the Kingdom of Tungning , Koxinga would send an ultimatum to Spanish Manila demanding to pay tribute to him or else he would send a fleet to conquer them and expel the Spaniards as well. The Spanish took
24640-443: The more commonly seen sound shifts between various dialects. Pronunciations are provided in Pe̍h-ōe-jī and IPA . According to the traditional Chinese system, Hokkien dialects have 7 or 8 distinct tones, including two entering tones which end in plosive consonants. The entering tones can be analysed as allophones , giving 5 or 6 phonemic tones . In addition, many dialects have an additional phonemic tone ("tone 9" according to
24816-583: The most spoken variety of Chinese in the region, including in Singapore , Malaysia , Philippines , Indonesia , and Brunei . This applied to a lesser extent to mainland Southeast Asia . As a result of the significant influence and historical presence of its sizable overseas diaspora, certain considerable to ample amounts of Hokkien loanwords are also historically present in the languages it has had historical contact with in its sprachraum , such as Thai . Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien , in northern Malaya of Malaysia , and Hokaglish , spoken sporadically across
24992-651: The mouth of the Jiulong River ( 九龍江 ; Kiú-liông-kang ) from where the old smuggling port of Yuegang ( 月港 ; Goe̍h-káng ) used to operate from, before being overshadowed by the Port of Xiamen ( 廈門港 ; Ē-mn̂g Káng ) closer to the sea by around the mid-1600s at the Ming-Qing transition due to conflict between the Ming loyalist, Koxinga ( 國姓爺 ; Kok-sèng-iâ ), and the Qing forces . Although Philippine Hokkien
25168-518: The old port of Yuegang ( 月港 ; Goe̍h-káng ) would be overshadowed and supplanted by the Port of Xiamen ( 廈門港 ; Ē-mn̂g Káng ) closer to the sea by around the mid-1600s at the Ming-Qing transition due to conflict between the Ming / Southern Ming loyalist, Koxinga ( 國姓爺 ; Kok-sèng-iâ ), and the Qing forces . As a result as well of a 1603 Sangley Rebellion and a 1639 2nd Sangley Rebellion which both caused massacres of ethnic Sangley Chinese in Manila or Southern Luzon in general,
25344-488: The old port of Yuegang (modern-day Haicheng , an old port that is now part of Longhai ). Chinese scholars produced rhyme dictionaries describing Hokkien varieties at the beginning of the 19th century: Rev. Walter Henry Medhurst based his 1832 dictionary, "A Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language" , on the latter work. Other popular 19th century works are also like those of Rev. John Macgowan's 1883 dictionary, "English and Chinese Dictionary of
25520-411: The original two being, the Quanzhou ( 泉州 ; Choân-chiu / Chôaⁿ-chiu ) and Zhangzhou ( 漳州 ; Chiang-chiu / Cheng-chiu ) dialects, and in later centuries Xiamen/Amoy ( 廈門 ; Ē-mn̂g / Ēe-mûi ) and Tong'an ( 同安 ; Tâng-oaⁿ ) as well. The Amoy and Tong'an dialects are historically mixtures of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects , since they are the geographic and linguistic midpoint between the two, while
25696-426: The prestige varieties among the middle classes. In modern English, the loss of grammatical case is almost complete (it is now only found in pronouns, such as he and him , she and her , who and whom ), and SVO word order is mostly fixed. Some changes, such as the use of do-support , have become universalised. (Earlier English did not use the word "do" as a general auxiliary as Modern English does; at first it
25872-466: The province of Hok-këèn ( Fujian ), that Tchang-chew-fou (Chëang-chew-hoó) [ sic ] is near the port of Emouy (Āy-moôiⁿᵍ) [ sic ], a great emporium of trāde, frequented by the Spaniards from Manilla [ sic ]. The Spanish trade with Amoy to and from Manila later grew nominal as a result of the above destabilizing conflicts cutting the empire in half. The Hokkien Chinese merchants from Amoy and Chinchew to and from Manila would later outcompete
26048-453: The reign of Henry V . Around 1430, the Court of Chancery in Westminster began using English in its official documents , and a new standard form of Middle English, known as Chancery Standard , developed from the dialects of London and the East Midlands . In 1476, William Caxton introduced the printing press to England and began publishing the first printed books in London, expanding the influence of this form of English. Literature from
26224-437: The rest of the Hokkien dialects spoken in Taiwan and Southeast Asia are respectively derived from varying proportions of the above principal dialects in southern Fujian. During the Three Kingdoms period of ancient China, there was constant warfare occurring in the Central Plains of China. Ethnic Han Chinese gradually migrated from Henan to the mouth of the Yangtze to the coasts of Zhejiang and later began to enter into
26400-498: The retention of the /t/ initial, which is now /tʂ/ (pinyin zh ) in Mandarin (e.g. 竹 ; 'bamboo' is tik , but zhú in Mandarin), having disappeared before the 6th century in other Chinese varieties. Along with other Min languages, which are not directly descended from Middle Chinese , Hokkien is of considerable interest to historical linguists for reconstructing Old Chinese. Hokkien has aspirated , unaspirated as well as voiced consonant initials. For example,
26576-501: The romanization used may widely differ per author usually influenced by the author's knowledge of English orthography , Filipino orthography , Mandarin Pinyin or Wade-Giles , and Spanish orthography (for older works). These 20th-21st century publications from the Philippines about Hokkien often also call the Hokkien language with different names, such as "Chinese" , "Amoy" , "Fookien", "Fukien" , "Fukienese" , or even "Fujianwa" or "Foojian" . There have been books as well in
