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113-409: Phrenology is today recognized as pseudoscientific. The methodological rigor of phrenology was doubtful even for the standards of its time, since many authors already regarded phrenology as pseudoscience in the 19th century. There have been various studies conducted that discredited phrenology, most of which were done with ablation techniques. Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens demonstrated through ablation that

226-415: A charismatic worship service (practice dimension) in order to develop his/her sense of oneness with the divine (spirituality dimension). A different individual might disavow all doctrines associated with organized religions (belief dimension), not affiliate with an organized religion or attend religious services (practice dimension), and at the same time be strongly committed to a higher power and feel that

339-489: A 2005 research paper that between adolescence and adulthood , the contribution of genes to variation in religiosity (called heritability ) increases from 12% to 44% and the contribution of shared (family) effects decreases from 56% to 18%. A market-based theory of religious choice and governmental regulation of religion have been the dominant theories used to explain variations of religiosity between societies . However, researchers Anthony Gill and Eric Lundsgaarde documented

452-463: A balance through rigorous exercise of beneficial organs while repressing baser ones. One of the best examples of this is Félix Voisin , who, for approximately ten years, ran a reform school in Issy for the express purpose of correction of the mind of children who had suffered some hardship. Voisin focused on four categories of children for his reform school: Phrenology was one of the first to bring about

565-481: A brain science waned but developed into the popular psychology of the 19th century. Phrenology was introduced at a time when the old theological and philosophical understanding of the mind was being questioned and no longer seemed adequate in a society that was experiencing rapid social and demographic changes. Phrenology became one of the most popular movements of the Victorian Era. In part phrenology's success

678-481: A diagnostic tool. While the success of this approach is debatable, Conolly, through phrenology, introduced a more humane way of dealing with the mentally ill. The first phrenological testimony in a court of law was solicited by American lawyer John Neal in Portland, Maine , in 1834. Neal argued unsuccessfully that the jury should take leniency on his client because the part of his brain associated with violent behavior

791-579: A disciple of Gall, proclaimed that the Caucasians were the most beautiful, while peoples like the Australian Aboriginal and Māori would never become civilized since "they had no cerebral organ for producing great artists". Few phrenologists argued for the emancipation of the slaves , while many used it to advocate for slavery. Instead they argued that through education and interbreeding the "lesser peoples" could improve. Another argument

904-410: A glacier or snowfield. Ablation refers to the melting of snow or ice that runs off the glacier, evaporation , sublimation , calving , or erosive removal of snow by wind. Air temperature is typically the dominant control of ablation, with precipitation exercising secondary control. In a temperate climate during ablation season, ablation rates typically average around 2 mm/h. Where solar radiation

1017-561: A global approach known as psychognomy . Bouts, a Roman Catholic priest, became the main promoter of renewed 20th-century interest in phrenology and psychognomy in Belgium. He was also active in Brazil and Canada , where he founded institutes for characterology. His works Psychognomie and Les Grandioses Destinées individuelle et humaine dans la lumière de la Caractérologie et de l'Evolution cérébro-cranienne are considered standard works in

1130-455: A god exists or they weren't sure. Another 12.1% said there is a higher power but no personal god. In total, only 15.0% identified as Nones or No Religion, but 24.4% did not believe in the traditional concept of a personal god. The conductors of the study concluded, "The historic reluctance of Americans to self-identify in this manner or use these terms seems to have diminished. Nevertheless ... the level of under-reporting of these theological labels

1243-481: A high degree of target specificity. The genetic ablation techniques described could prove useful in battling cancer. Electro-ablation , is a process that removes material from a metallic workpiece to reduce surface roughness . Electro-ablation breaks through highly resistive oxide surfaces, such as those found on titanium and other exotic metals and alloys without melting the underlying non-oxidised metal or alloy. This allows very quick surface finishing The process

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1356-468: A house. There have been many experiments done to demonstrate the effect of debris on the surface of glaciers. Yoshiyuki Fujii, a professor at the National Institute of Polar Research , designed an experiment that showed ablation rate was accelerated under a thin debris layer and was retarded under a thick one as compared with that of a natural snow surface. This science is significant due to

1469-638: A large demographic of people to phrenological ideas who would not have heard them otherwise. As a result of the changing times, new avenues of exposure and its multifaceted appeal, phrenology flourished in popular culture although it was discredited as scientific theory by 1840. While still not a fringe movement, there was not popular widespread support of phrenology in France. This was not only due to strong opposition to phrenology by French scholars but also once again accusations of promoting atheism, materialism and radical religious views. Politics in France also played

1582-495: A minimum absorption depth. While these lasers can average a low power, they can offer peak intensity and fluence given by: while the peak power is Surface ablation of the cornea for several types of eye refractive surgery is now common, using an excimer laser system ( LASIK and LASEK ). Since the cornea does not grow back, laser is used to remodel the cornea refractive properties to correct refraction errors , such as astigmatism , myopia , and hyperopia . Laser ablation

