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155-415: Two different kinds of pity can be distinguished, "benevolent pity" and "contemptuous pity". In the latter, through insincere, pejorative usage, pity connotes feelings of superiority, condescension, or contempt. Psychologists see pity arising in early childhood out of the infant's ability to identify with others. Psychoanalysis sees a more convoluted route to (at least some forms of) adult pity by way of

310-505: A polyamorous relationship that he called "tetragamy". He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer, Caroline Richter (she also used the surname Medon after one of her ex-lovers). They met when he was 33 and she was 19 and working at the Berlin Opera. She had already had numerous lovers and a son out of wedlock, and later gave birth to another son, this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat (she soon had another pregnancy but

465-625: A prophetic dream that urged him to escape from the city. As he arrived in his new home in Frankfurt , he supposedly had another supernatural experience , an apparition of his dead father and his mother, who was still alive. This experience led him to spend some time investigating paranormal phenomena and magic . He was quite critical of the available studies and claimed that they were mostly ignorant or fraudulent, but he did believe that there are authentic cases of such phenomena and tried to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of

620-467: A Buddhist text he regarded Buddhism as the most distinguished religion. His studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack of adequate literature, and the latter were mostly restricted to Theravada Buddhism . He also claimed that he formulated most of his ideas independently, and only later realized the similarities with Buddhism. Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised

775-467: A Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805 , a description of their family tour of Europe, which quickly became a hit. She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur told her that people would read his work long after the "rubbish" she wrote was totally forgotten. In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality,

930-426: A UN report, warfare is preventing 28 million children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools. Other factors that keep children out of school include poverty, child labor, social attitudes, and long distances to school. Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures and change over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward

1085-692: A civil servant twelve years younger than her; he considered the relationship an act of infidelity to his father's memory. He settled for a while in Rudolstadt , hoping that no army would pass through the small town. He spent his time in solitude, hiking in the mountains and the Thuringian Forest and writing his dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason . Schopenhauer completed his dissertation at about

1240-520: A clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties." In the biological sciences, a child is usually defined as a person between birth and puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. Legally, the term child may refer to anyone below the age of majority or some other age limit. The United Nations Convention on

1395-515: A demonstration for the a priori nature of causality. Kant openly admitted that it was Hume 's skeptical assault on causality that motivated the critical investigations in Critique of Pure Reason and gave an elaborate proof to show that causality is a priori . After G. E. Schulze had made it plausible that Kant had not disproven Hume's skepticism, it was up to those loyal to Kant's project to prove this important matter. The difference between

1550-610: A distance because Johanna warned him about her son's depressive and combative nature, or because Goethe was then on bad terms with Arthur's language instructor and roommate, Franz Passow . Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann , mistress of Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach , and he wrote to her his only known love poem. Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality, Schopenhauer occasionally had sexual affairs—usually with women of lower social status, such as servants, actresses, and sometimes even paid prostitutes. In

1705-487: A friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who wanted to shoot revolutionaries from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels. The rebellion passed without any loss to Schopenhauer and he later praised Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz for restoring order. He even modified his will, leaving a large part of his property to a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or

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1860-542: A great deal less perfect, but perhaps more useful, Consult your own happiness with as little prejudice as you can to that of others." Nietzsche pointed out that since all people to some degree value self-esteem and self-worth , pity can negatively affect any situation. Nietzsche considered his own sensitivity to pity a lifelong weakness; and condemned what he called " Schopenhauer 's morality of pity... pity negates life". Geoffrey Chaucer wrote " pite renneth soone in gentil herte " at least ten times in his works, across

2015-643: A great honor to a young philosopher, who was finally acknowledged by his intellectual hero. They mostly discussed Goethe's newly published (and somewhat lukewarmly received) work on color theory . Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise on the subject, On Vision and Colors , which in many points differed from his teacher's. Although they remained polite towards each other, their growing theoretical disagreements—and especially Schopenhauer's extreme self-confidence and tactless criticisms—soon made Goethe become distant again and after 1816 their correspondence became less frequent. Schopenhauer later admitted that he

2170-488: A hurried and pressured style may limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play. The initiation of play in a classroom setting allows teachers and students to interact through playfulness associated with a learning experience. Therefore, playfulness aids the interactions between adults and children in a learning environment. “Playful Structure” means to combine informal learning with formal learning to produce an effective learning experience for children at

2325-498: A letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits that he had two out-of-wedlock daughters (born in 1819 and 1836), both of whom died in infancy. In their youthful correspondence Arthur and Anthime were somewhat boastful and competitive about their sexual exploits—but Schopenhauer seemed aware that women usually did not find him very charming or physically attractive, and his desires often remained unfulfilled. He left Weimar to become

2480-486: A longer history than generally recognized, with its roots traceable to similarly imaginative constructions of childhood circulating, for example, in the neo-platonic poetry of seventeenth-century metaphysical poet Henry Vaughan (e.g., "The Retreate", 1650; "Childe-hood", 1655). Such views contrasted with the stridently didactic, Calvinist views of infant depravity. With the onset of industrialisation in England in 1760,

2635-518: A lower-quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He also attended the lectures of the famous Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher , whom he also quickly came to dislike. His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very critical of religion and moving towards atheism . He learned by self-directed reading; besides Plato, Kant and Fichte he also read

2790-539: A new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. Puritanism stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children. The modern notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to emerge during the 18th-century Enlightenment and the Romantic period that followed it. Jean Jacques Rousseau formulated the romantic attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel Emile: or, On Education . Building on

2945-680: A person can feel pity for another human, the person must first have experienced suffering of a similar type, and the person must also be somewhat distanced or removed from the sufferer. He defines pity as follows: "Let pity, then, be a kind of pain in the case of an apparent destructive or painful harm of one not deserving to encounter it, which one might expect oneself, or one of one's own, to suffer, and this when it seems near". Aristotle also pointed out that "people pity their acquaintances, provided that they are not exceedingly close in kinship; for concerning these they are disposed as they are concerning themselves", arguing further that in order to feel pity,

