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62-596: About 235-240 species; see text Phoradendron is a genus of mistletoe , native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Americas . The center of diversity is the Amazon rainforest . Phoradendron is the largest genus of mistletoe in the Americas, and possibly the largest genus of mistletoes in the world. Traditionally, the genus has been placed in the family Viscaceae , but recent genetic research acknowledged by

124-560: A disproportionately pervasive influence over their community. A broad array of animals depend on mistletoe for food, consuming the leaves and young shoots, transferring pollen between plants and dispersing the sticky seeds. In western North America their juicy berries are eaten and spread by birds (notably the phainopepla ) while in Australia the mistletoebird behaves similarly. When eaten, some seeds pass unharmed through their digestive systems, emerging in extremely sticky droppings which

186-652: A half second long often represented as see or sree . Its call can also be described as "high, thin, whistles." They call often, especially in flight. Preferred habitat consists of trees at the edge of wooded areas, or forests, especially those that provide access to berry sources as well as water. They are frequently seen in fruiting trees. Waxwings are attracted to the sound of running water and like to bathe in and drink from shallow creeks. In urban or suburban environments, waxwings often favour parkland with well-spaced trees; golf courses, cemeteries, or other landscaping with well-spaced trees; bushes that provide berries; and

248-400: A meal. This limitation of fruit processing poses potential issues for Cedar Waxwings observed consuming nutrient-poor fruits and their seeds as the ingestion of seeds prevents them from increasing consumption efforts to mitigate this low-quality diet. Ingestion of seeds by cedar waxwings is alleviated via efficient rates of seed processing in which seeds are separated from and defecated before

310-490: A mistletoe plant is established on its host, it usually is possible to save a valuable branch by pruning and judicious removal of the wood invaded by the haustorium , if the infection is caught early enough. Some species of mistletoe can regenerate if the pruning leaves any of the haustorium alive in the wood. There are 1500 species of mistletoe, varying widely in toxicity to humans; the European mistletoe ( Viscum album )

372-1141: A nearby water source such as a fountain or birdbath. Also look for them near farms, orchards, and gardens, particularly those with fruiting trees or shrubs. Outside the breeding season, cedar waxwings often feed in large flocks numbering hundreds of birds. This species is nomadic and irruptive , with erratic winter movements, though most of the population migrates farther south into the United States and beyond, sometimes reaching as far as northern South America . They will move in huge numbers if berry supplies are low. Rare vagrants have reached western Europe , and there are two recorded occurrences of cedar waxwing sightings in Great Britain. Individual Bohemian waxwings will occasionally join large winter flocks of cedar waxwings. Cedar waxwings are sociable, seen in flocks year round. They are non-territorial birds and "will often groom each other." They move from place to place depending on where they can find good sources of berries. Mating season for this bird begins around

434-422: A nuisance in urban environments because of its appearance on deciduous trees during winter. Severe colonization of mistletoe can affect the health of an individual tree, and a tree already stressed by other factors can be killed. Forest fragmentation can increase Phoradendron infection rates in some oak trees, as trees in lower density forests and those closer to the forests' edges are more likely to be colonized by

496-573: A number of Lepidoptera . The buckthorn duskywing ( Erynnis pacuvius ) feeds on Phoradendron californicum . Phoradendron are the preferred food of the Phainopepla , a silky-flycatcher. The male defends territories where fruiting mistletoe is abundant. There may actually be some mutualistic interactions between the parasite and the host in some Phoradendron species. The presence of Phoradendron juniperinum on host Juniperus monosperma, for example, has been suggested to increase dispersal of

558-982: A single branching point or apical meristem. However, it can be difficult to identify species within Phoradendron, because leaf shape and color can vary greatly even within species. Phoradendron species can infest many taxa of plants including hackberry ( Celtis spp. ) mesquite ( Prosopsis spp. ), cedar, elm ( Ulmus spp. ), and Osage-orange. Certain species of Phoradendron are host-specific; for example, in Arizona, Phoradendron tomentosum infests cottonwood ( Populus fremontii ), sycamore ( Platanus wrightii ), ash ( Fraxinus spp.), walnut ( Juglans spp.) and willow ( Salix spp.). P. californicum infests shrubs and trees such as acacia ( Acacia spp.) and blue palo verde ( Parkinsonia florida ). Some species infest junipers ( Juniperus spp.) and oaks ( Quercus spp.). Branches often become swollen and distorted, forming burls and making