26752-415: The sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically English . Use of English is growing country-by-country internally and for international communication. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons. Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an "Afro-Saxon" language community that unites Africans from different countries. As decolonisation proceeded throughout
26928-427: The source of approximately 28% of Modern English words , and from Latin , which is the source of an additional 28% . As such, though most of its total vocabulary comes from Romance languages , Modern English's grammar, phonology, and most commonly used words in everyday use keep it genealogically classified under the Germanic branch. It exists on a dialect continuum with Scots and is then most closely related to
27104-474: The southern dialects. Theoretically, as late as the 900s AD, a commoner from certain (northern) parts of England could hold a conversation with a commoner from certain parts of Scandinavia. Research continues into the details of the myriad tribes in peoples in England and Scandinavia and the mutual contacts between them. The translation of Matthew 8:20 from 1000 shows examples of case endings ( nominative plural, accusative plural, genitive singular) and
27280-423: The stated 4 languages, where "Chinese" and "Amoy" referred to a formalized literary form of the local Chuanchiu -based Hokkien as used by the author and the Chinese Filipino community in the Philippines at that time. As per Lim's dictionary, American English took precedence as consistent with the American colonial era , when English along with Spanish began to be taught as the official language of
27456-455: The study of English as an auxiliary language. The trademarked Globish uses a relatively small subset of English vocabulary (about 1500 words, designed to represent the highest use in international business English) in combination with the standard English grammar. Other examples include Simple English . The increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being assimilated into
27632-473: The threat very seriously and withdrew their forces from the Moluccas , Sulu , and Mindanao to strengthen Manila in preparation for an attack. There would be several raids across Northern Luzon by Koxinga's forces. In the same year of 1662, Koxinga would suddenly die of malaria , only a few months after defeating the Dutch , in a fit of madness and delirium after discovering that his son and heir, Zheng Jing , had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived
27808-429: The trade; only one Spanish ship put in at Amoy between 1810 and 1830. ...Another witness said the Spaniards had given up the Amoy trade since 1800. The Suez Canal which would later link Spanish Philippines directly to Spain in Iberia without rounding the cape would only start construction by 1859 and be completed at 1869. By 1873, Rev. Carstairs Douglas writes in his Hokkien dictionary that Singapore and
27984-403: The traditional reckoning), used only in special or foreign loan words. This means that Hokkien dialects have between 5 and 7 phonemic tones. Tone sandhi is extensive. There are minor variations between the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou tone systems. Taiwanese tones follow the patterns of Amoy or Quanzhou, depending on the area of Taiwan. Hokkien is spoken in a variety of accents and dialects across
28160-436: The various Straits Settlements [such as Penang and Malacca ], Batavia [ Jakarta ] and other parts of the Dutch possessions [ Indonesia ], are crowded with emigrants, especially from the Chang-chew prefecture; Manila and other parts of the Philippines have great numbers from Chin-chew , and emigrants are largely scattered in like manner in Siam [ Thailand ], Burmah [ Myanmar ],
28336-408: The various forms of the dialects mentioned prior are a good deal mixed up. The varieties of Hokkien in Southeast Asia originate from these dialects. Douglas (1873) notes that Singapore and the various Straits Settlements [such as Penang and Malacca ] , Batavia [Jakarta] and other parts of the Dutch possessions [Indonesia] , are crowded with emigrants, especially from
28512-473: The word bite was originally pronounced as the word beet is today, and the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as the word boot is today. The Great Vowel Shift explains many irregularities in spelling since English retains many spellings from Middle English, and it also explains why English vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages. English began to rise in prestige, relative to Norman French, during
28688-450: The word 開 ; khui ; 'open' and 關 ; kuiⁿ ; 'close' have the same vowel but differ only by aspiration of the initial and nasality of the vowel. In addition, Hokkien has labial initial consonants such as m in 命 ; miā ; 'life'. Another example is 查埔囝 ; cha-po͘-kiáⁿ / ta-po͘-kiáⁿ / ta-po͘-káⁿ ; 'boy' and 查某囝 ; cha-bó͘-kiáⁿ / cha̋u-kiáⁿ / cha̋u-káⁿ / chő͘-kiáⁿ ; 'girl', which for
28864-785: The world may include no native speakers of English at all, even while including speakers from several different countries. This is particularly true of the shared vocabulary of mathematics and the sciences. English is a pluricentric language , which means that no one national authority sets the standard for use of the language. Spoken English, including English used in broadcasting, generally follows national pronunciation standards that are established by custom rather than by regulation. International broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their accents , but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international standard written English . The norms of standard written English are maintained purely by