3100-435: A person must believe that the person who is suffering does not deserve their fate. Developing a traditional Greek view in his work on poetry, Aristotle also defines tragedy as a kind of imitative poetry that provokes pity and fear. David Hume in his Treatise of Human Nature argued that "pity is concern for... the misery of others without any friendship... to occasion this concern." He continues that pity "is derived from

3255-466: A philosopher, and even in Berlin he attended more lectures in sciences than in philosophy. During his days at Göttingen, he spent considerable time studying, but also continued his flute playing and social life. His friends included Friedrich Gotthilf Osann , Karl Witte , Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen , and William Backhouse Astor Sr. He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for

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3410-404: A pleasure tour, Heinrich used the opportunity to visit some of his business associates abroad. Heinrich presented Arthur with a choice: he could either stay at home to begin preparations for university or travel with them to further his merchant education. Arthur chose to travel with them. He deeply regretted his choice later because the merchant training was very tedious. He spent twelve weeks of

3565-407: A prerequisite for an academic career. His mother moved away, with her daughter Adele, to Weimar —then the centre of German literature —to enjoy social life among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother did not part on good terms. In one letter, she wrote: "You are unbearable and burdensome, and very hard to live with; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit, and made useless to

3720-406: A satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters. Although Arthur claimed that he left voluntarily, his mother's letter indicates that he may have been expelled. Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father. During this time, he had doubts about being able to start a new life as a scholar. Most of his prior education was as a practical merchant and he had trouble learning Latin;

3875-716: A stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to become more independent and enhance their individuality. During middle childhood, children enter the school years, where they are presented with a different setting than they are used to. This new setting creates new challenges and faces for children. Upon the entrance of school, mental disorders that would normally not be noticed come to light. Many of these disorders include: autism , dyslexia , dyscalculia , and ADHD . Special education , least restrictive environment , response to intervention and individualized education plans are all specialized plans to help children with disabilities. Middle childhood

4030-889: A student at the University of Göttingen in 1809. There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of the then more famous University of Jena , but Göttingen was known as more modern and scientifically oriented, with less attention given to theology. Law or medicine were usual choices for young men of Schopenhauer's status who also needed career and income; he chose medicine due to his scientific interests . Among his notable professors were Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut , Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren , Johann Friedrich Blumenbach , Friedrich Stromeyer , Heinrich Adolf Schrader , Johann Tobias Mayer and Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck . He studied metaphysics , psychology and logic under Gottlob Ernst Schulze ,

4185-443: A third of his—was near bankruptcy. Arthur offered to share his assets, but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments. The women managed to receive only thirty percent of their savings while Arthur, using his business knowledge, took a suspicious and aggressive stance towards the banker and eventually received his part in full. The affair additionally worsened the relationships among all three members of

4340-536: A week with electronic media”. Research in 2007 has drawn a correlation between the declining number of National Park visits in the U.S. and increasing consumption of electronic media by children. The media has accelerated the trend for children's nature disconnection by deemphasizing views of nature, as in Disney films. The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions (e. g. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time, and this

4495-529: A while he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewoman—but, despite his mentioning this several times, no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating. He corresponded regularly with his sister Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated. She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Danzig—in which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur

4650-496: A young age. Even though play is considered to be the most important to optimal child development, the environment affects their play and therefore their development. Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities as they experience less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more authoritarian. Children from low income families are less likely to have access to books and computers which would enhance their development. Children's street culture refers to

4805-402: Is commonly defined as ages 9–12, ending with the major onset of puberty, with markers such as menarche , spermarche , and the peak of height velocity occurring. These changes usually occur between ages 11 and 14. It may also be defined as the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty. Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties. Preadolescent children have a different view of

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4960-489: Is controlled by adults, children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and lose some of the benefits play offers them. This is especially true in developing creativity, leadership, and group skills. Play is considered to be very important to optimal child development that it has been recognized by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights as a right of every child. Children who are being raised in

5115-476: Is free from striving or suffering. For Schopenhauer, human "willing"—desiring, craving, etc.—is at the root of suffering . A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation. Here one moves away from ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance of eternal Platonic Ideas —in other words, cognizance that is free from the service of will. In aesthetic contemplation, one no longer perceives an object of perception as something from which one

5270-405: Is merely a secondary phenomenon that does not distinguish humanity from the rest of nature at the fundamental, essential level. The advanced cognitive abilities of human beings, Schopenhauer argues, serve the ends of willing—an illogical, directionless, ceaseless striving that condemns the human individual to a life of suffering unredeemed by any final purpose. Schopenhauer's philosophy of the will as

5425-590: Is natural, the rate of PTSD occurs in anywhere from 3 to 87 percent of affected children. However, rates of PTSD for children living in chronic conflict conditions varies from 15 to 50 percent. Child protection (also called child welfare) is the safeguarding of children from violence, exploitation, abuse, and neglect. It involves identifying signs of potential harm. This includes responding to allegations or suspicions of abuse, providing support and services to protect children, and holding those who have harmed them accountable. The primary goal of child protection

5580-467: Is no longer an individual who suffers as a result of servitude to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition". The pure, will-less subject of cognition is cognizant only of Ideas, not individual things: this is a kind of cognition that is unconcerned with relations between objects according to the Principle of Sufficient Reason (time, space, cause and effect) and instead involves complete absorption in

5735-455: Is often seen as an integral part of coming of age . It is usually thought of as an experience or period in a child's life that widens their awareness of evil, pain or the world around them. This theme is demonstrated in the novels To Kill a Mockingbird and Lord of the Flies . The fictional character Peter Pan was the embodiment of a childhood that never ends. Children's health includes

5890-548: Is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. However, courts at