1695-795: A month. Global studies on religion also show diversity. Decades of anthropological, sociological, and psychological research have established that the common assumption of "religious congruence" is rarely accurate. "Religious congruence" is the view that religious beliefs and values are tightly integrated in an individual's mind, or that religious practices and behaviors follow directly from religious beliefs, or that religious beliefs are chronologically linear and stable across different contexts. People's religious ideas are fragmented, loosely connected, and context-dependent, like their ideas in all other domains of culture and life. The beliefs, affiliations, and behaviors of any individual are complex activities that have many sources including culture. Mark Chaves gives

1808-486: A population or culture are destroyed or removed. Both can be used as experimental tools, as in loss-of-function experiments. In medicine, ablation is the removal of a part of biological tissue , usually by surgery . Surface ablation of the skin ( dermabrasion , also called resurfacing because it induces regeneration ) can be carried out by chemicals (chemoablation), by lasers ( laser ablation ), by freezing ( cryoablation ), or by electricity ( fulguration ). Its purpose

1921-481: A protoplanetary disk would result in significant ablation of the disk, and this ablation would strip a significant amount of protoplanetary material from the disk – but not necessarily destroy the disk entirely. This is an important point because a disk that survives such an interaction with sufficient material leftover to form a planetary system may inherit an altered disk chemistry from the SNR, which could have effects on

2034-459: A relation betwixt vigour of intellect and perfection of form; and that, therefore, history will direct us to the original and chief family of mankind. We therefore ask, which are the nations that have excelled and figured in history, not only as conquerors, but as forwarding, by their improvements in arts and sciences, the progress of human knowledge? Phrenological teachings had become a widespread popular movement by 1834, when Combe came to lecture in

2147-627: A religious tradition. Gallup 's editor-in-chief, Frank Newport, argues that numbers on surveys may give an incomplete picture. In his view, declines in religious affiliation or belief in God on surveys may not actually reflect real declines, but instead increased honesty to interviewers on spiritual matters due to viewpoints previously seen as deviant becoming more socially acceptable. Questions of religion are "marginal" in censuses, usually optional, and are left out of most censuses in most countries. Despite attempts to standardize wording, census phrasing of

2260-505: A role in preventing rapid spread of phrenology. In Britain phrenology had provided another tool to be used for situating demographic changes; the difference was there was less fear of revolutionary upheaval in Britain compared with France. Given that most French supporters of phrenology were liberal, left-wing or socialist, it was an objective of the social elite of France, who held a restrained vision of social change, that phrenology remain on

2373-536: A source of psychological insight and self-knowledge. In Europe and the United States, many people visited phrenologists to have their heads analysed. After such an examination, clients received a written delineation of their character or a standardized chart with their score, combined with advice on how to improve themselves. People also consulted phrenologists for advice in matters such as hiring personnel or finding suitable marriage partners. As such, phrenology as

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2486-406: A time as a lecturer on phrenology. From Combe: Propensities do not form ideas; they solely produce propensities common to animals and man. Lower sentiments These are common to man and animal. Superior sentiments These produce emotion or feeling lacking in animals. These are to know the external world and physical qualities These produce ideas of relation or reflect. They minister to

2599-413: A time when scientific procedures and standards for acceptable evidence were still being codified. In the context of Victorian society, phrenology was a respectable scientific theory. The Phrenological Society of Edinburgh founded by George and Andrew Combe was an example of the credibility of phrenology at the time, and included a number of extremely influential social reformers and intellectuals, including

2712-451: Is also used to remove part of the uterine wall in women with menstruation and adenomyosis problems in a process called endometrial ablation . Researchers have demonstrated a successful technique for ablating subsurface tumors with minimal thermal damage to surrounding healthy tissue, by using a focused laser beam from an ultra-short pulse diode laser source. Antifouling paints and other related coatings are routinely used to prevent

2825-443: Is calculated to be sufficient to survive the heat it will encounter on its mission. There is an entire branch of spaceflight research involving the search for new fireproofing materials to achieve the best ablative performance; this function is critical to protect the spacecraft occupants and payload from otherwise excessive heat loading. The same technology is used in some passive fire protection applications, in some cases by

2938-419: Is capable of providing surface finishing for a wide range of exotic and widely used metals and alloys, including: titanium, stainless steel, niobium, chromium–cobalt, Inconel , aluminium, and a range of widely available steels and alloys. Electro-ablation is very effective at achieving high levels of surface finishing in holes, valleys and hidden or internal surfaces on metallic workpieces (parts). The process

3051-402: Is carried away from the spacecraft by the gases generated by the ablative process, and never penetrates the surface material, so the metallic and other sensitive structures they protect, remain at a safe temperature. As the surface burns and disperses into space, the remaining solid material continues to insulate the craft from ongoing heat and superheated gases. The thickness of the ablative layer

3164-506: Is distinct from craniometry , which is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and physiognomy , the study of facial features. Phrenology is a process that involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individual's psychological attributes. Franz Joseph Gall believed that the brain was made up of 27 individual organs that determined personality , the first 19 of these "organs" he believed to exist in other animal species. Phrenologists would run their fingertips and palms over

3277-468: Is due to a few factors, such as differences in question wording that impact participant responses due to "social desirability bias"; the lumping of very different groups (atheist, agnostics, nothing in particular) into singular categories (e.g., "no religion" vs "nothing in particular"); and differences in the representativeness of the samples (e.g., "nones" are more politically moderate in the GSS sample than in