620-405: A small proportion of the sugars it needs from its own photosynthesis, but as a seedling actively photosynthesizes until a connection to the host is established. Some species of the largest family, Loranthaceae, have small, insect-pollinated flowers (as with Santalaceae), but others have spectacularly showy, large, bird-pollinated flowers. Most mistletoe seeds are spread by birds that eat

682-423: A tree branch averaging 2 to 6 m (6.6 to 19.7 ft) above ground but, at times, considerably higher. It takes around five or six days for the female waxwing to build the nest and can take up to 2,500 trips back and forth. Sometimes the female will steal nest material from other species' nests. The outer diameter of the nest is approximately 12 to 16 cm (4.7 to 6.3 in). Usually 5 or 6 eggs are laid and

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744-438: A wide range of host trees , some of which experience side effects including reduced growth, stunting, and loss of infested outer branches. A heavy infestation may also kill the host plant. Viscum album successfully parasitizes more than 200 tree and shrub species. All mistletoe species are hemiparasites because they do perform some photosynthesis for some period of their life cycle. However, in some species its contribution

806-424: Is Viscum continuum . A mistletoe seed germinates on the branch of a host tree or shrub, and in its early stages of development it is independent of its host. It commonly has two or even four embryos, each producing its hypocotyl , that grows towards the bark of the host under the influence of light and gravity, and potentially each forming a mistletoe plant in a clump. Possibly as an adaptation to assist in guiding

868-424: Is a root-like structure that penetrates the host plant's bark and cambium, reaching the xylem and phloem where it extracts water and minerals, primarily carbon and nitrogen compounds. A study on the nutrient ratio between Phoradendron and their hosts found that the parasite have higher concentrations of nitrogen and minerals, especially in leguminous hosts. This suggests that the parasite actively draws nutrients from

930-508: Is also a wide variety of species in Australia. The genus Viscum is not native to North America , but Viscum album was introduced to Northern California in 1900. The eastern mistletoe native to North America, Phoradendron leucarpum , belongs to a distinct genus of the family Santalaceae . European mistletoe has smooth-edged, oval, evergreen leaves borne in pairs along the woody stem, and waxy, white berries that it bears in clusters of two to six. The eastern mistletoe of North America

992-567: Is mitigated through flower and subsequent pollen consumption that is rich in protein . This response to food diversity illustrates the importance of multiple food sources in order to acquire the precise nutrients needed to maintain bodily metabolism . Even though waxwings displayed efficient rates of digestion, they also exhibited relatively quick passage rates that are indicative of their low utilization efficiency (36.5%) as fruit skins appeared undigested in feces. The low utilization efficiency of fruits digested by Cedar Waxwings not only indicates

1054-704: Is more toxic than the American mistletoe ( Phoradendron serotinum ), though concerns regarding toxicity are more prevalent in the US. The effects are not usually fatal. In parts of South Asia, they are frequently used as an external medicine. The active substances are phoratoxin (in Phoradendron ) and tyramine (in Viscum ) and their effects include blurred vision , diarrhea , nausea and vomiting . Less commonly they cause cardiac problems; seizures , hypertension , and even cardiac arrest . Toxins are more concentrated in

1116-420: Is seen as rates of ingestion increased only when rates of seed processing also increased. Studies have shown that when seeds were observed being regurgitated or expelled, activity and ingestion increased as opposed to when seeds were consumed and passed through the digestive tract, limiting further activity and foraging in which waxwings exhibited a period of “loafing” characterized by stretches of inactivity after

1178-502: Is similar, but has shorter, broader leaves and longer clusters of 10 or more berries. Over the centuries, the term has been broadened to include many other species of parasitic plants with similar habits, found in other parts of the world, that are classified in different genera and families such as the Misodendraceae of South America and the mainly southern hemisphere tropical Loranthaceae . The word 'mistletoe' derives from

1240-417: Is somewhat short, and square-tipped. Adults have a pale yellow belly. The waxwing's crest often "lies flat and droops over the back of the head." It has a short and wide bill. The waxwing's black mask has a thin white border. Immature birds are streaked on the throat and flanks, and often do not have the black mask of the adults. Males and females look alike. The flight of waxwings is strong and direct, and