6045-450: Is separated; rather "it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it, and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception, but the two have become one, the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image". Subject and object are no longer distinguishable, and the Idea comes to the fore. From this aesthetic immersion, one

6200-488: Is tempted to disobey her sweet and gentle voice: it is this pity which will always hinder a robust savage from plundering a feeble child, or infirm old man, of the subsistence they have acquired with pain and difficulty, if he has but the least prospect of providing for himself by any other means: it is this pity which, instead of that sublime maxim of argumentative justice, Do to others as you would have others do to you , inspires all men with that other maxim of natural goodness

6355-428: Is the time when children begin to understand responsibility and are beginning to be shaped by their peers and parents. Chores and more responsible decisions come at this time, as do social comparison and social play. During social play, children learn from and teach each other, often through observation. Preadolescence is a stage of human development following early childhood and preceding adolescence . Preadolescence

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6510-442: Is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, as Hume had maintained; instead, as Kant had said, objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality. By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of

6665-447: Is through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with other children or adult caregivers. Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. However, when play

6820-471: Is to ensure that all children are safe and free from harm or danger. Child protection also works to prevent future harm by creating policies and systems that identify and respond to risks before they lead to harm. In order to achieve these goals, research suggests that child protection services should be provided in a holistic way. This means taking into account the social, economic, cultural, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to

6975-458: Is will ( Wille ). The empirical world that appears to us as representation has plurality and is ordered in a spatio-temporal framework. The world as thing in-itself must exist outside the subjective forms of space and time. Although the world manifests itself to our experience as a multiplicity of objects (the "objectivation" of the will), each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence striving towards existence and life. Human rationality

7130-578: The Canterbury Tales and the Legend of Good Women . The word " pite " had entered Middle English from Latin " pietas " in seven spellings: " piete ", " pietie ", " pietye ", " pite ", " pitie ", " pyte ", and " pytie ". Early Middle English writers did not yet have words such as "sympathy" and "empathy"; and even the word "compassion" is not attested in English until

7285-712: The Upanishads (he called them "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed that they contained superhuman concepts) and the Buddha , and put them on a par with Plato and Kant. He continued his studies by reading the Bhagavad Gita , an amateurish German journal Asiatisches Magazin , and Asiatick Researches by the Asiatic Society . Schopenhauer held a profound respect for Indian philosophy ; and loved Hindu texts . Although he never revered

7440-526: The Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus (1888–1965) later claimed that his predecessors "saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus' reputation." He kept large portraits of

7595-519: The French Revolution , were republicans , cosmopolitans and Anglophiles . When Gdańsk became part of Prussia in 1793, Heinrich moved to Hamburg —a free city with a republican constitution. His firm continued trading in Danzig where most of their extended families remained. Adele , Arthur's only sibling, was born on 12 July 1797. In 1797, Arthur was sent to Le Havre to live with

7750-462: The Legend , Chaucer describes women in general as " pyëtous ". It wasn't until the 16th century that there was a fully-fledged split between pity and piety. In the 14th century, John Gower was, in contrast, using " pite " in his Confessio Amantis to encompass both concepts, as his Latin glosses to the text reveal, stating that " pite is the foundement of every kinges regiment ". Cognates of

7905-854: The National Association for the Education of Young Children , early childhood also includes infancy. At this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and support the development process of the child, which then will lead to the child's autonomy. Also during this stage, a strong emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children also start preschool and kindergarten at this age: and hence their social lives. Middle childhood begins at around age 7, and ends at around age 9 or 10. Together, early and middle childhood are called formative years. In this middle period, children develop socially and mentally. They are at

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8060-631: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ; later in the Kingdom of Prussia Danzig ) on Św. Ducha 47 (in Prussia Heiliggeistgasse), the son of Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer  [ de ] (1747–1805) and his wife Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener; 1766–1838), both descendants of wealthy German patrician families. While they came from a Protestant background, neither of them was very religious; both supported

8215-516: The Septuagint as eleos carries the meaning roughly equivalent to pity in the sense of compassion, mercy, and loving-kindness. In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas are described by the Lotus Sutra as those who "hope to win final Nirvana for all beings—for the sake of the many, for their weal and happiness, out of pity for the world". Aristotle in his Rhetoric argued that before

8370-403: The empirical world is merely a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only in our mental representations . Schopenhauer did not deny that the external world existed empirically but followed Kant in claiming that our knowledge and experience of the world is always in some sense dependent on us . For Schopenhauer in particular, the spatiotemporal form and causal structure of

8525-531: The tabula rasa , which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate". A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that it was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with correct notions. During the early period of capitalism , the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the Protestant countries of the Dutch Republic and England , brought about

8680-436: The 'differentiation between phenomena and the thing-in-itself ( noumena ), based on the proof that between everything and us there is always a perceiving mind.' In other words, Kant's primary achievement is to demonstrate that instead of being a blank slate where reality merely reveals its character, the mind, with sensory support, actively participates in constructing reality. Thus, Schopenhauer believed that Kant had shown that

8835-552: The (1840) prize despite being the only contestant. The Society was appalled that several distinguished contemporary philosophers were mentioned in a very offensive manner, and claimed that the essay missed the point of the set topic and that the arguments were inadequate. Schopenhauer, who had been very confident that he would win, was enraged by this rejection. He published both essays as The Two Basic Problems of Ethics . The first edition, published September 1840 but with an 1841 date, again failed to draw attention to his philosophy. In

8990-463: The 14th century. The Mediaeval writer's notion of " pite " was thus somewhat different to the divided ideas of pity and piety in Modern English, which has also since gained connotations of disengagement (the pitier as an observer to and separate from the pitied) and condescension from a superior position. The many senses of the compound notion are exemplified by how Erasmus' Enchiridion

9145-554: The 1600s, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe, however other historians like Nicholas Orme have challenged this view and argued that childhood has been seen as a separate stage since at least the medieval period. Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection and training by the adults around them. The English philosopher John Locke was particularly influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of