3390-459: Is much diversity in how one can be religious or not. Problems arise in measuring religiosity. For instance, measures of variables such as church attendance produce different results when different methods are used, such as traditional surveys as opposed to time-use surveys . The measurement of religiosity is hampered by the difficulties involved in defining what is meant by the term and what components it includes. Numerous studies have explored

3503-406: Is often used in the context of laser ablation , a process in which a laser dissolves a material's molecular bonds . For a laser to ablate tissues, the power density or fluence must be high, otherwise thermocoagulation occurs, which is simply thermal vaporization of the tissues. Rotablation is a type of arterial cleansing that consists of inserting a tiny, diamond-tipped, drill-like device into

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3616-500: Is particularly applicable to components produced by additive manufacturing process, such as 3D-printed metals. These components tend to be produced with roughness levels well above 5–20 micron. Electro-ablation can be used to quickly reduce the surface roughness to less than 0.8 micron, allowing the post-process to be used for volume production surface finishing. In glaciology and meteorology , ablation—the opposite of accumulation—refers to all processes that remove snow, ice, or water from

3729-413: Is potentially a much more efficient method of removing unwanted cells, such as tumor cells, because large numbers of animals lacking specific cells could be generated. Genetically ablated lines can be maintained for a prolonged period of time and shared within the research community. Researchers at Columbia University report of reconstituted caspases combined from C. elegans and humans, which maintain

3842-436: Is still significant ... many millions do not subscribe fully to the theology of the groups with which they identify." According to a Pew Research Center study in 2009, only 5% of the total US population did not have a belief in a god. Out of all those without a belief in a god, only 24% self-identified as "atheist", while 15% self-identified as "agnostic", 35% self-identified as "nothing in particular", and 24% identified with

3955-405: Is the dominant cause of snow ablation (e.g., if air temperatures are low under clear skies), characteristic ablation textures such as suncups and penitentes may develop on the snow surface. Ablation can refer to mass loss from the upper surface of a glacier or ocean-driven melt and calving on the face of a glacier terminus. Ablation can refer either to the processes removing ice and snow or to

4068-410: Is the removal of a component of an AI system. The term is by analogy with biology: removal of components of an organism. Biological ablation is the removal of a biological structure or functionality. Genetic ablation is another term for gene silencing , in which gene expression is abolished through the alteration or deletion of genetic sequence information. In cell ablation, individual cells in

4181-430: Is the removal or destruction of something from an object by vaporization , chipping, erosive processes, or by other means. Examples of ablative materials are described below, including spacecraft material for ascent and atmospheric reentry , ice and snow in glaciology , biological tissues in medicine and passive fire protection materials. In artificial intelligence (AI), especially machine learning , ablation

4294-438: Is to put enough of this material in the way of the fire that a level of fire-resistance rating can be maintained, as demonstrated in a fire test . Ablative materials usually have a large concentration of organic matter that is reduced by fire to ashes. In the case of silicone, organic rubber surrounds very finely divided silica dust (up to 380 m of combined surface area of all the dust particles per gram of this dust ). When

4407-541: Is to remove skin spots, aged skin , wrinkles , thus rejuvenating it. Surface ablation is also employed in otolaryngology for several kinds of surgery, such as the one for snoring . Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is a method of removing aberrant tissue from within the body via minimally invasive procedures, it is used to cure a variety of cardiac arrhythmia such as supraventricular tachycardia , Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome (WPW), ventricular tachycardia , and more recently as management of atrial fibrillation . The term

4520-524: The brain . Johann Spurzheim was Gall's most important collaborator. He worked as Gall's anatomist until 1813 when for unknown reasons they had a permanent falling out. Publishing under his own name Spurzheim successfully disseminated phrenology throughout the United Kingdom during his lecture tours through 1814 and 1815 and the United States in 1832 where he would eventually die. Gall

4633-431: The cerebrum and cerebellum accomplish different functions. He found that the impacted areas never carried out the functions that were proposed through phrenology. Paul Broca also discredited the idea when he discovered and named the " Broca's area ". The patient's ability to produce language was lost while their ability to understand language remained intact. Through an autopsy examining their brains, he found that there

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4746-579: The heat of atmospheric reentry and the Kestrel second stage rocket engine designed for exclusive use in an environment of space vacuum since no heat convection is possible. In a basic sense, ablative material is designed so that instead of heat being transmitted into the structure of the spacecraft, only the outer surface of the material bears the majority of the heating effect. The outer surface chars and burns away – but quite slowly, only gradually exposing new fresh protective material beneath. The heat

4859-400: The 27 "brain organs" was located under a specific area of the skull. As a phrenologist felt the skull, he would use his knowledge of the shapes of heads and organ positions to determine the overall natural strengths and weaknesses of an individual. Phrenologists believed the head revealed natural tendencies but not absolute limitations or strengths of character. The first phrenological chart gave