1302-402: Is very nearly zero. For example, some species, such as Viscum minimum , that parasitize succulents , commonly species of Cactaceae or Euphorbiaceae , grow largely within the host plant, with hardly more than the flower and fruit emerging. Once they have germinated and attached to the circulatory system of the host, their photosynthesis reduces so far that it becomes insignificant. Most of

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1364-648: The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group shows this family to be correctly placed within a larger circumscription of the sandalwood family, Santalaceae . They are woody hemi-parasitic shrubs with branches 10–80 cm (3.9–31.5 in) long, which grow on other trees . The foliage is dichotomously branching, with opposite pairs of leaves ; these are fairly large, 2–5 cm (0.79–1.97 in) long, green and photosynthetic in some species (e.g. P. leucarpum ), but minimal in some others (e.g. P. californicum ). Although they are able to photosynthesize

1426-518: The Bohemian waxwing (which breeds farther to the north and west). Their markings are a "silky, shiny collection of brown, gray, and lemon-yellow, accented with a subdued crest, rakish black mask, and brilliant-red wax droplets on the wing feathers." These droplets may be the same colour as the madrone berries they are known to eat. These birds' most prominent feature is this small cluster of red wax-like droplets on tips of secondary flight feathers on

1488-831: The IUCN Red List . The genus name Bombycilla comes from the Ancient Greek bombux , "silk" and the Modern Latin cilla , "tail"; this is a direct translation of the German Seidenschwanz , "silk-tail", and refers to the silky-soft plumage of these birds. The specific cedrorum is Latin for "of the cedars". Cedar waxwings are medium-sized birds approximately 6–7 in (15–18 cm) long and weighing roughly 30 g (1 oz). Wingspan ranges from 8.7 to 11.8 in (22 to 30 cm). They are smaller and browner than their close relative,

1550-400: The marbled murrelet . In Australia the diamond firetail and painted honeyeater are recorded as nesting in different mistletoes. A study of mistletoe in junipers concluded that more juniper berries sprout in stands where mistletoe is present, as the mistletoe attracts berry-eating birds which also eat juniper berries. Mistletoe is relevant to several cultures. Pagan cultures regarded

1612-504: The 'seeds' (in actuality drupes ). Of the many bird species that feed on them, the mistle thrush is the best-known in Europe, the phainopepla in southwestern North America, and Dicaeum flowerpeckers in Asia and Australia. Depending on the species of mistletoe and the species of bird, the seeds are regurgitated from the crop, excreted in their droppings, or stuck to the bill, from which

1674-729: The Santalales—first in the Misodendraceae , but also in the Loranthaceae and three times in the Santalaceae (in the former Santalalean families Eremolepidaceae and Viscaceae , and the tribe Amphorogyneae). The largest family of mistletoes, the Loranthaceae , has 73 genera and over 900 species. Subtropical and tropical climates have markedly more mistletoe species; Australia has 85, of which 71 are in Loranthaceae, and 14 in Santalaceae. Mistletoe species grow on

1736-492: The Viscaceae bear evergreen leaves that photosynthesise effectively, and photosynthesis proceeds within their green, fleshy stems as well. Some species, such as Viscum capense , are adapted to semi-arid conditions and their leaves are vestigial scales, hardly visible without detailed morphological investigation. Therefore, their photosynthesis and transpiration only take place in their stems, limiting their demands on

1798-410: The bird deposits on tree branches, where some may stick long enough to germinate. As the plants mature, they grow into masses of branching stems which suggest the popular name "witches' brooms". The dense evergreen witches' brooms formed by the dwarf mistletoes ( Arceuthobium species) of western North America also make excellent locations for roosting and nesting of the northern spotted owl and

1860-409: The bird wipes it onto a suitable branch. The seeds are coated with a sticky material called viscin . Some viscin remains on the seed and when it touches a stem, it sticks tenaciously. The viscin soon hardens and attaches the seed firmly to its future host, where it germinates and its haustorium penetrates the sound bark. Specialist mistletoe eaters have adaptations that expedite the process; some pass