9300-499: The 20th century, Philippe Ariès , a French historian specializing in medieval history , suggested that childhood was not a natural phenomenon, but a creation of society in his 1960 book Centuries of Childhood . In 1961 he published a study of paintings, gravestones, furniture, and school records, finding that before the 17th century, children were represented as mini-adults. In 1966, the American philosopher George Boas published

9455-658: The August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he had just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave, and that she had purposely fallen to the ground so that she could sue him. She claimed that he had attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him, and the process lasted until May 1827, when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842. Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles. It

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9610-478: The Central African Republic having the highest average rate at 27.9%. Before contraception became widely available in the 20th century, women had little choice other than abstinence or having often many children. In fact, current population growth concerns have only become possible with drastically reduced child mortality and sustained fertility. In 2017 the global total fertility rate

9765-515: The Rights of the Child defines child as, "A human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier." This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term child may also refer to someone below another legally defined age limit unconnected to the age of majority. In Singapore , for example, a child is legally defined as someone under

9920-824: The Rights of the Child protects the fundamental rights of children. Play is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children. It offers children opportunities for physical (running, jumping, climbing, etc.), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ethics and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships). Unstructured play encourages creativity and imagination. Playing and interacting with other children, as well as some adults, provides opportunities for friendships, social interactions, conflicts and resolutions. However, adults tend to (often mistakenly) assume that virtually all children's social activities can be understood as "play" and, furthermore, that children's play activities do not involve much skill or effort. It

10075-650: The Schopenhauer family. He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden. Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with both income and an opportunity to promote his views. He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found Berlin most attractive. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of

10230-508: The University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy, which was won by Rudolf Seydel 's very critical essay. Schopenhauer's friend Jules Lunteschütz made the first of his four portraits of him—which Schopenhauer did not particularly like—which was soon sold to a wealthy landowner, Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it

10385-583: The Upanishads in his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851), and commented In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death. As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low, in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved to Dresden . He continued his philosophical studies, enjoyed

10540-553: The age of 14 under the "Children and Young Persons Act" whereas the age of majority is 21. In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the age of 21. Some English definitions of the word child include the fetus (sometimes termed the unborn ). In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a rite of passage , which may or may not correspond to the time of puberty. Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under

10695-666: The age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by South Asia at 30%. Lower levels were found in Latin America and Caribbean (25%), the Middle East and North Africa (18%), and Eastern Europe and Central Asia (11%), while rates in Western Europe and North America were minimal. Child marriage is more prevalent with girls, but also involves boys. A 2018 study in the journal Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies found that, worldwide, 4.5% of males are married before age 18, with

10850-405: The approaches of Kant and Schopenhauer was this: Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is "given" to us from outside, an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction. He, on the other hand, was occupied with the questions: how do we get this empirical content of perception; how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations "limited to my skin" as

11005-733: The arrogant request to schedule lectures at the same time as his own, Hegel still voted to accept Schopenhauer to the university. Only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of academia . A late essay, "On University Philosophy", expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies. After his trying in academia, he continued to travel extensively, visiting Leipzig , Nuremberg , Stuttgart , Schaffhausen , Vevey , Milan and spending eight months in Florence. Before he left for his three-year travel, Schopenhauer had an incident with his Berlin neighbor, 47-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of

11160-463: The arts: pietà . Childhood A child ( pl.   children ) is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty , or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. The term may also refer to an unborn human being. In English-speaking countries, the legal definition of child generally refers to a minor , in this case as a person younger than the local age of majority (there are exceptions like, for example,

11315-465: The author of Aenesidemus , who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on Plato and Immanuel Kant . He decided to switch from medicine to philosophy around 1810–11 and he left Göttingen, which did not have a strong philosophy program: besides Schulze, the only other philosophy professor was Friedrich Bouterwek , whom Schopenhauer disliked. He did not regret his medicinal and scientific studies; he claimed that they were necessary for

11470-547: The beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function, and even within a single nation-state or culture there may be different ages at which an individual is considered to be mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain tasks. During the European Renaissance , artistic depictions of children increased dramatically, which did not have much effect on the social attitude toward children, however. The French historian Philippe Ariès argued that during

11625-539: The book The Cult of Childhood . Since then, historians have increasingly researched childhood in past times. In 2006, Hugh Cunningham published the book Invention of Childhood , looking at British childhood from the year 1000, the Middle Ages , to what he refers to as the Post War Period of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Childhood evolves and changes as lifestyles change and adult expectations alter. In

11780-463: The book after it was published in December 1818. In September 1818, while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy, Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation in Italy. He visited Venice , Bologna , Florence , Naples and Milan , travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met. He spent

11935-433: The care of a responsible adult or child custody , whether their parents divorce or not. Early childhood follows the infancy stage and begins with toddlerhood when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently. While toddlerhood ends around age 3 when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately until the age of 5 or 6. However, according to

12090-697: The centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and the Netherlands less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and West Germany falling in between. In 2013, child marriage rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in India . According to a 2019 UNICEF report on child marriage, 37% of females were married before

12245-424: The child was stillborn). As Schopenhauer was preparing to escape from Berlin in 1831, due to a cholera epidemic, he offered to take her with him on the condition that she left her young son behind. She refused and he went alone; in his will he left her a significant sum of money, but insisted that it should not be spent in any way on her second son. Schopenhauer claimed that, in his last year in Berlin, he had

12400-499: The child's imagination. Lewis Carroll 's fantasy Alice's Adventures in Wonderland , published in 1865 in England, was a landmark in the genre; regarded as the first "English masterpiece written for children", its publication opened the "First Golden Age" of children's literature. The latter half of the 19th century saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children across Europe, which decisively removed children from