4972-551: The Brain (1901) and Scientific Phrenology (1902), are an appraisal of Gall's teachings. Hollander introduced a quantitative approach to the phrenological diagnosis, defining a method for measuring the skull, and comparing the measurements with statistical averages. In Belgium, Paul Bouts (1900–1999) began studying phrenology from a pedagogical background, using the phrenological analysis to define an individual pedagogy . Combining phrenology with typology and graphology , he coined

5085-465: The CCES sample, while Protestants are more conservative in the CCES sample than in the GSS sample). The 2008 American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) found a difference between how people identify and what people believe. While only 0.7% of U.S. adults identified as atheist, 2.3% said there is no such thing as a god. Only 0.9% identified as agnostic, but 10.0% said there is either no way to know if

5198-640: The Dutch foundation PPP ( Per Pulchritudinem in Pulchritudine ), operated by Anette Müller, one of Bouts' students. During the 1930s, Belgian colonial authorities in Rwanda used phrenology to explain the purported superiority of Tutsis over Hutus . Some scientists believed phrenology affirmed European superiority over other races. By comparing skulls of different ethnic groups it was thought to allow for ranking of races from least to most evolved. Broussais,

5311-592: The Greek physician Galen , who concluded that mental activity occurred in the brain rather than the heart, contending that the brain, a cold, moist organ formed of sperm, was the seat of the animal soul—one of three "souls" found in the body, each associated with a principal organ. The Swiss pastor Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741–1801) introduced the idea that physiognomy related to the specific character traits of individuals, rather than general types, in his Physiognomische Fragmente , published between 1775 and 1778. His work

5424-514: The United States. Sensing commercial possibilities men like the Fowlers became phrenologists and sought additional ways to bring phrenology to the masses. Though a popular movement, the intellectual elite of the United States found phrenology attractive because it provided a biological explanation of mental processes based on observation, yet it was not accepted uncritically. Some intellectuals accepted organology while questioning cranioscopy. Gradually

5537-451: The ablation rate can produce long-lived protection from the deleterious effects of biofouling. Firestopping and fireproofing products can be ablative in nature. This can mean endothermic materials, or merely materials that are sacrificial and become "spent" over time while exposed to fire , such as silicone firestop products. Given sufficient time under fire or heat conditions, these products char away, crumble, and disappear. The idea

5650-399: The affected artery to remove fatty deposits or plaque. The procedure is used in the treatment of coronary heart disease to restore blood flow. Microwave ablation (MWA) is similar to RFA but at higher frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) ablation removes tissue from within the body noninvasively. Bone marrow ablation is a process whereby

5763-766: The audiences to its skeptical claims. Because of this the general public valued it more for its comic relief than anything else; however, it did find an audience in the rational dissenters who found it an attractive alternative to explain human motivations without the attached superstitions of religion. The supporters of phrenology in Ireland were relegated to scientific subcultures because the Irish scholars neglected marginal movements like phrenology, denying it scientific support in Ireland. In 1830 George Combe came to Ireland, his self-promotion barely winning out against his lack of medical expertise, still only drawing lukewarm crowds. This

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5876-547: The belief and spirituality dimensions. Nonetheless, an individual's scores on a measure of religiosity can vary between dimensions; they may not score high on all dimensions or low on all dimensions. For example , an individual could accept truthfulness of the Bible (belief dimension), but never attend a church or even belong to an organized religion (practice dimension). Another example is an individual who did not accept orthodox Christian doctrines (belief dimension) but did attend

5989-421: The buildup of microorganisms and other animals, such as barnacles for the bottom hull surfaces of recreational, commercial and military sea vessels. Ablative paints are often utilized for this purpose to prevent the dilution or deactivation of the antifouling agent. Over time, the paint will slowly decompose in the water, exposing fresh antifouling compounds on the surface. Engineering the antifouling agents and

6102-467: The case in certain clusters , e.g. in the Trapezium cluster . Since massive stars tend to collapse through supernovae at the end of their lives, research is now investigating what role the shockwave of such an explosion, and the resulting supernova remnant (SNR), would play if it occurred in the line of fire of a protoplanetary disk. According to computationally modelled simulations, a SNR striking

6215-546: The character of the person and thus many phrenology books show pictures of subjects. From absolute and relative sizes of the skull the phrenologist would assess the character and temperament of the patient. Gall's list of the "brain organs" was specific. An enlarged organ meant that the patient used that particular " organ " extensively. The number—and more detailed meanings—of organs were added later by other phrenologists. The 27 areas varied in function, from sense of color, to religiosity , to being combative or destructive. Each of

6328-568: The colder mid-plane of the disk from dust grains and ices sticking together. These small accretions grow from pebbles to rocks to early baby planets, called planetesimals , then protoplanets , and eventually, full planets . As it is believed that massive stars may play a role in actively triggering star formation (by introducing gravitational instabilities amongst other factors), it is plausible that young, smaller stars with disks may be living relatively nearby to older, more massive stars. This has already been confirmed through observations to be

6441-515: The complexity of measuring religious identity, censuses sometimes also overestimate groups; this was the case for Christians in Britain, as typically one person fills out the census one behalf of a household, as distinguished from surveys which ask individual adults. The contributions of genes and environment to religiosity have been quantified in studies of twins and sociological studies of welfare, availability, and legal regulations ( state religions , etc.). Koenig and colleagues reported in