1922-401: The diet in the breeding season. Its fondness for the small cones of the eastern redcedar (a kind of juniper ) gave this bird its common name. They eat berries whole. They sometimes fly over water to catch insects. The cedar waxwing is sometimes responsible for significant damage to commercial fruit farms and thus can be considered a pest, especially because it feeds in large groups. When

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1984-808: The end of a twig holds a supply of berries that only one bird at a time can reach, members of a flock may line up along the twig and pass berries beak to beak down the line so that each bird gets a chance to eat. Sometimes, cedar waxwings will eat fruit that is overripe and has begun to ferment, intoxicating the bird. Cedar waxwings are a highly specialized frugivorous species, exhibiting almost full reliance on sugary fruits, unlike other fruit-eating passerines that exhibit only opportunistic frugivory when other food sources are in poor supply. Their efficient digestion of fruits containing simple sugars allows them to live on fruit alone, while other fruit-eating passerines found subsisting on fruit alone to be fatal. Reliance on primarily fruit alone occurs until fruit cessation in

2046-428: The end of spring and runs through to late summer. The male will do a "hopping dance" for the female. If she is interested, she'll hop back. During courtship the male and female will sit together and pass small objects back and forth, such as flower petals or an insect. Mating pairs will sometimes rub their beaks together. The nest is a loose open cup built with grass and twigs, lined with softer materials and supported by

2108-423: The entire crown and replacing it with their own growth. In such a tree the host is relegated purely to the supply of water and mineral nutrients and the physical support of the trunk. Such a tree may survive as a Viscum community for years; it resembles a totally unknown species unless one examines it closely, because its foliage does not look like that of any tree. An example of a species that behaves in this manner

2170-615: The female incubates them for 11 to 13 days. The eggs are oval shaped with a smooth surface and very little, if any, gloss. The egg shells are of various shades of light or bluish grey with irregular, dark brown spots or greyish-brown splotches. Both parents build the nest and feed the young. Typically, there are one or two broods during the mating season. Young leave the nest about 14 to 18 days after hatching. Cedar waxwings eat berries and sugary fruit year-round, including dogwood , serviceberry , cedar , juniper , hawthorn , and winterberry , with insects becoming an important part of

2232-461: The flower of the UK county of Herefordshire . Every year, the UK town of Tenbury Wells holds a mistletoe festival and crowns a 'Mistletoe Queen'. Cedar waxwing The cedar waxwing ( Bombycilla cedrorum ) is a member of the family Bombycillidae or waxwing family of passerine birds. It is a medium-sized bird that is mainly brown, gray, and yellow. Some of the wing feathers have red tips,

2294-779: The genus' parasitic habit. There are roughly 235 to 240 species in the genus. Species include: Mistletoe The name mistletoe originally referred to the species Viscum album (European mistletoe, of the family Santalaceae in the order Santalales); it is the only species native to the British Isles and much of Europe. A related species with red rather than white fruits, Viscum cruciatum , occurs in Southwest Spain and Southern Portugal, as well as in Morocco in North Africa and in southern Africa. There

2356-477: The host for its needs. Later it forms a haustorium that penetrates the host tissue and takes water and nutrients from the host plant. Species more or less obligate include the leafless quintral, Tristerix aphyllus , which lives deep inside the sugar-transporting tissue of a spiny cactus, appearing only to show its tubular red flowers, and the genus Arceuthobium (dwarf mistletoe; Santalaceae) which has reduced photosynthesis; as an adult, it manufactures only

2418-410: The host plant through both the xylem and phloem, challenging the alternative theory of the passive uptake of nutrients by the parasite from the host xylem only. The most important birds for effective dispersal include the cedar waxwing , euphonias , silky-flycatchers , bluebirds , and thrushes . Leafy mistletoe can adversely affect trees growing in urban environments and in forests. It is considered

2480-410: The host plant to provide water, minerals, and other nutrients. Birds are the primary means of dispersal of the parasite. Birds consume the drupes of the mistletoe and excrete or regurgitate the seeds onto the branches of the host plant. The seeds do not need to be ingested to germinate. Germinating seeds produce a radicle, a holdfast, and eventually the germinated seeds produce haustoria. The haustorium