12555-488: The consume and purchase of alcoholic beverage even after said age of majority ), regardless of their physical, mental and sexual development as biological adults . Children generally have fewer rights and responsibilities than adults. They are generally classed as unable to make serious decisions. Child may also describe a relationship with a parent (such as sons and daughters of any age) or, metaphorically , an authority figure , or signify group membership in

12710-567: The cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt , Friedrich Laun , Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer's unattractive physical features. His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public. Schopenhauer's main occupation during his stay in Dresden

12865-690: The cumulative culture created by young children and is sometimes referred to as their secret world . It is most common in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It is strongest in urban working class industrial districts where children are traditionally free to play out in the streets for long periods without supervision. It is invented and largely sustained by children themselves with little adult interference. Young children's street culture usually takes place on quiet backstreets and pavements, and along routes that venture out into local parks , playgrounds , scrub and wasteland, and to local shops. It often imposes imaginative status on certain sections of

13020-415: The divergence between high-minded romantic ideals of childhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly apparent. By the late 18th century, British children were specially employed in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps , often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay. As the century wore on, the contradiction between the conditions on

13175-464: The editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer. In 1848, Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Frankfurt after General Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald and Prince Felix Lichnowsky were murdered. He became worried for his own safety and property. Even earlier in life he had had such worries and kept a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves. He gave

13330-449: The educational level of women, ranging from 5–8 children in women without education to less than 2 in women with 12 or more years of education. Emergencies and conflicts pose detrimental risks to the health , safety, and well-being of children. There are many different kinds of conflicts and emergencies, e.g. wars and natural disasters . As of 2010 approximately 13 million children are displaced by armed conflicts and violence around

13485-725: The essential reality behind the world as representation is often called metaphysical voluntarism . For Schopenhauer, understanding the world as will leads to ethical concerns (see the ethics section below for further detail), which he explores in the Fourth Book of The World as Will and Representation and again in his two prize essays on ethics, On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality . No individual human actions are free, Schopenhauer argues, because they are events in

13640-510: The everyday world of experience, and indeed the entire material world related to space and time, is merely 'appearance' or 'phenomena,' entirely distinct from the thing-in-itself.' In Book Two of The World as Will and Representation , Schopenhauer considers what the world is beyond the aspect of it that appears to us—that is, the aspect of the world beyond representation, the world considered " in-itself " or " noumena ", its inner essence. The very being in-itself of all things, Schopenhauer argues,

13795-518: The exploitation of children at the workplace The modern attitude to children emerged by the late 19th century; the Victorian middle and upper classes emphasized the role of the family and the sanctity of the child – an attitude that has remained dominant in Western societies ever since. The genre of children's literature took off, with a proliferation of humorous, child-oriented books attuned to

13950-408: The external world are contributed to our experiences of it by the brain as it renders perceptions. Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work: "The world is my representation ( Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung )". Everything that there is for cognition (the entire world) exists simply as an object in relation to a subject—a 'representation' to a subject. Everything that belongs to

14105-439: The families of soldiers who died in battle. As Young Hegelians were advocating change and progress, Schopenhauer claimed that misery is natural for humans and that, even if some utopian society were established, people would still fight each other out of boredom, or would starve due to overpopulation. In 1851, Schopenhauer published Parerga and Paralipomena , which contains essays that are supplementary to his main work. It

14260-422: The family of his father's business associate, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He seemed to enjoy his two-year stay there, learning to speak French and fostering a life-long friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1803, he accompanied his parents on a European tour of Holland , Britain, France, Switzerland , Austria and Prussia . Viewed as primarily

14415-414: The family. Despite his hardship, Schopenhauer liked his father and later referred to him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that

14570-551: The famous philosopher G. W. F. Hegel , whom Schopenhauer described as a "clumsy charlatan". He was especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences and tried to engage him in a quarrel about it already at his test lecture in March 1820. Hegel was also facing political suspicions at the time, when many progressive professors were fired , while Schopenhauer carefully mentioned in his application that he had no interest in politics. Despite their differences and

14725-418: The flawed, human side of authority figures). Alongside that, they may begin to develop a sense of self - identity , and to have increased feelings of independence : 'may feel an individual, no longer "just one of the family."' Adolescence is usually determined to be between the onset of puberty and legal adulthood: mostly corresponding to the teenage years (13–19). However, puberty usually begins before

14880-469: The following opinion of pity as opposed to love for others: It is therefore certain that pity is a natural sentiment, which, by moderating in every individual the activity of self-love, contributes to the mutual preservation of the whole species. It is this pity which hurries us without reflection to the assistance of those we see in distress; it is this pity which, in a state of nature, stands for laws, for manners, for virtue, with this advantage, that no one

15035-838: The global level, Article 13 of the United Nations ' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) recognizes the right of everyone to an education. Education is compulsory in most places up to a certain age, but attendance at school may not be, with alternative options such as home-schooling or e-learning being recognized as valid forms of education in certain jurisdictions. Children in some countries (especially in parts of Africa and Asia) are often kept out of school, or attend only for short periods. Data from UNICEF indicate that in 2011, 57 million children were out of school; and more than 20% of African children have never attended primary school or have left without completing primary education. According to

15190-464: The ground for poor children and the middle-class notion of childhood as a time of simplicity and innocence led to the first campaigns for the imposition of legal protection for children. British reformers attacked child labor from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by Charles Dickens . The campaign eventually led to the Factory Acts , which mitigated

15345-403: The ideas of John Locke and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood as a brief period of sanctuary before people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood. Sir Joshua Reynolds ' extensive children portraiture demonstrated the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting The Age of Innocence emphasizes the innocence and natural grace of

15500-459: The imagination." When one observes a person in misfortune, the observer initially imagines his sorrow, even though they may not feel the same. While "we blush for the conduct of those, who behave themselves foolishly before us; and that though they show no sense of shame, nor seem in the least conscious of their folly," Hume argues "that he is the more worthy of compassion the less sensible he is of his miserable condition." Jean-Jacques Rousseau had