6554-428: The concept of "strengthening" faith suggest differences in the intensity of religiosity. Scholars attempt to measure religiosity at the levels of individuals or groups, but differ as to what behaviors constitute religiosity. Sociologists of religion have observed that an individual's experience, beliefs , sense of belonging , and general behavior often are not congruent with their religious behavior, since there

6667-697: The connection with that higher power is ultimately relevant (spirituality dimension). These are explanatory examples of the broadest dimensions of religiosity and may not be reflected in specific religiosity measures. Demographic studies often show a wide diversity of religious beliefs, belonging, and practices in both religious and non-religious populations. For instance, among Americans who are not religious and not seeking religion, 68% believe in God, 12% are atheists, 17% are agnostics. Also, 18% self-identify as religious, 37% self-identify as spiritual but not religious, and 42% self-identify as neither spiritual nor religious. Furthermore, 21% pray every day and 24% pray once

6780-525: The different components of religiosity, with most finding some distinction between religious beliefs/doctrine, religious practice, and spirituality . When religiosity is measured, it is important to specify which aspects of religiosity are being discussed. Numerous studies have explored the different components of human religiosity. What most have found (often using factor analysis ) is that there are multiple dimensions. For instance, Marie Cornwall and colleagues identify six dimensions of religiosity based on

6893-505: The direction and gratification of all the other powers: Several literary critics have noted the influence of phrenology (and physiognomy ) in Edgar Allan Poe 's fiction. Phrenology (2002) by The Roots was named so after group member Black Thought saw an article in a scientific journal and the group "appropriated the term, not only for its political irony ..." Ablation Ablation ( Latin : ablatio – removal)

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7006-546: The downfall of phrenology. Recent studies, using modern day technology like Magnetic Resonance Imaging have further disproven phrenology claims. During the early 20th century, a revival of interest in phrenology occurred, partly because of studies of evolution , criminology and anthropology (as pursued by Cesare Lombroso ). The most famous British phrenologist of the 20th century was the London psychiatrist Bernard Hollander (1864–1934). His main works, The Mental Function of

7119-402: The existence of talented women, this minority did not provide justification for citizenship or participation in politics. One of the considered practical applications of phrenology was education. Due to the nature of phrenology people were naturally considered unequal, as very few people would have a naturally perfect balance between organs. Thus education would play an important role in creating

7232-465: The field. In the latter work, which examines the subject of paleoanthropology , Bouts developed a teleological and orthogenetical view on a perfecting evolution, from the paleo-encephalical skull shapes of prehistoric man , which he considered still prevalent in criminals and savages, towards a higher form of mankind, thus perpetuating phrenology's problematic racializing of the human frame. Bouts died on March 7, 1999. His work has been continued by

7345-419: The following examples of religious incongruence: "Observant Jews may not believe what they say in their Sabbath prayers. Christian ministers may not believe in God. And people who regularly dance for rain don't do it in the dry season." The reliability of any poll results, in general and specifically on religion, can be questioned due numerous factors such as: Researchers also note that an estimated 20–40% of

7458-443: The fringes. Another objection was that phrenology seemed to provide a built in excuse for criminal behaviour, since in its original form it was essentially deterministic in nature. Phrenology arrived in Ireland in 1815, through Spurzheim. While Ireland largely mirrored British trends, with scientific lectures and demonstrations becoming a popular pastime of the age, by 1815 phrenology had already been ridiculed in some circles priming

7571-430: The glacier body. It is noted that if the slope of a glacier is too high then the debris will continue to move along the glacier to a further location. The sizes and locations of glaciers vary around the world, so depending on the climate and physical geography the varieties of debris can differ. The size and magnitude of the debris is dependent on the area of glacier and can vary from dust-size fragments to blocks as large as

7684-405: The heat digested by the debris-covered area and is calculated. The calculations are dependent on the area and net absorbed heat amounts in regards to the entire debris-covered zones. These types of calculations are done to various glaciers to understand and analyze future patterns of melting. Moraine (glacial debris) is moved by natural processes that allow for down-slope movement of materials on

7797-558: The human bone marrow cells are eliminated in preparation for a bone marrow transplant . This is performed using high-intensity chemotherapy and total body irradiation . As such, it has nothing to do with the vaporization techniques described in the rest of this article. Ablation of brain tissue is used for treating certain neurological disorders , particularly Parkinson's disease , and sometimes for psychiatric disorders as well. Recently, some researchers reported successful results with genetic ablation. In particular, genetic ablation

7910-416: The human mind has a set of various mental faculties , each one represented in a different area of the brain. For example, the faculty of "philoprogenitiveness", from the Greek for "love of offspring", was located centrally at the back of the head (see illustration of the chart from Webster's Academic Dictionary ). These areas were said to be proportional to a person's propensities. The importance of an organ

8023-499: The idea of rehabilitation of criminals instead of vindictive punishments that would not stop criminals, only with the reorganizing a disorganized brain would bring about change. Voisin believed along with others the accuracy of phrenology in diagnosing criminal tendencies. Diagnosis could point to the type of offender, the insane, an idiot or brute, and by knowing this an appropriate course of action could be taken. A strict system of reward and punishment, hard work and religious instruction,