29040-539: The world, but the number of English speakers in India is uncertain, with most scholars concluding that the United States still has more speakers of English than India. Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca , is also regarded as the first world language . English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy. English is, by international treaty,
29216-438: The worldwide influence of the British Empire and the United States. Through all types of printed and electronic media in these countries, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions and professional contexts such as science, navigation , and law. Its modern grammar is the result of a gradual change from a dependent-marking pattern typical of Indo-European with
29392-405: Was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Oceania, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent states that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century
29568-467: Was also historically and is still formally and conservatively known as "Amoy" , usually by Protestant Chinese Filipino churches and schools who conduct "Amoy Worship Service" or "Chinese Worship Service" as part of their liturgy , despite the danger of confusing the Amoy dialect of Hokkien compared to the Hokkien language in general, although these protestant Chinese Filipino churches also do indeed occasionally use abstract liturgical terms from
29744-423: Was changed to kien as Hok-kien ; from then on, "Hokkien" is used more often. Historically, Hokkien was also known as " Amoy ", after the Zhangzhou Hokkien pronunciation of Xiamen ( Ēe-mûi ), the principal port in southern Fujian during the Qing dynasty , as one of the five ports opened to foreign trade by the Treaty of Nanking . In 1873, Carstairs Douglas published the Chinese–English Dictionary of
29920-454: Was fully developed, integrating both Norse and French features; it continued to be spoken until the transition to early Modern English around 1500. Middle English literature includes Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales , and Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur . In the Middle English period, the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated, and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer. The next period in
30096-452: Was lost except in personal pronouns, the instrumental case was dropped, and the use of the genitive case was limited to indicating possession . The inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms, and gradually simplified the system of agreement, making word order less flexible. The transition from Old to Middle English can be placed during the writing of the Ormulum . The oldest Middle English texts that were written by
30272-533: Was only used in question constructions, and even then was not obligatory. Now, do-support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised.) The use of progressive forms in -ing , appears to be spreading to new constructions, and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common. Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues (e.g. dreamed instead of dreamt ), and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common (e.g. more polite instead of politer ). British English
30448-424: Was taught in Chinese-owned schools . They could speak these Spanish pidgin varieties after one month which many, especially old timers later became very fluent, albeit some still with accented Spanish. Spanish was prevalent enough among the educated in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era, that Joseph Earle Stevens, an American that stayed in Manila from 1893-1894 had this to say in his book, "Yesterdays in
30624-448: Was the main prestige form of Hokkien known from the late 17th century to the Republican era. Due to this, dictionaries, bibles and other books about Hokkien from recent centuries and even to this day in certain places, like schools and churches, of certain countries, the Hokkien language is still known as "Amoy". Several playscripts survive from the late 16th century, written in a mixture of Quanzhou and Chaozhou dialects. The most important
30800-1063: Was used ever since Protestant Chinese Filipinos converted to Protestant denominations around the early 20th century when the first Protestant Chinese Filipino churches sprang up, such as St. Stephen's Parish Church (for Episcopalian Anglicanism ) and the United Evangelical Church of the Philippines (UECP) (for Presbyterian Evangelicalism ), etc. In the 21st century, Protestant Chinese Filipino churches and schools usually conduct liturgy usually called "Amoy Worship Service" or "Chinese Worship Service" where protestant Chinese Filipino pastors or reverends ( Hokkien Chinese : 牧師 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : bo̍k-su ) usually conduct their church service message in typically mostly Philippine Hokkien with added formal abstract liturgical Amoy Hokkien terms or Hokkienized Mandarin terms read in Philippine Hokkien reading and sometimes additionally Mandarin (i.e. some praise and worship songs in certain churches). These Chinese Filipino protestant churches are usually linked to BSOP (Biblical Seminary of
30976-463: Was used ever since the Spanish friars ministered to Sangley Chinese around the 1590s to 1600s and beyond. For Buddhism, Taoism, and Matsu worship, it was used ever since the first Hokkien-speaking Sangley Chinese practitioners in the Philippines gathered together for liturgy or the first Buddhist, Taoist, and Ma-cho chinese temples were erected in the Philippines, such as the Seng Guan Temple , Ma-Cho Temple , etc. For Protestant Christianity, it
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