15655-488: The intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in On Vision and Colors , and, in the subsequent editions of Fourfold Root , an extensive exposition is given in § 21. Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as an extension of Kant's, and used the results of Kantian epistemological investigation ( transcendental idealism ) as starting point for his own. Kant had argued that

15810-407: The modern era, many adults believe that children should not have any worries or work, as life should be happy and trouble-free. Childhood is seen as a mixture of simplicity, innocence, happiness, fun, imagination, and wonder. It is thought of as a time of playing, learning, socializing, exploring, and worrying in a world without much adult interference. A "loss of innocence" is a common concept, and

15965-585: The most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt , who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer's philosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish Parerga and Paralipomena , believing that it would be another failure. Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstädt also became

16120-416: The objective perception of things that lie "outside" of me? The sensations in the hand of a man born blind, on feeling an object of cubic shape, are quite uniform and the same on all sides and in every direction: the edges, it is true, press upon a smaller portion of his hand, still nothing at all like a cube is contained in these sensations. His Understanding draws the immediate and intuitive conclusion from

16275-474: The pair in his office in Leipzig for the edification of his new editors. Also contrary to his mother's prediction, Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe, to whom he sent it as a gift. Although it is doubtful that Goethe agreed with Schopenhauer's philosophical positions, he was impressed by his intellect and extensive scientific education. Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were

16430-687: The physical, mental and social well-being of children. Maintaining children's health implies offering them healthy foods, insuring they get enough sleep and exercise, and protecting their safety. Children in certain parts of the world often suffer from malnutrition , which is often associated with other conditions, such diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria. Child protection, according to UNICEF, refers to "preventing and responding to violence, exploitation and abuse against children – including commercial sexual exploitation , trafficking , child labour and harmful traditional practices, such as female genital mutilation /cutting and child marriage ". The Convention on

16585-601: The places and spaces in which children live. Nature Deficit Disorder, a term coined by Richard Louv in his 2005 book Last Child in the Woods , refers to the trend in the United States and Canada towards less time for outdoor play, resulting in a wide range of behavioral problems. With increasing use of cellphones, computers, video games and television, children have more reasons to stay inside rather than outdoors exploring. “The average American child spends 44 hours

16740-637: The posing child and soon became a public favourite. The idea of childhood as a locus of divinity, purity, and innocence is further expounded upon in William Wordsworth 's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a complex mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation". This Romantic conception of childhood, historian Margaret Reeves suggests, has

16895-673: The preface to the second edition, in 1860, he was still pouring insults on the Royal Danish Society. Two years later, after some negotiations, he managed to convince his publisher, Brockhaus, to print the second, updated edition of The World as Will and Representation . That book was again mostly ignored and the few reviews were mixed or negative. Schopenhauer began to attract some followers, mostly outside academia, among practical professionals (several of them were lawyers) who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as "evangelists" and "apostles". One of

17050-416: The process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts the impressions on the retinas, and that uses the change in the apparent position of an object relative to more distant objects provided by binocular vision to perceive depth and distance. Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception; the senses furnish the raw material by which

17205-540: The resistance felt, that this resistance must have a cause, which then presents itself through that conclusion as a hard body; and through the movements of his arms in feeling the object, while the hand's sensation remains unaltered, he constructs the cubic shape in Space. If the representation of a cause and of Space, together with their laws, had not already existed within him, the image of a cube could never have proceeded from those successive sensations in his hand. Causality

17360-655: The rest of his life, except for a few short journeys. He lived alone except for a succession of pet poodles named Atman and Butz. In 1836, he published On the Will in Nature . In 1838, he sent his essay " On the Freedom of the Will " to the contest of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences in 1838 and won the prize in 1839. He sent another essay, " On the Basis of Morality ", to the Royal Danish Society of Sciences in 1839, but did not win

17515-789: The risk of harm for individual children and their families. Collaboration across sectors and disciplines to create a comprehensive system of support and safety for children is required. It is the responsibility of individuals, organizations, and governments to ensure that children are protected from harm and their rights are respected. This includes providing a safe environment for children to grow and develop, protecting them from physical, emotional and sexual abuse, and ensuring they have access to education, healthcare, and resources to fulfill their basic needs. Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer ( / ˈ ʃ oʊ p ən h aʊər / SHOH -pən-how-ər ; German: [ˈaʁtuːɐ̯ ˈʃoːpn̩haʊɐ] ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860)

17670-463: The same time as Hegel's—also failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities. During his Berlin years, Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than himself. His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of monogamy but still not advocating polygyny —instead musing about

17825-698: The same time as the French army was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig . He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and accepted his mother's invitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intention of remarrying. But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and nationalistic . His mother had just published her second book, Reminiscences of

17980-635: The sublimation of aggression —pity serving as a kind of magic gesture intended to show how leniently one should oneself be treated by one's own conscience. In the West , the religious concept of pity was reinforced after acceptance of Judeo - Christian concepts of God pitying all humanity, as found initially in the Jewish tradition: "Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him" ( Psalms 103:13 ). The Hebrew word hesed translated in

18135-406: The teenage years. Although biologically a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty , adolescents are legally considered children, as they tend to lack adult rights and are still required to attend compulsory schooling in many cultures, though this varies. The onset of adolescence brings about various physical, psychological and behavioral changes. The end of adolescence and

18290-559: The time would consider the offender's age when deliberating sentencing. Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. The age limit of voluntary/involuntary military service is also disputed at the international level. Education, in the general sense, refers to the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing intellectually for mature life. Formal education most often takes place through schooling . A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At

18445-496: The title Senilia . In the spring of 1860 his health began to decline, and he experienced shortness of breath and heart palpitations; in September he suffered inflammation of the lungs and, although he was starting to recover, he remained very weak. The last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner; according to him, Schopenhauer was concerned that he would not be able to finish his planned additions to Parerga and Paralipomena but