8136-412: The idea that the brain is spatially organized, but not in the way he proposed. There is a clear division of labor in the brain but none of which even remotely correlates to the size of the head or the structure of the skull. While it contributed to some advancements in understanding the brain and its functions, skepticism of phrenology developed over time. While phrenology itself has long been discredited,

8249-409: The importance of long-term availability of water resources and assess glacier response to climate change . Natural resource availability is a major drive behind research conducted in regards to the ablation process and overall study of glaciers. Laser ablation is greatly affected by the nature of the material and its ability to absorb energy, therefore the wavelength of the ablation laser should have

8362-606: The isolation of mental faculties and later cranioscopy which involved reading the skull's shape as it pertained to the individual. It was Gall's collaborator Johann Gaspar Spurzheim who would popularize the term "phrenology". In 1809 Gall began writing his principal work, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, with Observations upon the possibility of ascertaining

8475-519: The liberal Victorian world view. George Combe's book On the Constitution of Man and its Relationship to External Objects sold more than 200,000 copies through nine editions. Combe also devoted a large portion of his book to reconciling religion and phrenology, which had long been a sticking point. Another reason for its popularity was that phrenology balanced between free will and determinism . A person's inherent faculties were clear, and no faculty

8588-602: The madness can take the appearance of these three characteristic forms; i.e. for enhanced activity, or for depressed activity, or for inertia or deficiency of brain activities". In the Victorian era , phrenology as a psychology was taken seriously and permeated the literature and novels of the day. Many prominent public figures, such as the Reverend Henry Ward Beecher (a college classmate and initial partner of Orson Fowler) promoted phrenology actively as

8701-407: The middle and working classes by entrepreneurs. The popularization had resulted in the simplification of phrenology and mixing in it of principles of physiognomy, which had from the start been rejected by Gall as an indicator of personality. Phrenology from its inception was tainted by accusations of promoting materialism and atheism, and being destructive of morality. These were all factors that led to

8814-494: The middle and working classes was due in part to the idea that scientific knowledge was important and an indication of sophistication and modernity. Cheap and plentiful pamphlets , as well as the growing popularity of scientific lectures as entertainment, also helped spread phrenology to the masses. Combe created a system of philosophy of the human mind that became popular with the masses because of its simplified principles and wide range of social applications that were in harmony with

8927-622: The most basic mental organ numbers, going from 27 to over 40, and had difficulty locating the mental organs. Phrenologists relied on cranioscopic readings of the skull to find organ locations. Jean Pierre Flourens ' experiments on the brains of pigeons indicated that the loss of parts of the brain either caused no loss of function, or the loss of a completely different function than what had been attributed to it by phrenology. Flourens' experiment, while not perfect, seemed to indicate that Gall's supposed organs were imaginary. Scientists had also become disillusioned with phrenology since its exploitation with

9040-413: The names of the organs described by Gall; it was a single sheet, and sold for a cent. Later charts were more expansive. Among the first to identify the brain as the major controlling center for the body were Hippocrates and his followers, inaugurating a major change in thinking from Egyptian , biblical and early Greek views, which based bodily primacy of control on the heart. This belief was supported by

9153-411: The organic rubber is exposed to fire, it burns to ash and leaves behind the silica dust with which the product started. Protoplanetary disks are rotating circumstellar disks of dense gas and dust surrounding young, newly formed stars. Shortly after star formation , stars often have leftover surrounding material that is still gravitationally bound to them, forming primitive disks that orbit around

9266-578: The phrenological business and publishing house Fowlers & Wells in New York City . Meanwhile, Lorenzo spent much of his life in England, where he initiated the famous phrenological publishing house L. N. Fowler & Co. and gained considerable fame with his phrenology head (a china head showing the phrenological faculties), which has become a symbol of the discipline. Orson Fowler was known for his octagonal house . Phrenology came about at

9379-498: The planetary systems that later form. In spacecraft design, ablation is used to both cool and protect mechanical parts and/or payloads that would otherwise be damaged by extremely high temperatures. Two principal applications are heat shields for spacecraft entering a planetary atmosphere from space and cooling of rocket engine nozzles . Examples include the Apollo Command Module that protected astronauts from

9492-501: The popular success of phrenology undermined its scientific merits in the United States and elsewhere, along with its materialistic underpinnings, fostering radical religious views. There was increasing evidence to refute phrenological claims, and by the 1840s it had largely lost its credibility. In the United States, especially in the South, phrenology faced an additional obstacle in the antislavery movement. While phrenologists usually claimed

9605-471: The population changes their self-reported religious affiliation/identity over time due to numerous factors and that usually it is their answers on surveys that change, not necessarily their religious practices or beliefs. In general, polling numbers are difficult to interpret and should not be taken at face value, since people in different cultural contexts may interpret the same questions differently. Responses to Gallup polls on religiosity vary based on how