2542-402: The host's seeds by birds. The mistletoe berries may attract frugivorous birds (e.g. thrushes) to eat the host juniper's seeds and disperse them. The net benefit on the hosts is difficult to quantify, however. The birds dispersing the host's seeds and benefiting the host, while at the same time dispersing the mistletoe's seeds and spreading the Phoradendron infection. Phoradendron californicum

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2604-502: The host's supply of water, but also limiting their intake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Accordingly, their contribution to the host's metabolic balance becomes trivial and the idle parasite may become quite yellow as it grows, having practically given up photosynthesis. At another extreme other species have vigorous green leaves. Not only do they photosynthesize actively, but a heavy infestation of mistletoe plants may take over whole host tree branches, sometimes killing practically

2666-609: The household. In the Christian era, mistletoe in the Western world became associated with Christmas as a decoration under which lovers are expected to kiss, as well as with protection from witches and demons . Mistletoe continued to be associated with fertility and vitality through the Middle Ages, and by the 18th century it had also become incorporated into Christmas celebrations around the world. The custom of kissing under

2728-543: The leaves and berries of the plant, with teas prepared from the plant being particularly dangerous. While adults may suffer little effect, these are more pronounced in small children and in animals. Mistletoe has been used historically in medicine for its supposed value in treating arthritis , high blood pressure , epilepsy and infertility . Mistletoes are often considered pests that kill trees and devalue natural habitats, but some species have recently been recognized as ecological keystone species , organisms that have

2790-399: The mistletoe is referred to as popular among servants in late 18th-century England. The serving class of Victorian England is credited with perpetuating the tradition. The tradition dictated that a man was allowed to kiss any woman standing underneath mistletoe, and that bad luck would befall any woman who refused the kiss. One variation on the tradition stated that with each kiss a berry

2852-441: The mistletoe. Control and management regimes include watering the host plant to improve its vigor, and removing infested vegetation. Pruning infested branches is not generally effective because the haustoria can infiltrate deeply. Plucking the mistletoe herbage is a temporary treatment because it easily resprouts, but keeping its herbage sparse can help to reduce its seed production. Phoradendron species are larval host plants for

2914-493: The movement of the flock in flight resembles that of a flock of small pale European starlings . Cedar waxwings fly at 40 km/h (25 mph) and fly at an altitude of 610 m (2,000 ft). Cedar waxwings are also known as the southern waxwing , Canada robin , cedar bird , cherry bird , or recellet . The oldest observed cedar waxwing was eight years and two months old. The two common calls of these birds include very high-pitched whistles and buzzy trills about

2976-447: The necessity of consuming large quantities of fruits, but viable seeds found in feces also suggest the important role they may play in seed dispersal . The presence of seeds in feces is also indicative of the digestive limitations associated with eating seed-rich fruits, specifically fruits laden with smaller seeds that pass much more slowly through the digestive tract. A positive correlation between seed defecation and fruit consumption

3038-572: The older form 'mistle' adding the Old English word tān (twig). 'Mistle' is common Germanic (Old High German mistil , Middle High German mistel , Old English mistel , Old Norse mistil ). Further etymology is uncertain, but may be related to the Germanic base for 'mash'. Parasitism has evolved at least twelve times among the vascular plants. Molecular data show the mistletoe habit has evolved independently five times within

3100-565: The only ancient writer to mention the use of mistletoe in this ceremony was Pliny. Evidence taken from bog bodies makes the Celtic use of mistletoe seem medicinal rather than ritual. It is possible that mistletoe was originally associated with human sacrifice and only became associated with the white bull after the Romans banned human sacrifices. The Romans associated mistletoe with peace, love and understanding and hung it over doorways to protect

3162-536: The plant relies on its host for some nutrients. The plant draws its mineral and water needs, and some of its energy needs, from the host tree using a haustorium which grows into the stems of the host. The flowers are inconspicuous and incomplete, no petals and 3-4 greenish-yellow sepals, 1–3 mm (0.039–0.118 in) diameter. The fruit is a berry , white, yellow, orange, or red when mature, containing one to several seeds embedded in very sticky juice, called viscin . The flowers are unisexual , and depending on

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3224-400: The process of growing away from the light, the adhesive on the seed tends to darken the bark. On having made contact with the bark, the hypocotyl, with only a rudimentary scrap of root tissue at its tip, penetrates it, a process that may take a year or more. In the meantime the plant is dependent on its own photosynthesis. Only after it reaches the host's conductive tissue can it begin to rely on