18600-523: The tour attending school in Wimbledon , where he was confused by strict and intellectual Anglicans who he described as shallow. He continued to sharply criticize Anglican religiosity later in life despite his general Anglophilia. He was also under pressure from his father, who became very critical of his educational results. In 1805, Heinrich drowned in a canal near their home in Hamburg. Although it

18755-404: The urban realm (local buildings, kerbs, street objects, etc.). Children designate specific areas that serve as informal meeting and relaxation places (see: Sobel, 2001). An urban area that looks faceless or neglected to an adult may have deep ' spirit of place ' meanings in to children. Since the advent of indoor distractions such as video games , and television , concerns have been expressed about

18910-408: The usual social life such as balls, parties and theater. By that time Johanna's famous salon was well established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, the most celebrated of them being Goethe . Arthur attended her parties, usually when he knew that Goethe would be there—although the famous writer and statesman seemed not even to notice the young and unknown student. It is possible that Goethe kept

19065-405: The vitality – or even the survival – of children's street culture. The geographies of childhood involves how (adult) society perceives the idea of childhood, the many ways adult attitudes and behaviors affect children's lives, including the environment which surrounds children and its implications. The geographies of childhood is similar in some respects to children's geographies which examines

19220-414: The weather and always getting enough sleep. He had a great appetite and could read without glasses, but his hearing had been declining since his youth and he developed problems with rheumatism . He remained active and lucid, continued his reading, writing and correspondence until his death. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published posthumously under

19375-457: The whole, comprehends its essence, and finds that it is constantly passing away, caught up in vain strivings, inner conflict, and perpetual suffering". The negation of the will, in other words, stems from the insight that the world in-itself (free from the forms of space and time) is one. Ascetic practices, Schopenhauer remarks, are used to aid the will's "self-abolition", which brings about a blissful, redemptive "will-less" state of emptiness that

19530-447: The will as thing in-itself is free, as it exists beyond the realm of representation and thus is not constrained by any of the forms of necessity that are part of the principle of sufficient reason. According to Schopenhauer, salvation from our miserable existence can come through the will's being "tranquillized" by the metaphysical insight that reveals individuality to be merely an illusion. The saint or 'great soul' intuitively "recognizes

19685-710: The will. Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he experienced a period of depression and declining health. He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father. By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna's writing did not bring her much income, and her popularity was waning. Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838. His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849. In July 1832, Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim but returned in July 1833 to remain there for

19840-572: The winter months in Rome , where he accidentally met his acquaintance Karl Witte and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in the Caffè Greco , among them Johann Friedrich Böhmer , who also mentioned his insulting remarks and unpleasant character. He enjoyed art, architecture, and ancient ruins, attended plays and operas, and continued his philosophical contemplation and love affairs. One of his affairs supposedly became serious, and for

19995-539: The winter semester of 1811–12. At the same time, his mother had just begun her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow , which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte , but quickly found many points of disagreement with his Wissenschaftslehre ; he also found Fichte's lectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative terms —seeing his philosophy as

20150-529: The word include the Provençal " pietat " and the Spanish " piedad ". Like Middle English, Old French took the word from the Latin and gradually split it into " pité " (later " piété ") and " pitié ". Italian in contrast retained the one word: " pietà ", borrowed into English (through French, in the 19th century replacing its older " Vierge de pitié ") as a technical concept in

20305-468: The workplace into schools. The market economy of the 19th century enabled the concept of childhood as a time of fun, happiness, and imagination. Factory-made dolls and doll houses delighted the girls and organized sports and activities were played by the boys. The Boy Scouts was founded by Sir Robert Baden-Powell in 1908, which provided young boys with outdoor activities aiming at developing character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities. In

20460-488: The works of Schelling , Fries , Jacobi , Bacon , Locke , and much current scientific literature. He attended philological courses by August Böckh and Friedrich August Wolf and continued his naturalistic interests with courses by Martin Heinrich Klaproth , Paul Erman , Johann Elert Bode , Ernst Gottfried Fischer , Johann Horkel , Friedrich Christian Rosenthal and Hinrich Lichtenstein (Lichtenstein

20615-426: The world from younger children in many significant ways. Typically, theirs is a more realistic view of life than the intense, fantasy-oriented world of earliest childhood. Preadolescents have more mature, sensible, realistic thoughts and actions: 'the most "sensible" stage of development...the child is a much less emotional being now.' Preadolescents may well view human relationships differently (e.g. they may notice

20770-552: The world is, therefore, 'subject-dependent'. In Book One of The World as Will and Representation , Schopenhauer considers the world from this angle—that is, insofar as it is representation. Kant had previously argued that we perceive reality as something spatial and temporal not because reality is inherently spatial and temporal, but because that is how our minds operate in perceiving an object. Therefore, understanding objects in space and time represents our 'contribution' to an experience. For Schopenhauer, Kant's 'greatest service' lay in

20925-520: The world of appearance and thus are subject to the principle of sufficient reason: a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives and the given character of the individual human. Necessity extends to the actions of human beings just as it does to every other appearance, and thus we cannot speak of freedom of individual willing. Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that "a man can do as he will, but not will as he will." Yet

21080-1081: The world simply because you cannot restrain your propensity to pick holes in other people." His mother, Johanna, was generally described as vivacious and sociable. She died 24 years later. Some of Arthur's negative opinions about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother. Arthur moved to Hamburg to live with his friend Jean Anthime, who was also studying to become a merchant. He moved to Weimar but did not live with his mother, who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well. Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible, flirtatious and seeking to remarry, which he considered an insult to his father's memory. His mother, while professing her love to him, criticized him sharply for being moody, tactless, and argumentative, and urged him to improve his behavior so that he would not alienate people. Arthur concentrated on his studies, which were now going very well, and he also enjoyed