9718-523: The publisher Robert Chambers , the astronomer John Pringle Nichol , the evolutionary environmentalist Hewett Cottrell Watson , and asylum reformer William A. F. Browne . In 1826, out of the 120 members of the Edinburgh society an estimated one third were from a medical background. By the 1840s there were more than 28 phrenological societies in London with more than 1,000 members. Another important scholar

9831-447: The quantity of ice and snow removed. Debris-covered glaciers have also been shown to greatly impact the ablation process. There is a thin debris layer that can be located on the top of glaciers that intensifies the ablation process below the ice. The debris-covered parts of a glacier that is experiencing ablation are sectioned into three categories which include ice cliffs, ponds, and debris. These three sections allow scientists to measure

9944-664: The question is worded. Since the early 2000s, Gallup has routinely asked about complex topics like belief in God using three different question wordings and they have consistently received three different percentages in the responses. Two major surveys in the United States, the General Social Survey (GSS) and the Cooperative Congressional Election Study (CCES), have consistently produced discrepancies between their demographic estimates on religion that amount to 8% and growing. This

10057-428: The religion question have not been consistent over time or from country to country, with responders understanding them in 3 different ways. Censuses aim to enumerate religious communities, not religious faith, and "as long as the censuses in more than half of the world do not ask about religion it will not be possible to tell even within the closest million the size of the different religious communities globally." Due to

10170-522: The same vendors, who offer different versions of these fireproofing products, some for aerospace and some for structural fire protection . Religiosity The Oxford English Dictionary defines religiosity as: "Religiousness; religious feeling or belief. [...] Affected or excessive religiousness". Different scholars have seen this concept as broadly about religious orientations and degrees of involvement or commitment. The contrast between "religious" and " religiose " (superficially religious) and

10283-487: The several Intellectual and Moral Dispositions of Man and Animal, by the configuration of their Heads . It was not published until 1819. In the introduction to this main work, Gall makes the following statement in regard to his doctrinal principles, which comprise the intellectual basis of phrenology: Through careful observation and extensive experimentation, Gall believed he had established a relationship between aspects of character, called faculties , with precise organs in

10396-453: The skulls of their patients to feel for enlargements or indentations. The phrenologist would often take measurements with a tape measure of the overall head size and more rarely employ a craniometer , a special version of a caliper . In general, instruments to measure sizes of cranium continued to be used after the mainstream phrenology had ended. The phrenologists put emphasis on using drawings of individuals with particular traits, to determine

10509-532: The star's equator – not too dissimilarly from the rings of Saturn . This occurs because the decrease in the protostellar material's radius during formation increases angular momentum , which means that this remaining material gets whipped into a flattened circumstellar disk around the star. This circumstellar disk may eventually mature into what is referred to as a protoplanetary disk: a disk of gas, dust, ice and other materials from which planetary systems may form. In these disks, orbiting matter starts to accrete in

10622-441: The study of the inner surface of the skulls of archaic human species allows modern researchers to obtain information about the development of various areas of the brains of those species, and thereby infer something about their cognitive and communicative abilities, and possibly even something about their social life. Due to its limitations, this technique is sometimes criticized as "paleo-phrenology". Phrenologists believe that

10735-482: The superiority of the European race, they were often sympathetic to liberal causes including the antislavery movement; this sowed skepticism about phrenology among those who were pro-slavery. The rise and surge in popularity in mesmerism, phrenomesmerism, also had a hand in the loss of interest in phrenology among intellectuals and the general public. John Brown Jr. , son of the abolitionist John Brown , travelled for

10848-537: The truly abhorrent criminals would never be released. For other patients phrenology could help redirect impulses, one homicidal individual became a butcher to control his impulses, while another became a military chaplain so he could witness killings. Phrenology also provided reformist arguments for the lunatic asylums of the Victorian era. John Conolly , a physician interested in psychological aspects of disease, used phrenology on his patients in an attempt to use it as

10961-469: The two into something he called phrenomesmerism or phrenomagnatism. Changing behaviour through mesmerism eventually won out in Elliotson's hospital, putting phrenology in a subordinate role. Others amalgamated phrenology and mesmerism as well, such as the practical phrenologists Collyer and Joseph R. Buchanan . The benefit of combining mesmerism and phrenology was that the trance the patient was placed in

11074-441: The understanding that there are at least three components to religious behavior: knowing (cognition in the mind), feeling (effect to the spirit), and doing (behavior of the body). For each of these components of religiosity, there were two cross classifications, resulting in the six dimensions: Sociologists have differed over the exact number of components of religiosity. Charles Glock 's five-dimensional approach (Glock, 1972: 39)

11187-403: The way for studying the mind that would lead to the downfall of his own theories. Phrenology contributed to development of physical anthropology, forensic medicine, knowledge of the nervous system and brain anatomy as well as contributing to applied psychology. John Elliotson was a brilliant but erratic heart specialist who became a phrenologist in the 1840s. He was also a mesmerist and combined

11300-536: Was Luigi Ferrarese , the leading Italian phrenologist. He advocated that governments should embrace phrenology as a scientific means of conquering many social ills, and his Memorie Riguardanti La Dottrina Frenologica (1836), is considered "one of the fundamental 19th-century works in the field". Traditionally the mind had been studied through introspection . Phrenology provided an attractive, biological alternative that attempted to unite all mental phenomena using consistent biological terminology. Gall's approach prepared