3286-575: The pulp of the fruit. This allows them to still exhibit relatively high digestion efficiencies in spite of the gut processing limitations that are associated with eating seeds. The digestive strategies employed by these birds allow them to subsist on a predominately fruit-based diet. Waxwings are evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species . Populations are increasing in their range partly because fields are being allowed to grow into forests and shrublands, and fruiting trees like mountain ash are being planted as landscaping. On

3348-403: The resemblance of which to sealing wax gives these birds their common name. It is a native of North and Central America, breeding in open wooded areas in southern Canada and wintering in the southern half of the United States, Central America, and the far northwest of South America. Its diet includes cedar cones, fruit, holly berries, and insects. The cedar waxwing is listed as least concern on

3410-467: The seeds through their unusually shaped digestive tracts so fast that a pause for defecation of the seeds is part of the feeding routine. Others have adapted patterns of feeding behavior; the bird grips the fruit in its bill and squeezes the sticky-coated seed out to the side. The seed sticks to the beak and the bird wipes it off onto the branch. Biochemically, viscin is a complex adhesive mix containing cellulosic strands and mucopolysaccharides . Once

3472-621: The species, the plant will be monoecious or dioecious (both male and female flowers on a single plant or male and female plants with only one sex of flowers). The seeds are dispersed when birds eat the fruit and remove the sticky seeds from their bills by wiping them on tree branches where they can germinate. The foliage and berries of some species are toxic. Leafy mistletoes seldom kill but they cause stress reducing crop productions in fruits and nut trees. Phoradendron plants can be distinguished from mistletoes in other genera in Viscaceae by their inflorescences , which lack leaves and come from

3534-624: The spring when the birds start to feed on insects and flowers. In such cases intestinal analysis revealed stomach contents of 84% fruit, 12% invertebrates, and 4% flowers, among 212 individuals involved in the study. Despite the advantage of frugivorous specialization, they did lose body mass when experimentally fed one fruit type alone ( Viburnum opulus ), but gained body mass when fed pollen-rich catkins as well ( Populus deltoides ). Many fleshy fruits are energy rich. However, they are deficient in nitrogen (protein) levels required by cedar waxwings (1.7%). The nutrient deficit of sugary fruits alone

3596-443: The tree more susceptible to insect attack. Phoradendron presents serious problems along rivers, streams, parks, and golf courses with large cottonwood trees. Deciduous trees can be mistaken for evergreens during the winter if infection is heavy. Other common symptoms include swelling formations of witch's broom , dieback, and weakened branches. Phoradendron species are hemiparasites which produce their own chlorophyll but rely on

3658-649: The white berries as symbols of male fertility , with the seeds resembling semen . The Celts , particularly, saw mistletoe as the semen of Taranis , while the Ancient Greeks referred to mistletoe as "oak sperm". Also in Roman mythology, mistletoe was used by the hero Aeneas to reach the underworld. Mistletoe may have played an important role in Druidic mythology in the Ritual of Oak and Mistletoe , although

3720-558: The wings, a feature they share with the Bohemian waxwing (but not the Japanese waxwing ). These wax-like droplets are attributed to the pigmented and medullary layers of the secondary tip being surrounded by a transparent cuticle. The wings are "broad and pointed, like a starling's." The tail is typically yellow or orange depending on diet. Birds that have fed on berries of introduced Eurasian honeysuckles while growing tail feathers will have darker orange-tipped tail-feathers. The tail

3782-407: Was to be plucked from the mistletoe, and the kissing must stop after all the berries had been removed. From at least the mid-19th century, Caribbean herbalists of African descent have referred to mistletoe as "god-bush". In Nepal, diverse mistletoes are used for a variety of medical purposes, particularly for treating broken bones. Mistletoe is the floral emblem of the US state of Oklahoma and

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3844-554: Was used by Native American peoples as a food and medicinal remedy. Some Phoradendron species, such as Phoradendron serotinum and Phoradendron flavescens , are used in North America as Christmas decoration , substituting for the European mistletoe Viscum album . They are harvested commercially for that purpose. Nuttall named the genus Phoradendron from the Greek, phor (a thief) and dendron (tree), alluding to

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