21235-408: The world. Where violent conflicts are the norm, the lives of young children are significantly disrupted and their families have great difficulty in offering the sensitive and consistent care that young children need for their healthy development. Studies on the effect of emergencies and conflict on the physical and mental health of children between birth and 8 years old show that where the disaster

21390-600: Was a Dutch merchant, Ambassador of the Netherlands in Gdansk, son of pastor Johannes Soermans (1670–1754) and grandson of Martinus Soermans (1638–1705). Arthur Schopenhauer's paternal great-greatgrandfather, Johann Schopenhauer (1630–1701), was farmer in Petershagen and son of Simon Schopenhauer (1580–1660) and grandson of Salomon Schopenhauer (born 1550). Arthur Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in Gdańsk (then part of

21545-449: Was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work The World as Will and Representation (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the manifestation of a blind and irrational noumenal will. Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism . Schopenhauer

21700-598: Was a wealthy merchant in Danzig. Arthur Schopenhauer's paternal grandmother, Anna Renata Schopenhauer (1726–1804), was the daughter of a Dutch merchant and the Dutch ambassador to the Hanseatic city of Danzig Hendrik Soermans (1700–1775). Arthur Schopenhauer's maternal grandfather, Christian Heinrich Trosiener  [ de ] (1730–1797) was a merchant in Danzig and a councilor from the middle class. Arthur Schopenhauer's maternal grandmother, Elizabeth Trosiener (1745–1818),

21855-544: Was also a friend whom he met at one of his mother's parties in Weimar). Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813, fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia had just joined the war against France . He returned to Weimar but left after less than a month, disgusted by the fact that his mother was now living with her supposed lover, Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk  [ de ] (1778–1838),

22010-731: Was among the first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Indian philosophy , such as asceticism , denial of the self , and the notion of the world-as-appearance . His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism . Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime, he had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. His writing on aesthetics , morality , and psychology have influenced many thinkers and artists. Arthur Schopenhauer's paternal grandfather, Andreas Schopenhauer  [ de ] (1720–1793),

22165-516: Was at peace with dying. He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He died at the age of 72 and had a funeral conducted by a Lutheran minister. In November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer to help him on his Theory of Colours . Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter, he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Goethe. Nevertheless, these investigations led him to his most important discovery in epistemology: finding

22320-500: Was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so. His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he was not concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions and that some of his ideas should not be taken literally but instead as metaphors. Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856,

22475-548: Was daughter of pharmacist Georg Lehmann (died 1762) and his wife Susanna Concordia Lehmann, née Neumann (born 1718). Arthur Schopenhauer's paternal great-grandfather, Johann Schopenhauer  [ de ] (1670–after 1724), was the mentioned merchant in Gdansk. Arthur Schopenhauer's paternal great-grandmother, Marie Elizabeth Schopenhauer, née Lessig, was a daughter of merchant Andreas Lessig (1658–1713). Arthur Schopenhauer's paternal great-grandfather through paternal grandmother, Hendrik Soermans  [ de ] (1700–1775),

22630-469: Was estimated to be 2.37 children per woman, adding about 80 million people to the world population per year. In order to measure the total number of children, scientists often prefer the completed cohort fertility at age 50 years (CCF50). Although the number of children is also influenced by cultural norms , religion , peer pressure and other social factors, the CCF50 appears to be most heavily dependent on

22785-414: Was greatly hurt by this rejection, but he continued to praise Goethe, and considered his color theory a great introduction to his own. Another important experience during his stay in Weimar was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majer —a historian of religion , orientalist and disciple of Herder —who introduced him to Eastern philosophy (see also Indology ). Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by

22940-545: Was his first chapel. As his fame increased, copies of paintings and photographs of him were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he had lived and written his works. People visited Frankfurt's Englischer Hof to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs. He complained that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends had already died from old age. He remained healthy in his own old age, which he attributed to regular walks no matter

23095-576: Was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews. The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system. Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously. His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those of Fichte and Schelling, or to claim that there were numerous contradictions in his philosophy. Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. He

23250-725: Was his last visit to the country. He left for Munich and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases (the treatment his doctor used suggests syphilis ). He contacted publishers, offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but his proposals were declined. Returning to Berlin, he began to study Spanish so he could read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Lope de Vega , Miguel de Cervantes , and especially Baltasar Gracián . He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. A few attempts to revive his lectures—again scheduled at

23405-423: Was his seminal philosophical work, The World as Will and Representation , which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818. He was recommended to the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother. Although Brockhaus accepted his manuscript, Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude, as well as very poor sales of

23560-619: Was more than double the salary of a university professor. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with some encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha , in Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg . While there, he also enjoyed social life among the local nobility, spending large amounts of money, which deeply concerned his frugal mother. He left the Gymnasium after writing

23715-622: Was possible that his death was accidental, his wife and son believed that it was suicide. He was prone to anxiety and depression , each becoming more pronounced later in his life. Heinrich had become so fussy, even his wife started to doubt his mental health. "There was, in the father's life, some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg." Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father. There were other instances of serious mental health problems on his father's side of

23870-604: Was translated in the 16th century. In the original Latin, talking about the ways of the spirit versus the ways of the flesh, Erasmus says " spiritus pios, caro impios ". In translation, the single words in Latin became several phrases in English to encompass the entire range of the original concept, which was by that time bifurcating as the words were bifurcating: " [T]he spiryte maketh us relygyous, obedyent to god, kynde and mercyfull. The flesshe maketh us dispysers of god, disobedyent to god, unkynde and cruell. " Chaucer's line, described by Walter Skeat as being Chaucer's favourite,

24025-523: Was understood by Edgar Finley Shannon to be a translation of Ovid's Tristia volume 3, verses 31–32, Shannon describing it as "an admirable translation and adaptation of the passage". A noble mind (" mens generosa " in Ovid, " gentil herte " in Chaucer) is easily moved (" faciles motus capit " in Ovid, " renneth soone " in Chaucer) to kindness (" plababilis irae " in Ovid " pite " in Chaucer). In

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