11413-620: Was among the first of its kind in the field of sociology of religion . Other sociologists adapted Glock's list to include additional components (see for example, a six component measure by Mervin F. Verbit ). Other researchers have found different dimensions, generally ranging from four to twelve components. What most measures of religiosity find is that there is at least some distinction between religious doctrine, religious practice, and spirituality. Most dimensions of religiosity are correlated, meaning people who often attend church services (practice dimension) are also likely to score highly on

11526-485: Was damage to the left frontal lobe . He concluded that this area of the brain was responsible for language production. Between Flourens and Broca, the claims to support phrenology were dismantled. Phrenological thinking was influential in the psychiatry and psychology of the 19th century. Gall's assumption that character, thoughts, and emotions are located in specific areas of the brain is considered an important historical advance toward neuropsychology . He contributed to

11639-416: Was derived from relative size compared to other organs. It was believed that the cranial skull—like a glove on the hand—accommodates to the different sizes of these areas of the brain, so that a person's capacity for a given personality trait could be determined simply by measuring the area of the skull that overlies the corresponding area of the brain. Phrenology, which focuses on personality and character,

11752-412: Was due to George Combe tailoring phrenology for the middle class. Combe's book On the Constitution of Man and its Relationship to External Objects was one of the most popular of the time, selling over two hundred thousand copies in a ten-year period. Phrenology's success was also partly because it was introduced at a time when scientific lectures were becoming a form of middle-class entertainment, exposing

11865-469: Was due to not only the Vatican's decree that phrenology was subversive of religion and morality but also that, based on phrenology, the "Irish Catholics were sui generis a flawed and degenerate breed". Because of the lack of scientific support, along with religious and prejudicial reasons, phrenology never found a wide audience in Ireland. The first publication in the United States in support of phrenology

11978-504: Was inflamed. In psychiatry, phrenology was proposed as a viable model in order to the disciplinary field. The South Italian psychiatrist Biagio Miraglia proposed a new classification of mental illness based on brain functions as they were described by Gall. In Miraglia's view, madness is consequent to dysfunctions of the cerebral organs: "The organs of the brain that may become ill in isolation or in complex get their activities infected through energy, or depression, or inertia or deficiency. So

12091-525: Was more concerned with creating a physical science, so it was through Spurzheim that phrenology was first spread throughout Europe and America. Phrenology, while not universally accepted, was hardly a fringe phenomenon of the era. George Combe would become the chief promoter of phrenology throughout the English-speaking world after he viewed a brain dissection by Spurzheim, convincing him of phrenology's merits. The popularization of phrenology in

12204-485: Was published by John Bell, who reissued Combe's essays with an introductory discourse, in 1822. The following year, John G. Wells of Bowdoin College "commenced an annual exposition, and recommendation of its doctrines, to his class". In 1834, John D. Godman, professor of anatomy at Rutgers Medical College , emphatically defended phrenology when he wrote: It is, however, allowable to take as a principle, that there will be

12317-467: Was supposed to allow for the manipulation of his/her penchants and qualities. For example, if the organ of self-esteem was touched, the subject would take on a haughty expression. Phrenology has been psychology's great faux pas . —   J.C. Flugel (1933) Phrenology was mostly discredited as a scientific theory by the 1840s. This was due only in part to a growing amount of evidence against phrenology. Phrenologists had never been able to agree on

12430-450: Was that the natural inequality of people could be used to situate them in the most appropriate place in society. Gender stereotyping was also common with phrenology. Women whose heads were generally larger in the back with lower foreheads were thought to have underdeveloped organs necessary for success in the arts and sciences while having larger mental organs relating to the care of children and religion. While phrenologists did not contest

12543-530: Was thought to be able to correct those who had been abandoned and neglected with little education and moral ground works. Those who were considered intellectually disabled could be put to work and housed collectively while only criminals of intellect and vicious intent needed to be confined and isolated. Phrenology also advocated variable prison sentences, the idea being that those who were only defective in education and lacking in morals would soon be released while those who were "mentally deficient" could be watched and

12656-522: Was translated into English and published in 1832 as The Pocket Lavater, or, The Science of Physiognomy . He believed that thoughts of the mind and passions of the soul were connected with an individual's external frame. Of the forehead, When the forehead is perfectly perpendicular , from the hair to the eyebrows, it denotes an utter deficiency of understanding. (p. 24) In 1796 the German physician Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) began lecturing on organology:

12769-634: Was viewed as evil, though the abuse of a faculty was. Phrenology allowed for self-improvement and upward mobility, while providing fodder for attacks on aristocratic privilege. Phrenology also had wide appeal because of its being a reformist philosophy not a radical one. Phrenology was not limited to the common people, and both Queen Victoria and Prince Albert invited George Combe to read the heads of their children. The American brothers Lorenzo Niles Fowler (1811–1896) and Orson Squire Fowler (1809–1887) were leading phrenologists of their time. Orson, together with associates Samuel Robert Wells and Nelson Sizer, ran

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